®1|0  S.  1.  Ml  iCtbrara 


5^nrtli  (Earoltna  g>lalp  (CoUpg? 


CHARLES  R.  SANDERS,  JR. 
Americana-Southeastern  States 
123    Montgomery    Street 
Raleigh,   North  Carolina 


This  book  is  due  on  the  date  mdkated  below 
and  is  subject  to  a  fine  of  FIVE  CENTb  a 
day  thereafter. 


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THE 


Polar  and  Tropical 
WOELDS: 

A  DESCRIPTION^  OF  MA]^  AND  NATURE 

IN  THE 

|olap  and  f  q'jatorial  Hsgions  of  ihe 


i 


BY  DR.  G.  HABTWIG, 

AUTHOR  OF   "  THE  SEA  AND  ITS  LIVING  WONDERS,"  AND  THE 
"  HARMONIES  OF  NATURE." 

EDITED,    WITH    ADDITIONAL   CHAPTERS,    BY 

DR.  A.  H.   GUERNSEY. 

WITH  NEARLY  TWO  HUNDRED  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PUBLISHED   BY 

JOHNSON    &    McCLAIN, 

PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 
1  871. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  tlie  year  1871 ,  bv 

BILL,  NICHOLS  &  CO., 

In  the  Office  of  tlie  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Wasliington,  D.  C. 


SAMC7EL  BOWLES  &  CO., 

ELECTBOTYPERS,   PRINTEKS  AND  BINDERS, 

SPRINGFIELD,   MASS. 


PREFACE. 


IN  editino'  and  coniLiinii^L;-  into  one  volunio  tlio  two  a(lmiral)lc  works 
of  Dr.  ?Iai:tavh:,  '' Tlio  Polar  World"  and  '^ 'Vhe  Tropical  World," 
I  have  had  in  view,  while"  working-  in  llie  s])irit  of  the  Author,  to  avail 
myself  of  all  new  sources  of  inforniation,  and  especially  to  enlarge  upon 
those  features  whicli  are  of  especial  interest  to  American  readers.     Thus, 
in  "  The  Polar  World,"  I  have  added  a  chapter  descriptive  of  our  new 
acquisition  of  Alaska,  full  materials  for  which  came  into  my  hands  from 
our  Department  of  State.     I  have  also  added  a  chapter  describing  the 
remarkahle  exploring  expedition  in  the  Arctic  regions,  performed  by  my 
friend,  Chakles  FiiANCis  Hall.     This  expedition  is  especially  notable 
from  the  clear  proof  which  it  furnishes  that,  had  Sir  John  Franklin  only 
known  how  to  avail  himself  of  the  frcilities  for  living  afforded  by  the 
region  in  which  he  was  cast  away,  his  whole  party  might  have  survived 
and  made  their  way  back  to  their  homes  ;  and  also  that  the  fearful  suffer- 
ings so  graphically  narrated  by  the  lamented  Kane  might  all  have  been 
avoided,  had  he  only  have  known  how  to  adapt  his  mode  of  life  to  the 
requirements  of  an  Arctic  climate.     Of  Hall's  second  expedition,  lasting 
from  1864  to  the  close  of  1869,  no  full  account  has  been  pul)lished ;  he 
has  been  too  busily  engaged  in  preparing  for  a  third  expedition  to  find 
time  to  prepare  the  narrative  of  that  which  he  had  just  accomplished. 
I  have,  however,  his  own  testimony  to  the  fact  that  all  liis  previous 
opinions  are  fully  confirmed.     His  own  appearance  is  abundant  pi'oof 
that  more  than  ten  years  mainly  spent  in  the  high  Arctic  regions,  is  not 
necessarily  more  exhaustive  of  life,  than  the  same  spac(^  of  time  passed 
among  us.     In  the  few  weeks  whicli  will  elapse  between  the  writing  of 
this  preface  and  the  opening  of  northern  navigation.  Hall  will  have  set 
out  on  Ins  third  expedition,  sent  out  under  the  auspices  of  our  (lovern- 
ment,  and  supplied  with  every  requisite  for  thorough  exploration.     We 
may  confidently  expect  that  he  will  be  able  to  solve  the  still  vexed  (ixw^- 
tions  as  to  the  nature  of  the  region  which  encircles  tlu'  northei'ii  pole. 


vi  PREFACE. 

In  "Tlie  Tropical  World,"  my  additions  to  the  labors  of  Dr.  Hartwii;- 
have  been  luucli  more  considerable.  Since  liis  work  was  written,  im- 
mense additions  liave  l)cen  made  to  onr  knowledge  of  portions  of  the 
region  lying  within  the  Tro])ics.  S(,)UIER  has  traversed  the  plateaus  of 
r)olivia  and  Peru;  and  apart  from  the  abstracts  of  his  journeys  which  he 
has  publislied,  li<;  has  favored  me  with  much  information  to  be  embodied 
in  the  great  work  upon  whicli  he  has  for  years  been  engaged.  HoLTOX 
has  furnished  a  curious  book  on  the  great  table-land  of  Bogota;  Oktox 
lias  crossed  the  Andes,  explored  the  Valley  of  Quito,  and  descended  the 
Amazon  from  its  upper  waters  to  its  mouth;  and  Agassiz  has  made 
large  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  the  natural  history  of  the  mighty 
Valley  of  the  Amazon. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  hitherto  almost  unknown  parts  of  Africa  has 
been  more  than  doubled  since  Dr.  Hartwig  prepared  his  work.  Andeiis- 
SON  and  Baldwin  have  told  their  hunting  adventures  in  Southern 
Africa;  Baeth  has  traversed  the  great  Sahara;  Speke  and  Bakek 
have  solved  the  mystery  of  the  source  of  the  Nile ;  Du  Chaillu  has  again 
pierced  the  continent  on  the  line  of  the  equator,  and  descrilied  the  m^s- 
teries  of  the  home  of  the  gorilla. 

Perhaps  the  most  entirely  fresh  account  of  a  part  of  the  Tropical  World 
is  Wallace's  work  on  the  Malay  Archipelago,  a  group  of  islands  sui-- 
passing  in  extent  all  the  inhabitable  parts  of  Europe,  and,  although  now 
almost  uninhal)ited,  capable  of  sustaining  a  population  greater  than  that 
now  living  outside  of  China  and  India. 

Of  all  these,  and  many  more  authorities,  I  have  made  free  use  ;  and  in 
both  parts  of  the  work,  I  have  steadily  kept  in  view  the  leading  idea  of 
Dr.  Hartwig :  To  describe  the  Polar  and  Tropical  Worlds  in  their  prin- 
cipal natural  features,  and  to  point  out  the  influence  of  their  respective 
climates  upon  the  development  of  animal  and  vegetable  life,  and  par- 
ticularly upon  human  beings. 

The  liberality  of  the  Publishers  has  placed  at  my  disposal  illustrations 
far  exceeding  in  number  and  beauty  those  in  the  original  work.  Tliey 
present  to  the  eye  inforiuation  which  words  would  often  be  inadecpiate 
to  express  to  the  ear.  I  trust  that  my  own  additions  to  the  work  will 
not  be  found  luiwortliy  of  the  foundation  laid  by  Dr.  Hartwig. 

AlFI;KI)    il.    (lUERXSEY. 
Nkw  York,  March,  187L 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  ARCTIC   LANDS. 

The  barren  Grounds  or  Tundri. — Abundcance  of  animal  Life  on  the  Tundri  in  Summer.— Their  Silence 
and  Desolation  in  Winter. — Protection  afforded  to  Vegetation  by  the  Snow. — Flower-growth  in 
the  highest  Latitudes. — Character  of  Tundra  Vegetation. — Southern  Boundary-line  of  the  barien 
Grounds. — Their  Extent. — The  forest  Zone. — Arctic  Trees.— Slowness  of  their  Growth.— Monotony 
of  the  Northern  Forests. — Mosquitoes. — The  various  Causes  which  determine  the  Severity  of  an 
Arctic  Climate. — Insular  and  Continental  Position. — Currents. — Winds. — Extremes  of  Cold  observed 
by  Sir  E.  Belcher  and  Dr.  Kane. — How  is  Man  able  to  support  the  Eigors  of  an  Arctic  Winter? — 
Proofs  of  a  milder  Climate  having  once  reigned  in  the  Arctic  Regions. — Its  Cause  according  to 
Dr.  Oswald  Heer. — Peculiar  Beauties  of  the  Arctic  Regions. — Sunset. — Long  lunar  Nights. — Tlie 
Aurora Page  17 

CHAPTER  II. 

ARCTIC   LAND   QUADRUPEDS   AND  BIRDS. 

The  Reindeer.— Structure  of  its  Foot. — Clattering  Noise  when  walking. — Antlers. — Extraordinary 
olfactory  Powers. — The  Icelandic  Moss. — Present  and  Former  Range  of  the  Reindeer. — Its  invalu- 
able Qualities  as  an  Arctic  domestic  Animal. — Revolts  against  Oppression. — Enemies  of  the  Rein- 
deer.—The  Wolf.— The  Glutton  or  Wolverine.— Gad-flies.— The  Ellc  or  Moose-deer.— The  Musk- 
ox. — The  Wild  Sheep  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. — The  Siberian  Argali. — The  Arctic  Fox. — Its  Bur- 
rows.— The  Lemmings. — Their  Migrations  and  Enemies. — Arctic  Anatidte. — The  Snou-bunting. — 
The  Lapland  Bunting. — The  Sea-eagle. — Drowned  by  a  Dolphin 34 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE     ARCTIC    SEAS. 

Dangers  peculiar  to  the  Arctic  Sea. — Ice-fields. — Hummocks. — Collision  of  Ice-fields. — Icebergs. — Their 
Origin. — Their  Size. — The  Glaciers  which  give  them  Birth. — Thi-ir  Beauty. — Sometimes  useful 
Auxiliaries  to  the  Mariner. — Dangers  of  anchoring  to  a  Berg. — A  crumbling  Berg. — The  Ice-blink. 
— Fogs. — Transparency  of  the  Atmosphere. — Phenomena  of  Reflection  and  Refraction. — Causes 
■which  prevent  the  Accumulation  of  Polar  Ice. — Tides. — Currents.— Ice  a  bad  Conductor  of  Heat. — 
Wise  Provisions  of  Nature 45 

CHAPTER  IV. 

ARCTIC   MARINE   ANIMALS. 

Populousness  of  the  Arctic  Seas. — The  Greenland  Whale. — The  Fin  Whales. —  The  Nanvhal. — 
The  Beluga,  or  White  Dolphin. — The  Black  Dolphin. — His  wholesale  Massacre  on  the  Faeroc  Isl- 
ands.— The  Ore,  or  Grampus. — The  Seals. — The  Walrus. — Its  acute  Smell. — History  of  a  young 
Walrus. — Parental  Afl'ection. — The  Polar  Bear. — His  Sagacity. — Hibernation  of  the  She-bear. — 
Sea-birds , 59 

CHAPTER  V. 

ICELAND. 

Volcanic  Origin  of  the  Island.— The  Klofa  Jokul. — Lava-streams. — The  Burning  Mountains  of  Krisu- 
vik.— The  Mud-caldrons  of  Reykjahlid.— The  Tungo-hver  at  Rcykholt.— The  Great  Geysir.— The 


ii  CONTENTS. 

Strokkr.-Crvstal  Pools.-The  Almannagja.-Tlie  Siirts-hellir. -Beautiful  Ice-cave.-The  Gotba 
Foss.— The  Detti  Foss.— Climate.— Vegetation.— Cattle.— Barbarous  Mode  of  Sheep-sheering.— 
Reindeer.-Polar  Bears.-Birds.-The  Eider-duck.-Yidey.— Vigr.-The  Wild  Swan.— The  Ra- 
ven.-The  Jerfalcon.-The  Giant  auk,  or  Geirfugl.-Fish.-Fishing  Season.— The  White  Shark.- 
Miaeral  Kingdom.— Sulphur.— Peat.— Drift-wood ^ Page  G8 


CHAPTER  YI. 

HISTORY  OF   ICELAND. 

Discovery  of  the  Island  by  Naddodr  in  8Gl.-Gardar.-Floki  of  the  Ravens. -Ingolfr  and  Leif.-Ulfliot 
the  Lawgiver.— The  Althing.— Thingvalla.— Introduction  of  Christianity  into  the  Island.— Fred- 
erick the  Saxon  and  Thorwold  the  Traveller.— Thangbrand.— Golden  Age  of  Icelandic  Literature. 
— Snorri  Sturleson.— The  Island  submits  to  Hakon,  King  of  Norway,  in  1254.— Long  Series  of  Ca- 
lamities.—Great  Eruption  of  the  Skapta  JOkul  in  1783.— Commercial  Monopoly.— Better  Times  in 
Prospect ^^ 

CHAPTER  Yll. 

THE    ICELANDERS. 

Skalholt.— Reykjavik.— The  Fair.— The  Peasant  and  the  Merchant.— A  Clergyman  in  his  Cups.— Haj^- 
making.— The  Icelander's  Hut.— Churches.— Poverty  of  the  Clergy.— Jon  Thorlaksen.— The  Semi- 
nary of  Reykjavik.— Beneficial  Influence  of  the  Clergy.— Home  Education.— The  Icelander's  Winter's 
Evening.— Taste  for  Literature.— The  Language.— The  Public  Library  at  Reykjavik.— The  Icelandic 
Literary  Society.— Icelandic  Newspapers.— Longevity.— Leprosy.— Travelling  in  Iceland.— Fording 
the  Rivers.— Crossing  of  the  Skeidara  by  Mr.  Holland.— A  Night's  Bivouac 98 

CHAPTER  YIIL 

THE   WESTMAN  ISLANDS.     , 

The  Westmans.— Their  extreme  Difficulty  of  Access.— How  they  became  peopled.— Ileimaey.— 
Kaufstathir  and  Ofanleyte.— Sheep-hoisting.— Egg-gathering.— Dreadful  Mortality  among  the 
Children. —The  Ginklofi.— Gentleman  John.— The  Algerine  Pirates.— Dreadful  Sufferings  of  the 
Islanders - • 11^ 

CHAPTER  IX. 

FROM  DRONTHEIM  TO  THE  NORTH  CAPE. 

Mild  Climate  of  the  Norwegian  Coast.— Its  Causes.— The  Norwegian  Peasant.— Norwegian  Constitution.— 
Romantic  coast  Scenery.— Drontheim.-Greiffenfeld  Holme  and  Vare.— The  Sea-eagle.— The  Herring- 
fisheries.— The  Lofoten  Islands.— The  Cod-fisheries.— W^retched  Condition  of  the  Fifhermen.— Tromso. 
— Altenfiord.— The  Copper  Mines.— Hammerfest  the  most  northern  Town  in  the  World.— The  North 
Cape •  -•• 


120 


CHAPTER  X. 

SPITZBERGEN — BEAR   ISLAND — JAN  BIEYEN. 

The  west  Coast  of  Spitzbergen.— Ascension  of  a  Mountain  by  Dr.  Scoresby.— His  Excursion  along  the 
Coast.— A  stranded  Whale.— Magdalena  Bay.— Multitudes  of  Sea-birds.— Animal  Life.— Midnight 
Silence.— Glaciers.— A  dangerous  Neighborhood.— Interior  Plateau. — Flora  of  Spitzbergen. — Its 
Similarity  witli  that  of  the  Alps  above  the  Snow-line.— Reindeer.— The  hyperborean  Ptarmigan.— 
Fishes.— Coal.— Drift-wood.— Discovery  of  Spitzbergen  by  Barentz,  Heemskerk,  and  Ryp.— Brilliant 
Period  of  tlie  Whale-fishery.— Coffins. — Ei^ht  English  Sailors  winter  in  Spitzbergen,  1630. — Melan- 
choly Death  of  some  Dutch  Volunteers. — Russian  Hunters. — Their  Mode  of  wintering  in  Spitzber- 
gen.—Scharostin. — Walrus-ships  from  Hammerfest  and  Tromso. — Bear  or  Cherie  Island. — Bennet. 
—Enormous  Slaughter  of  Walruses.— Mildne'ss  of  its  Climate.— Mount  Misery.— Adventurous  Boat- 
voyage  of  some  Norwegian  Sailors. — Jan  Meyen. — Beerenberg , 131 

CHAPTER  XI. 

NOVA     Z  K  31  B  L  A  . 

The  Sea  of  Kai-a. — Loschkin. — Rosmysslow. — Lntke. — Krotow. — Pachtussow. — Sails  along  the  east- 
ern Coast  of  the  Southern  Island  to  Matoschkin  Schar. — His  second  Voyage  and  Death. — Meteoro- 


CONTENTS.  ix 

logical  Observations  of  Ziwolka. — The  cold  Summer  of  Nova  Zembla. — A'on  Baor's  scientific  Voyage 
to  Nova  Zembla. — His  Adventures  in  Matosclikin  Scliar. — Storn)  in  Kostin  Scliar. — Sea  Bath  and 
votive  Cross. — Botanical  Obseivations. — A  natural  Garden.— Solitude  and  Silence. — A  Bird  Ba- 
zar.— Hunting  Expeditions  of  the  Russians  to  Nova  Zembla Page  147 

CHAPTER  Xll. 

THE   LAPPS. 

riieir  ancient  History  and  Conversion  to  Christianity. — Self-denial  and  Poverty  of  the  Lapland  Clergy. 

Their  singular  Mode  of  Preaching. — Gross  Superstition  of  the  Lapps. — The  Evil  Spirit  of  the 

Woods. — The  Lapland  Witches. — Physical  Constitution  of  the  Lapps. — Their  Dress. — The  Fj  lUlap- 
pais. — Their  Dwellings. —  Store-houses. — Reindeer  Pens. —  Milking  the  Reindeer. —  Migration. — 
The  Liipland  Dog. — Skiders,  or  Skates. — The  Sledge,  or  Pulka. — Natural  Beauties  of  Lapland. — 
Attachment  of  the  Lapps  to  their  Country. — Bear-lmnting. — Wolf-hunting. — Mode  of  Living  of  the 
wealthy  Lapps.— How  they  kill  the  Reindeer. — Visiting  the  Fair. — Mannnon  Worship.— Treasure- 
hiding.— "  Tabak,  or  Braende." — Affectionate  Disposition  of  the  Lapps.— The  Skogslapp.— The 
Fisherlapp '■-. 15(3 

CHAPTER  XII  r. 

MATTHIAS   ALEXANDER    GASTRIN. 

His  Birthplace  and  first  Studies.— Journey  in  Lapland,  1838.— The  Iwalojoki.— The  Lake  of  Enara.— 
The  Pastor  of  Utzjoki. — From  Rowaniemi  to  Kemi. — Second  Voyage,  1841-44. — Storm  on  the 
White  Sea. — Return  to  Archangel. — The  Tundras  of  the  European  Samoiedes. — Mesen. — Universal 
Drunkenness.— Sledge  Journey  to  Pustosersk. — A  Samoiede  Teacher. — Tundra  Storms. — Abandon- 
ed and  alone  in  the  Wilderness. -r-Pustosersk. — Our  Traveller's  Persecutions  at  Ustsjdmsk  and  Ish- 
emsk.— The  Uusa. — Crossing  the  Ural.— Obdorsk.— Second  Siberian  Journey,  1845—18. — Overflow- 
ing of  the  Obi. — Surgut. — Krasnojai»sk. — Agreeable  Surprise. — Turuchansk. — Voyage  down  the 
Jenissei.— Castren's  Study  at  Plachina. — From  Dudinka  to  Tolstoi  Noss. — Frozen  Feet. — Return 
Voyage  to  the  South. — Frozen  fast  on' the  Jenissei. — Wonderful  Preservation.— Journey  across  the 
Ciiinese  Frontiers,  and  to  Transbaikalia. — Return  to  Finland. — Professorship  at  Ilelsingfors. — Death 
of  Castren,  1855. 168 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE     S  A  BI  O  1  E  D  E  S . 

Their  Barbarism. — Num,  or  Jilibeambaertje. — Shamanism. — Samo'ede  Idols. — Sjadaji.— ITahe. — The  Ta- 
debtsios,  or  Spirits. — The  Tadibes,  or  Sorcerers. — Their  Dress. — Their  Invocations. — Their  conjuring 
Tricks. — Reverence  paid  to  the  Dead. — A  Samoiede  Oath. — Appearance  of  tlie  Samoiedes. — Their 
Dross. — A  Samoiede  Belle. — Chai-acter  of  the  Samoiedes. — Their  decreasing  Numbers. — Traditions  of 
ancient  Heroes 1~9 

CHAPTER  XV. 

THE     O  S  T  I  A  K  S  . 

What  is  the  Obi  ?— Inundations.— An  Osfiak  summer  Yourt.— Poverty  of  the  Ostiak  Fishermen.— .\ 
winter  Yourt. — Attachment  of  the  Ostiaks  to  their  ancient  Customs. — An  Ostiak  Prince. — Archery. 
— Appearance  and  Character  of  the  Ostiaks. — The  Fair  of  Obdorsk 185 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

CONQUEST   OF   SIBERIA  BY  THE   RUSSIANS— THEIR  VOYAGES  OF  DISCOVERY  ALONG  THE   SHORES  OF  THE 

POLAR   SEA. 

tvan  the  Terrible. — Strogonoff. — Yermak,  the  Robber  and  Conqueror. — His  Expeditions  to  Siberia.— 
Battle  of  Tobolsk— Yermak's  Death.— Progress  of  the  Russians  to  Ochotsk.— Semen  Deslinew.— 
Condition  of  the  Siberian  Natives  under  the  Russian  Yoke. — Voyages  of  Discovery  in  the  Reign  of 
the  Empress  Anna. — Prontschischtschew. — Chariton  and  Demetrius  Laptew. — An  Arctic  Heroine. 
— Schalaurow. — Discoveries  in  the  Sea  of  Bering  and  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. — The  Liichow  Islands. — 
Fossil  Ivory.— New  Siberia.— The  wooden  Mountains.— The  past  Ages  of  Siberia 191 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

SIBERIA — FUR-TRADE  AND   GOLD-DIGGINGS. 

Siberia.-Its  immense  Extent  and  Capabilities.-TheExiles.-Mentschikoff.-Dolgorouky.-Miinich.- 
The  Criminals.— The  free  Siberian  Peasant.— Extremes  of  Heat  and  Cold.— Fur-bearing  Animals.— 
The  Sable.— The  Ermine.— The  Siberian  Weasel.— The  Sea-otter.— The  black  Fox.— The  Lynx.— 
The  Squirrel.— The  varying  Hare.— The  Suslik.— Importance  of  the  Fur-trade  for  the  Northern 
Provinces  of  the  Russian  Empire.— The  Gold-diggings  of  Eastern  Siberia.— The  Taiga.— Expenses 
and  Difficulties  of  searching  Expeditions.— Costs  of  Produce,  and  enormous  Profits  of  successful 
Speculators.— Their  senseless  Extravagance.— First  Discovery  of  Gold  in  the  Ural  Mountains.— 
Jakowlew  and  Deniidow.— Nishne-Tagilsk Page  204 

CHAPTER  XYIII. 

biiddendouff's  adventcres  in  taimurland. 

For  what  Purpose  was  Middendorf!"s  Voyage  to  Taimurland  undertaken  ?— Difficulties  and  Obstacles.— 

Expedition  down  the  Tainnir  River  to  the  Polar  Sea.— Storm  on  Taimur  Lake.— Loss  of  the  Boat.— 

Middendorff  ill  and  alone  in  75°  N.  Lat.— Saved  by  a  gi-ateful  Samoiede.— Climate  and  Vegetation  of 

Taimurland 220 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE   JAKDTS. 

Their  energetic  Nationality.— Their  Descent.— Their  gloomy  Cliaracter.— Summer  and  Winter  Dwell- 
ings.—The  Jakut  Horse.— Incredible  Powers  of  Endurance  of  the  Jakuts.— Their  Sharpness  of  Vis- 
ion.—Surprising  local  Memory.— Their  manual  Dexterity.— Leather,  Poniards,  Carpets. —Jakut 
Gluttons.— Superstitious  Fear  of  the  Mountain-spirit  Ljeschei.— Offerings  of  Horse-hair.— Improvised 
Songs.— The  River  Jakut 228 

CHAPTER  XX. 

WRAN'GELL. 

His  distinguished  Services  as  an  Arctic  Explorer.— From  Petersburg  to  Jakutsk  in  1820.— Trade  of 
Jakutsk.— From  Jakutsk  to  Nishne-Kolymsk.— The  Badarany.— Dreadful  Climate  of  Nishne-Ko- 

lymsk. Summer  Plagues. — Vegetation. — Animal  Life. — Reindeer-hunting.— Famine. — Inundations. 

Xhe  Siberian  Dog.— First  Journeys  over  the  Ice  of  the  Polar  Sea,  and  Exploration  of  the  Coast 

beyond  Cape  Shelagskoi  in  1821.— Dreadful  Dangers  and  Hardships.— Matiuschkin's  Sledge-journey 
over  the  Polar  Sea  in  1822.— Last  Adventures  on  the  Polar  Sea.— A  Run  for  Life.— Return  to  St. 
Petersburg 233 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

THE    TUNGUSI. 

Their  Relationship  to  the  Mantchou.  —  Dreadful  Condition  of  the  outcast  Nomads.  —  Character  of 
the  Tungusi.— Their  Outfit  for  the  Chase.— Bear-hunting.— Dwellings.— Diet.— A  Night's  Halt  with 
Tungusi  in  the  Forest. — Ochotsk 2'i-l 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

GEORGE  WIEEIAM   STELLER. 

His  Birth. — Enters  the  Russian  Service.— Scientific  Journey  to  Kamchatka.— Accompanies  Bering  on  his 
second  Voyage  of  Discovery.— Lands  on  the  Island  of  Kaiak.— Shameful  Conduct  of  Bering.— Ship- 
wreck on  Bering  Island. — Bering's  Death. — Return  to  Kamchatka.— Loss  of  Property.— Persecutions 
of  the  Siberian  Authorities. — Fi-ozen  to  Death  at  Tjumen 248 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

KAMCHATKA. 

Climate. Fertility. — Luxuriant  Vegetation. — Fish. — Sea-birds. — Kamchatkan  Bird-catchers. — The  Bay 

of  Avatscha.— Petropaylosk.— The  Kamchatkans.— Their  physical  and  moral  Qualities. — The  Fri- 
tiUaria  Sanvmn.— The  ]\ruchanior.— Bears.— Dogs , , 254 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

THE  TCHUKTCHI. 

The  Land  of  the  Tchuktchi.— Their  independent  Spirit  and  commercial  Entei-prise.— Perpetual  Migra- 
tions.— The  Fair  of  Ostrownoje.  —  Visit  in  a  Tchuktcli  Polog.  — Races.  — Tchuktch  Bavaderes. 

The  Tennygk,  or  Reindeer  Tchuktchi.  —The  Onkilon,  or  Sedentary  Tchuktchi.  —  Their  Mode  of 
Life Page  262 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

BERING  SEA — THE   EUSSXAX   FUR  COMPANY — THE   ALEUTS. 

Bering  Sea. — Unalaska. — The  Pribilow  Islands. — St.  Matthew.— St.  Laurence.— Bering's  Straits.— The 
Russian  Fur  Company.— The  Aleuts. — Their  Character. — Their  Skill  and  Intrepidity  in  hunting  the 
Sea-otter. — The  Sea-bear. — Whale-chasing. — Walrus-slaughter. — The  Sea-lion 268 

CHAPTER  XXVL 

ALASKA. 

Purchase  of  Alaska  by  the  United  States.— The  Russian  American  Telegraph  Scheme. — Whymper's 
Trip  up  the  Yukon. ^Dogs. — The  Start. — E.^tempore  Water-filter. — Snow-shoes. — The  Frozen  Yu- 
kon.— Under-ground  Houses. — Life  at  Nulato. — Cold  Weather. — Auroras. — Approach  of  Summer. 
— Breaking-up  of  the  Ice. — Fort  Yukon. — Furs. — Descent  of  the  Yukon. — Value  of  Goods. — Arctic 
and  Tropical  Life. — Moose-hunting.— Deer-corrals. — Lip  Ornaments.— Canoes.— Four-post  CofRn. 
— The  Kenaian  Indians. — The  Aleuts. — Value  of  Alaska 277 

CHAPTER  XXVn. 

THE   ESQUIMAUX. 

Their  wide  Extension. —  Climate  of  the  Regions  they  inhabit.— Their  physical  Appearance. — Their 
Dress.— Snow  Huts.— The  Kayak,  or  the  Baidar —Hunting  Apparatus  and  Weapons.- Enmity  be- 
tween the  Esquimaux  and  the  Red  Indian. — The  "Bloody  Falls." — Chase  of  the  Reindeer. — Bird- 
catching.— Whale-hunting. — Various  Stratagems  emploj'ed  to  catch  the  Seal. —The  "  Keep-kuttuk." 
— Bear-hunting.  —  AValrus-hunting. —  Awaklok'and  Myouk. —  The  Esquimaux  Dog.— Games  and 
Sports. — Angekoks. —  Moral  Character. —  Self-reliance. — Intelligence. — Iligliuk. —  Commercial  Ea- 
gerness of  the  Esquimaux. — Their  Voracity. — Seasons  of  Distress. .' 290 

CHAPTER  XXVIIL 

THE   FUR-TRADE   OF  THE   HUDSON'S   BAY   TERRITORIES. 

The  Coureur  des  Bois. — Tlie  Voyageur. — The  Birch-bark  Canoe.— The  Canadian  Fur-trade  in  the  last 
Century. — The  Hudson's  Bay  Company. — Bloody  Feuds  between  the  North-west  Company  of  Can- 
ada and  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company. — Their  Amalgamation  into  a  new  Company  in  1821. — Recon- 
struction of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  in  1863. — Forts  or  Houses. — The  Attihawmeg. — Influence 
of  the  Company  on  its  savage  Dependents. — The  Black  Bear,  or  Baribal. — The  Brown  Bear. — The 
Grizzly  Bear. — The  Raccoon. — The  American  Glutton. — The  Pine  Marten.  —  The  Pekan,  or 
Wood-shock.— The  Chinga.  — The  Mink.  —  The  Canadian  Fish-otter.  —  The  Crossed  Fox.— The 
Black  or  Silvery  Fox.  —  The  Canadian  Lynx,  or  Pishu. — The  Ice-hare. — The  Beaver. — The 
Musquash 304 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 

THE   CREE  INDIANS,  OR  EYTHINYUWUK. 

The  various  Tribes  of  the  Crees.— Their  Conquests  and  subsequent  Defeat.— Their  Wars  with  the  Black- 
feet.— TheirCharacter.— Tattooing.— Their  Dress.— Fondness  for  their  Children.— The  Cree  Cradle.— 
Vapor  Baths.— Games.— Their  religious  Ideas.- The  Cree  Tartarus  and  Elysium 319 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

THE     TINNT3     INDIANS. 

The  various  Tribes  of  the  Tinne  Indians. — The  Dog- ribs. — Clothing. — The  Hare  Indians.— Degraded 
State  of  the  Women. — Practical  Socialists. — Character. — Cruelty  to  the  Aged  and  Infirm 327 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

THE   LOUCHECX,  OR  KCTCHIN  INDIANS. 

The  Countries  thej'  inhabit. — Their  Appearance  and  Dress. — Their  Love  of  Finery. —Condition  of  the 
Women. — Strange  Customs.— Character. — Feuds  with  the  Esquimaux. — Their  suspicious  and  timo- 
rous Lives. — Pounds  for  catching  Heindeer. — Their  Lodges Page  331 

CHAPTER  XXXIL 

ARCTIC   VOYAGES  OF  DISCOVERY,  FROM  THE  CABOTS   TO  BAFFIN. 

First  Scandinavian  Discoverer  of  America. — Tlie  Cabots. — Willoughbv  and  Chancellor  (1553-1551). — 
Stephen  Burrough  (1556). — Frobisher  (1576-1578). — Davis  (1585-1587). — Barentz,  Cornelis,  and 
Brant  (1594).— Wintering  of  the  Dutch  Navigators  in  Nova  Zenibla  (1596-1507). — .John  Kni.udit 
(1606).— Murdered  by  the  Esquimaux.— Henry  Hudson  (1607-1609).— Baflfin  (1616) 335 

CHAPTER  XXXHL 

ARCTIC  VOYAGES  OF   DISCOVERY,  FRO.M   BAFFIN  TO    :m'CLINTOCK. 

Buchan  and  Franklin.— Ross  and  Parry  (1818).— Discovery  of  Melville  Island.— Winter  Harbor  (1819- 
1820). —  Franklin's  first  land  Journey. —  Dreadful  Sufferings. —  PanVs  second  Voyage  (1821-1823). 
—  Iligliuk.— Lj'on  (1824). —  Parry's  third  Voyage  (1824). — Franklin's  second  land  Journey  to  the 
Shores  of  the  Polar  Sea. — Beechey. — Parry's  sledge  Journey  towards  the  Pole. — Sir  John  Ross's 
second  Journey. -rFive  Years  in  the  Arctic  Ocean. — Back's  Discovery  of  Great  Fish  River. — Dease 
and  Simpson  (1837-1839). — Franklin  and  Crozier's  last  Voyage  (1845).— Searching  Expeditions. — 
Richardson  and  Rae. — Sir  James  Ross. — Austin, — Penny. — De  Haven. — Franklin's  first  \\'inter- 
quarters  discovered  by  Ommaney. — Kennedj'  and  Bellot. — Inglefield. — Sir  E.  Belcher. — Kellett. — 
M'Clure's  Discovery  of  the  North-west  Passage. — Collinson. — Bellot's  Death. — Dr.  Eae  learns  the 
Death  of  the  Q-evvs  of  the  "  Erebus  "  and  "  Terror.'"- Sir  Leopold  M'Clintock 34'^ 

CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

KANE  AND    HAYES. 

Kane  sails  up  Smith's  Sound  in  the  "  Advance  "  (1853). — Winters  in  Rensselaer  Bay. — Sledge  Journey 
along  the  Coast  of  Greenland. — The  Three-brother  Turrets. — Tennyson's  Monument. — The  Great 
Humboldt  Glacier. — Dr.  Hayes  crosses  Kennedy  Channel.  —  Morton's  Discovery  of  Washington 
Land. — Mount  PaiTv. — Kane  resolves  upon  a  second  Wintering  in  Rensselaer  Bay. — Departure  and 
Return  of  Part  of  the  Crew. — Sufferings  of  the  Winter. — The  Ship  abandoned. — Boat  Journej'  to 
Upernavik. — Kane's  Death  in  the  Havana  (1857). — Dr.  Hayes's  Voyage  in  1860. — He  winters  at 
Port  Foulke. — Crosses  Kenned}^  Channel. — Reaches  Cape  Union,  the  most  northern  known  Land 
upon  the  Globe. — Koldewey. — Plans  for  future  Voyages  to  the  North  Pole 365 

CHAPTER  XXXV. 

NEWFC    NDLAND. 

Its  desolate  Aspect. — Forests. — Marshes. — Barrens. — Ponds. — Fur-bearing  Animals. — Severity  of  Cli- 
mate.—St.  John's. — Discover}'  of  Newfoundland  by  the  Scandinavians. — Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert. — 
Rivalry  of  the  English  and  French. — Importance  of  the  Fisheries. — The  Banks  of  Newfoundland. — 
Mode  of  Fishing. — Throaters,  Headers,  Splitters,  Suiters,  and  Packers. — Fogs  and  Storms.— Seal- 
catching  376 

CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

GREENLAND. 

A  mysterious  Region. — Ancient  Scandinavian  Colonists. — Their  Decline  and  Pall. — Hans  Egede. — His 
Trials  and  Success.— Foundation  of  Godthaab. — Herrenhuth  Missionaries. — Lindenow.— The  Scores- 
bys.— Clavering. — The  Danish  Settlements  in  Greenland.— The  Greenland  Esquimaux.— Seal-catch- 
ing.— The  White  Dolphin.— The  Narwhal.— Shark-fishery.— Fiskernasset. — Birds.— Reindeer-hunt- 
ing.—Indigenous  Plants.— Drift-wood.— Mineral  Kingdom. — Mode  of  Life  of  the  Greenland  Esqui- 
maux.— The  Danes  in  Greenland. — Beautiful  Scenerv. — Ice  Caves 382 


CONTENTS.  xiii 

CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

THE     ANTARCTIC     OCEAN. 

Comparative  View  of  the  Antarctic  and  Arctic  Regions.— Inferioritj-  of  Climate  of  the  former.— Its 
Causes.— The  New  Shetland  Islands.— South  Georgia.— The  Peruvian  Stream.— Sea-birds.— The  Gi- 
ant Petrel.— Tiie  Albatross.— The  Penguin.— The  Austral  Whale.— The  Hunchback.— Tlie  Fin-back. 
—The  Grampus.— Battle  with  a  Whale.— The  Sea-elephant.— The  Southern  Sea-bear.- The  Sea- 
leopard.— Antarctic  Fishes P^S*^  391 

CHAPTER  XXXV I  IT. 

ANTARCTIC  VOYAGF.S    OF   DISCOVF.RY. 

Cook's  Discoveries  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean.— Bellinghausen.—Weddell  — Biscoe.- Balleny.— Dumont 
d'Urville.— Wilkes.- Sir  James  Ross  crosses  the  Antarctic  Circle  ou  New  Year's  Day,  18-11.— Dis- 
covers Victoria  Land.— Dangerous  Landing  on  Franklin  Island.— An  Eruption  of  Mount  Erebus.— 
The  Great  Ice  Barrier.— Providential  Escape.— Dreadful  Gale.- Collision.— Hazardous  Passage  be- 
tween two  Icebergs. — Termination  of  the  Voyage 'I'  1 

CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

THE    STRAIT    OF   MAGELLAN. 

Description  of  the  Strait.— Western  Entrance.— Point  Dungeness.— The  Narrows.— Saint  Philip's  Bay. 
—Cape  Froward.— Grand  Scenery.— Port  Famine.— 1  he  Sedger  River.— Darwin's  Ascent  of  Mount 
Tarn.— The  Bachelor  River.— English  Reach.— Sea  Reach.- South  Desolation.— Harbor  of  Mercy. — 
Williwaws.— Discovery  of  the  Strait  by  Magellan  (October  20,  1521).— Drake.— Sarmiento.— Cav- 
endish.—Schouten  and  Le  Maire.— Byron.— Bougainville.— Wallis  and  Carteret.- King  and  Fitz- 
roy.— Settlement  at  Punta  Arenas.— Increasing  Passage  through  the  Strait.— A  future  Highway  of 
Commerce ^^° 

CHAPTf:R  XL. 

P.^TAGONI.\   AND   TIIE    PATAGONIANS. 

Difference  of  Climate  between  East  and  West  Patagonia.— Extraordinary  Aridity  of  East  Patagonia.— 
Zoology.— The  Guanaco.— The  Tncutuco. — The  Patagonian  Agouti.— Vultures. — The  Turkey^buz- 
zard.— The  Carrancha.— The  Chimango.— Darwin's  Ostrich.~The  Patagonians.— Exaggerated  Ac- 
counts of  their  Stature.— Their  Physiognomy  and  Dress. — Religious  Ideas.— Superstitions.— Astro- 
nomical Knowledge.— Division  into  Tribes.— The  Tent,  or  Toldo.— Trading  Routes.— The  great 
Cacique. — Introduction  of  the  Horse. —  Industry. — Amusements. — Character -Hi" 

CHAPTER  XLL 

THE     FUEGIANS. 

Their  miserable  Condition. — Degradation  «i  Body  and  Mind.— Powers  of  Mimicry.— Notions  of  Barter. 
—Causes  of  their  low  State  of  Cultivation. — Tiieir  Food.— Limpets. — Cyttaria  Daririni. —Const-dut 
Migrations. — The  Fuegian  Wigwam.— Weapons.— Their  probable  Origin. — Their  Number,  and  va- 
rious Tribes.— Constant  Feuds. — Cannibalism.— Language. — Adventures  of  Fucgia  Basket,  Jemmy 
Button,  and  York  Minster.— Missionary  Labors.— Captain  Gardiner.— His  lamentable  End 425 

CHAPTER  XLII. 

CIIAKI.ES   FR.\NCI.S    HALL   AND  THE    INNUITS. 

Hall's  Expedition.- His  early  Life.— His  reading  of  Arctic  Adventure.— His  Resolve.— His  Arctic  Out- 
fit.—Sets  sail  on  the  "George  Henry."— The  Voyage.— Kudlago.—Holsteinborg,  Greenland.— Pop- 
ulation of  Greenland.— Sails  for  Davis's  Strait.— Character  of  the  Innuits.— Wreck  of  the  "  Rescue." 
— Ebierbing  and  Tookoolito.— Their  Visit  to  England.— Hall's  first  Exploration.— European  and  In- 
nuit  Life  in  the  Arctic  Regions.— Building  an  Igloo.— Almost  Starved.— Fight  for  Food  with  Dogs. 
—Ebierbing  arrives  with  a  Seal.— How  he  caught  it.— A  Seal-feast.— The  Innuits  and  Seals.— The 
Polar  Bear.— HoAv  he  teaches  the  Innuits  to  catch  Seals.— At  a  Seal-hole.— Dogs  as  Seal-lninters.— 
Dogs  and  Bears.— Dogs  and  Reindeers.— Innuits  and  AValruses.— More  about  Igloos.— Innuit  Imple- 
ments.—Uses  of  the  Reindeer.— Innuit  Improvidcnre.— A  Door-fea.st.— A  frozen  Delicacy.— Whale- 
skin  as  Food.— Whale-gum: -How  to  eat  Wtiale  Ligament.— Raw  INIeat.— Tlio  Dress  of  the  Innuits. 


■/  CONTENTS. 

A  pretty  Style.— Religious  Ideas  of  the  Innuits.— Their  kindly  Character. — Treatment 
of  the  Aged  and  Infirm.— A  AVoman  abandoned  to  die.— Hall's  Attempt  to  rescue  her. — 
The  Innuit  Nomads,  without  any  form  of  Government. — Their  Numbers  Diminishing  — 
A  Sailor  wanders  away. — Hall's  Search  for  him. — Finds  him  frozen  to  death. — The  Ship 
free  from  Ice. — Preparations  to  return. — Reset  in  the  Ice-jmck. — Another  Arctic  Winter. — 
Breaking  up  of  the  Ice. — Departure  for  Home. — Tookoolito  and  her  Child  "Butterfly." — 
Death  of  "Butterfly." — Arrival  at  Home. — Results  of  Hall's  Expedition. — Innuit  Tradi- 
tions.— Discovery  of  Frobisher  Relics. — Hall's  Second  Expedition, Page  433 


THE    TEOPICAL   AVORLD. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE    OCEAN    AND    ATMOSPHERE    OF    THE    TROPICAL    WORLD. 

Characteristics  of  the  Polar  and  Tropical  Worlds. — Geographical  and  Climatic  Limits  of  the 
Zones. — Distribution  of  Land  and  Water. — Climatic  Importance  of  the  Ocean. — Currents 
of  the  Ocean. — The  Gulf  Stream. — Influence  of  the  Gulf  Stream  upon  the  Climate  of 
Europe. — The  Sargasso  Sea. — Columbus  and  the  Gulf  Stream. — The  Pacific  and  Indian 
Currents. — Heat  and  Force. — Relative  Positions  of  Hot  and  Cold  Currents. — Currents  of 
the  Air. — The. Trade  Winds. — Atmospheric  Currents  and  Climate. — The  Calm  Belt  near 
the  Equator. — Rainfall  of  Different  Regions. — Rainy  and  Dry  Seasons  witliin  the  Tropics. 
— The  Monsoons. — Winds  as  Regulators  of  Rains. — Annual  Rainfall. — Whirlwinds. — Their 
Rotary  Motion.^Tropical  Islands. — Volcanic  Islands. — Coralline  Islands. — Atolls  and 
Reefs. — Influence  of  the  Ocean  upon  Life  in  the  Tropical  Islands, 471 

CHAPTER   IL 

TABLE    LANDS    AND    PLATEAUS    OF    THE    TROPICAL   WORLD. 

Influence  of  Elevation  upon  Climate. — The  Puna  of  Peru:  Squier's  Description  of  the  Puna. — 
The  Soroche  or  Veta. — View  from  La  Portada. — Effects  of  the  Soroche. — The  Sarumpe. 
— The  Veruga  Water. — EfTects  of  the  Veta  on  Animals. — Vegetation  of  the  Puna. — The 
Llama. — The  Huanacu. — The  Alpaca. — The  Vicuna. — Hunting  the  Vicuna. — The  Hunts 
of  the  Ancient  Incas. — Enemies  of  the  Vicuna. — Other  Native  Animals. — The  Ox,  Horse, 
Mule  and  Sheep. — Waterfowl. — Warm  Valleys. — Rapid  Change  of  Climate  According  to 
Elevation. — Lake  Titicaca:  The  Sacred  Island  of  Titicaca. — Manco  Capac,  the  First  Inca. 
— His  Journey  from  Lake  Titicaca  to  Cuzco. — Fact  and  Myth  respecting  Manco  Capac. — 
Extent  of  the  Inca  Empire  — Inca  Civilization  originated  in  the  Puna,  near  Lake  Titi- 
caca.—The  Sacred  Rock  on  the  Island.— Ruins  and  Relics  on  the  Island.— The  Hacienda 
on  the  Island.— The  Eve  of  St.  John. — The  Bath  of  the  Incas. — Other  Sacred  Islands. — 
Ruins  at  Tihuanico. — Some  more  ancient  than  the  Incas. — Immense  Monolithic  Gateways 
and  Hewn  Stones. — Inca  Civilization. — The  Great  Military  Roads. — System  of  Posts  and 
Post-Stations. — The  Valley  of  Quito:  Approach  to  the  Valley  from  the  Pacific  Coast. — A 
Tropical  Region— Climbing  the  Cordillera. — Scenes  by  the  Way. — Quito.— Climate  of  the 
Valley. — Astronomical  Site. — Trees,  Fruits,  Vegetables,  and  Flowers. — Animals. — Birds. — 
Insects,  Reptiles,  and  Fish. — The  Population  of  the  Valley.— Indians. — Half-Breeds. — 
Whites.— Courtesy  of  the  People  — A  Polite  Message. — Scenery  of  the  Valley. — Volca- 
noes. —  Imbabura.— Destruction  of  Otovalo. — Cayamba. — Guamani. — Antisana. — Sincho- 
lagua. — Cotopaxi. — The  Inca's  Head.— Tunguragua.— Altar.  — Sangai. — Its  Perpetual  Erup- 
tion.—Chimborazo. — Caraguarizo. — Illinza. — Corazon. — Pichincha. — Its  immense  Crater. 
— Descent  into  the  Crater. — Eruptions  of  Pichincha. —  The  Table- Land  of  Bogota :  Voyage 


CONTENTS.  XV 

up  tlie  Magdalena  — Ascent  to  the  Plateau. — Bogotii  and  tlie  Bogotanos. — Traveling  at 
Bogota. —  Table-Land  of  Mexico :  Its  Extent. — The  Tierra  Calienta. — The  Tierra  Teniplada. 
— The  Tierra  Fria. — The  Valley  of  Anahuac. — The  Volcanoes  of  Orizaba,  Popocatapetl, 
Iztacihuatl,  and  Toluca. — The  Sikkim  Slope:  Approach  and  Ascent. — Dorjiling. — The 
Sikkim  Peaks. — Altitude  of  Enchin-junga. — Flight  of  the  Condor, Page  480 

CHAPTER    III. 

SAVANNAS    AND    DESERTS    OF    THE    TROPICAL    WORLD. 

Water  and  Life. — Characteristics  of  the  Savannas. — The  Llanos:  The  Dry  Season. — Effects 
upon  Vegetable  Life. — Effects  upon  Animal  Life. — Approach  of  the  Rainy  Season. — Revival 
of  Vegetable  and  Animal  Life. — Vast  Migrations  of  Animals. — The  Pampas:  Horses  and 
Cattle  in  the  New  World. — Effects  of  their  Introduction  upon  the  Character  of  the  Popu- 
lation.— The  Mauritia  Palm. — Living  in  the  Tree-tops. — The  Grand  Chaco — Its  Indian 
Inhabitants. — The  Guachos. — The  Lasso  and  Bolas. — The  Plains  of  Southern  Africa :  Thorny 
Buslies. — Excessive  Droughts. — A  Great  Hunting  Ground. — Species  of  Game. — Vegetation 
— Watery  Tubers. — Esculent  Gourds. — Possibility  of  Wells. — Water-Pits  in  the  Kalahari. — 
Mode  of  Pumping  Up  the  Water. — Livingstone's  Theory  of  Water-Making  Ants. — More 
Probable  Explanation. — Inhabitants  of  Southern  Africa. — The  Lake  Recjion  of  Equatorial 
Africa:  Little  Known. — Explorations  of  Livingstone  and  Burton. — Speke's  Journey. — His 
Notices  of  the  Country. — Moderate  and  Equable  Temperature. — The  Inhabitants.— Cliarac- 
teristics  of  a  Real  Desert. — The  Atacama  of  Peru :  Its  Arid  Character. — The  Mule  the  Ship 
of  this  Desert. — The  Australian  Desert:  Its  Utter  Desolation. — Sturt's  Exploration. — 
Leichardt. — Lost  Rivers. — The  Sahara:  Extent  and  General  Characteristics. — The  Capital 
of  Fezzan. — Perilous  Adventure  of  Barth. — Plains  and  Hills. — Oases. — Luxuriant  Vegeta- 
tion of  the  Oases.— Contrasts  of  Light  and  Shade. — The  Kiiamsin  or  Simoom.— Animals 
and  Reptiles. — The  Ostrich  and  its  Chase.— Fluctuations  of  Animal  and  Vegetable  Life 
according  to  the  Seasons, 499 

•    CHAPTER   IV. 

TROPICAL    FORESTS. VALLEY    OF    THE    AMAZON. 

Characteristics  of  the  Tropical  Forests.— Variety  of  Trees  and  Plants.— Aspect  During  the 
Rainy  Season. — Beauty  After  the  Rainy  Season. — A  Morning  Concert.— Repose  at  Noon.— 
Awakening  at  Evening. — Nocturnal  Voices  of  the  Forest. — The  Amazon:  Course  of  the 
River.— Size  of  its  Basin.— The  Tide  at  its  Mouth. — Rising  of  the  River.— Igaripes,  or  Canoe- 
Paths.— Inundations  of  the  Amazon. — Vast  Variety  of  its  Vegetation. — Fishes.— Agassiz's 
Specimens. — Alligators  and  Turtles. — Turtle-Hunting. — Insects — Ants.— Butterflies  — Spi- 
ders.— Lizards. — Frogs  and  Toads. — Snakes. — Paucity  0^ Mammalia. — The  Jaguar. — Scan- 
tiness of  Human  Population —Indian  Tribes. — Mundurcu  Tattooing.— Travelers'  Accounts 
of  the  Tribes. — Men  with  Tails. — Orton's  Summary  of  their  Character.- His  Own  Expe- 
rience Favorable. — He  finds  them  Honest  and  Peaceable. — Agassiz's  Notices  of  the  Indians. 
— Their  Familiarity  with  Animals  and  Plants. — Whites.— Negroes. — Mixed  Breeds.— Agas- 
siz  and  Orton  on  the  Capacity  of  Amazonia, 514 

CHAPTER   V. 

CHARACTERISTIC   FORMS   OF   TROPICAL   VEGETATION. 

General  Features  of  Tropical  Forests.— Number  of  Species  of  Plants.— The  Baobab.— Its 
Gigantic  Size.— Age  of  the  Great  Trees.— Dragon-Trees.— The  Great  Dragon-Tree  of 
Orotava.— The  Sycamore.— The  Banyan.— The  Sacred  Bo-Tree.— The  Oldest  Histori- 
cal Tree.— The  Teak.— The  Satin-wood.— The  Sandal  Tree.— The  Ceiba.— The  Ma- 
hogany Tree  —The  Mora.— The  Guadua.— Bamboos.— The  Aloe  —The  Agave.— The 
Cactus. — The  Screw  Pine. — Mimosas. — Lianas.— Climbing  Trees. — Epiphytes. — Water 
Plants.— Buttressed  Trees.— Trees  with  Fantastic  Roots.— Mangroves.— Marsh  Forests. 
—Palms.— The  Cocoa  Palm.— The  Sago  Palm.— The  Saguer  Palm.— The  Areca  Palm.— 
The  Palmyra  Palm.— The  Talipot  Palm.— Ratans.— The  Date  Palm— Oil  Palms.— Variety 
of  Size,  Form,  Foliage  and  Fruit — Future  Commercial  Value  of  the  Palm, 525 


xvi  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

THE    CHIEF    NUTRITIVE    PLANTS    OF    THE    TROPICAL    WORLD. 

Rice.— Aspects  of  Rice-Fields  at  DiiFerent  Seasons.— Tlie  Rice-Fields  of  Ceylon.— Ladang 
and  Sawa  Rice.— Rice  in  South  Carolina.— The  Rice-Bird.- Paddy.— Maize.— When  first 
brought  to  Europe.— Appearance  of  the  Plant.— Its  Enormous  Productiveness.— Freedom^ 
from^Disease.- Wide  Extent  of  its  Cultivation.— Benjamin  Franklin's  Accountof  Maize.— 
Millet.— The  Bread-Fruit.— Its  Taste.— Modes  of  Cooking.— The  Banana  and  Plantain.— 
Their  Great  Productiveness.— The  Sago  Palm.— Manufiicture  of  Sago.— Sago  Bread.— 
Cheap  Living.— A  Siesta  and  Starvation.— The  Cassava.— Yams.— The  Sweet  Potato. 
—Arrow  Root.— The  Taro  Root.— Tropical  Fruits.— The  Chirimoya.— The  Litchi.— The 
Mangosteen.— The  Mango.— The  Durion.— Its  Taste  and  Smell.— Large  Fruit  on  Tall 

Trees,   P«ge  545 

CHAPTER   VII. 

SUGAR COFFEE — CHOCOLATE COCA— SPICES. 

Siigar:  Its  Importance.— The  Home  of  the  Sugar-Cane.— Ancient  Theories  about  Sugar.— The 
Introduction  of  the  Cane  into  Europe  and  America.— Characteristics  of  the  Plant.— Mode  of 
Cultivation.— Co#ee;  Its  Home.— Introduction  into  Egypt  and  Europe,  and  elsewhere.— 
Present  Coffee  Countries.— Coffee  Culture  in  Brazil.— Agassiz's  Description  of  a  Cofiee 
Estate.— The  West  Indies  and  Ceylon.— The  CofFee-Plant.— Methods  of  Preparing  the 
Berries.— The  Enemies  of  the  Plant.— The  Golunda.— The  Coffee  Bug.— The  Coffee  Moth. 
—Cacao,  or  Chocolate:  Its  Culture  and  Preparation.— Coca;  Description  of  the  Plant.— Mode 
of  its  Use.— Its  Effects.— Indian  superstitions  connected  with  it. —  Cinnamon:  Known  to  the 
Ancients.— Cinnamon  in  Ceylon.— Mode  of  Culture  and  Preparation.— General  Account 
of  this  Spice —Nutmegs  and  Cloves.— Enormities  of  the  Dutch  Monopoly.— Pepper.— 
Pimento. — Ginger, 559 

CHAPTER   VIII. 

INSECTS. 

Multitude  of  Tropical  Insects.— Beetles.— Dragon  Flies.— Leaf  Moths.— The  Leaf  Butterfly.— 
Fire  Flies. — Insect  Plagues:  Mosquitoes. — Chigoes,  or  Jiggers. — The  Filaria  Medinensis. — 
The  Bete  Rouge.— Ticks.— Land-Leeches.— The  Tsetse  Fly.— The  Tsalt-Salya  Locusts.— 
Cockroaches.— Enemies  of  the  Cockroach.— t/se/t/Z/nseds;  The  Silk-Worm.— The  Cochineal 
Insect. — The  Gum-Lac  Insect. — Edible  and  Ornamental  Beetles, 581 

CHAPTER   IX. 

ANTS — TERMITES — ANT-EATERS — SPIDERS — SCORPIONS. 

Ants:  Vast  Numbers  of  Ants  in  the  Tropical  World. — Pain  caused  by  their  Bites. — The  Ponera 
Clavata.— The  Black  Fire-Ant.— The  Dimiya  of  Ceylon.— The  Red  Ant  of  Angola.— The 
Vivagua  of  the  West  Indies. — The  Umbrella  Ant. — Household  Plagues. — Troubles  of  Natu- 
ralists.— The  Ranger  Ants.— The  Bashikouay  of  Western  Africa.— House-Building  Ants. 
— Slaveholding  Ants. — Aphides,  or  Plant-Lice. — Insect  Cow-Keepers. — Termites :  Their 
Ravages  among  Books  and  Furniture. — Their  Citadels. — Domestic  Economy. — Defensive 
Warfare.— 'American  Termites. — The  Enemies  of  the  Termites. — How  to  Catch,  Cook,  and 
Eat  them. — The  Marching  Termite. — Ant-Eaters  :  The  Great  Ant-Bear. — His  Mode  of 
Hunting. — Mode  of  Defense. — Anatomical  Structure. — Lesser  Ant-Bears. — Manides  and 
Pangolins. — The  Aard-Vark. — Armadillos. — The  Porcupine  Ant-Eater. — Spiders:  Their 
Physical  Structure. — Their  Webs. — Means  of  Protection. — Mode  of  Catching  their  Prey. — 
Maternal  Instinct. — Their  Enemies. — Uses  of  Spiders. — Scorpions:  Their  Aspects  and 
Habits.— Their  Venom, 594 

CHAPTER   X. 

SERPENTS — LIZARDS — FROGS    AND    TOADS. 

Serpents:  Rarity  of  Venomous  Serpents. — Habits  and  External  Characteristics  of  Serpents. — 
The  Labarri. — The  Trigonocephalns. — Antidotes  to  the  Poison  of  Serpents.— Sucking  out 


CONTENTS.  xvii 

the  Venom.— The  Poison-Fangs.— The  Bush-Master.— The  Ecliidna  Occlhita.— Rattle- 
snakes.—Tlieir  Enemy  the  Hog.— The  Cobra  de  Capello.— The  Haje.— The  Cerastes.— 
Boas  and  Pythons.— The  Boa-constrictor.— The  Water  Boa.— Fascination  by  Snakes.— 
Henderson's  Argument  against  It.— Thorpe's  Reasons  in  its  Favor.— Du  Chaillu  on  the 
Subject.— Enemies  of  Serpents.— The  Secretary  Bird.— The  Adjutant  Bird.— The  Mon- 
goos.  — Serpents  Eating  Serpents.  — The  Locomotion  of  Serpents.  — Anatomy  of  their 
Jaws.— A  Serpentine  Meal.— Pet  Serpents.— Tree  Snakes.— Water  Snakes— Stories  of 
Enormous  Snakes. — Du  Chaillu's  Big  Snake. — Wallace's  Bigger  One.— Lizards :  The 
Geckoe.— Anatomy  of  its  Feet.— Their  Wide  Distribution.— The  Anolis.— Its  Combative- 
ness.— The  Chameleon.— Its  Habits,  Change  of  Color,  and  Characteristics.— The  Iguana.— 
The  Teju. — Water  Lizards. — Flying  Dragons. — The  Basilisk. — Frogs  and  Toads:  Tlie  Pipa 
Frog.— Tree  Frogs.— Wallace's  Flying  Frog.— The  Bahia  Toad.— The  Giant  Toad.— The 
Musical  Toad, I'age  616 

CHAPTER  XI. 

ALLIGATORS — CROCODILES — TORTOISES   AND   TURTLES. 

Alligators  and  Crocodiles :  Their  Habits.— Caymen,  Gavials  and  Crocodiles.— Mode  of  Seizing 
their  Prey.— Size  of  Alligators.— Alligators  on  the  Amazon.— Alligator  and  Crane.— Man- 
Eating  Alligators.— Their  Contests.— Tenacity  of  Life.— Laying  their  Eggs.— Tenderness 
for  tlieir  Young.— Their  Enemies.— Torpidity  in  the  Dry  Season.— "Playing  'Possum."— 
Tortoises  and  Turtles:  The  Galapago  Islands.— The  Elephantine  Tortoise.— Rate  of  Trav- 
eling.—Marsh  Tortoises.— Manufacture  of  Tortoise  Oil.— Turtles  on  the  Amazon.— Sea- 
Turtles.— Their  Enemies.— Modes  of  Capturing  Turtles.— The  Green  Turtle.— The  Hawks- 
bill  Turtle.— Barbarous  Modes  of  Removing  the  Shell,  and  Selling  the  Meat.— The  Cori- 


aceous Turtle, 


635 


CHAPTER   XII. 

BIRD-LIFE    IN   THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

Difficulties  of  the  Subject.— Wide  Range  of  Birds.— The  Toucan.— Humming-Birds.— Cotin- 
gas.— The  Campanero,  or  Bell-Bird.— The  Realejo,  or  Organ-Bird.— The  Manakins.— The 
Cock  of  the  Rock.— The  Troopials.— The  Baltimore  Oriole.— The  Cassiques.— The  Mock- 
ing-Bird.— The  Toropishu.— The  Tunqui.— Goat-Suckers.— The  Cilgero.— Flamingos.— 
The  Ibis.— SpoonBills.— Birds  of  the  New  and  the  Old  World.— Sun-Birds.— Honey-Eat- 
ers.—The  Ocellated  Turkey.  — The  Lyre-Bird. —Birds  of  Paradise.  — Fables  respecting 
them.— Their  Character  and  Habits.— Their  Dancing-Parties.— Mode  of  Shooting  and 
Snaring  them.— The  Australian  Bower-Bird.— The  Brush-Turkey.— The  Adjutant.- The 
Copper-smith.— The  Indian  Baya.— The  Tailor-Bird-- The  Grosbeak.— The  Korwe.— 
Parrots.— The  Brazilian  Love-Parrot.— Their  Powers  of  Mimicry.— Cockatoos.— Macaws. 
—The  Ara.— Paroquets.— The  Ostrich.— His  Swiftness  of  Foot.— Modes  of  Capturing  it.— 
Stratagems  to  Save  its  Young.— Its  Enemies.— Its  Young.— Resemblance  to  the  Camel.— 
Its  Powers  of  Digestion.— Uses  of  its  Eggs.— The  Rheas.— The  Cassowary.— The  Emu,  645 

CHAPTER   XIII. 

THE    CLIBIBERS:    BATS,    SLOTHS,    AND    SIMIiE. 

Bats:  Their  Wonderful  Organization.— The  Fox-Bat— Eaten  by  the  Malays.— Vampire  Bats 
—Their  Blood-sucking  Propensities.— The  Horseshoe  Bat.— The  Nycteribia.— The  Flying 
Squirrel.— The  Galeopithecus.— The  Anomalurus.— TAe  Sloth:  Pitiful  Description  given 
of  Him.— His  beautiful  Organization  for  his  peculiar  Mode  of  Life.— His  rapid  Movements 
in  the  Trees— His  Means  of  Defense.— His  Tenacity  of  Life.— The  Unau— The  Ai.— 
Gigantic  Primeval  Sloths.— il/on%s  .■  Good  Climbers,  but  bad  Walkers.— Imjierfectly 
known  to  the  Ancients.— Similitudes  and  Differences  between  Man  and  Apes.— The  Chim- 
panzee.—The  Gorilla.— Du  Chaillu's  First  Encounter  with  a  Gorilla.— The  Gorilla  and  her 
Young.— The  Orang-Utan,  or  Mias.— Wallace's  Accounts  of  Shooting  the  Orang.— Their 
Tenacity  of  Life.— Size  of  the  Orang.— The  Orang  as  a  Combatant.— The  Orang  fighting 


xviii  CONTENTS. 

the  Crocodile  and  Python.— Habits  of  the  Orang. — Wallace's  Young  Pet  Orang.— The 
Gibbons. — Monkeys  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds. — The  Semnopitheci. — The  Proboscis 
Monkey.— The  Sacred  Ape  of  the  Hindus. — The  Cercopitheci. — The  Magots. — The  Cyno- 
cephali,  or  Baboons. — The  Maimon. — The  Great  Baboon  of  Senegal. — The  Derryas. — The 
Loris. — Monkeys  of  the  New  World. — Monkeys  Distinguished  by  their  Tails  and  Teeth. — 
The  Wourali  Poison. — The  Indian  Blow  Pipe. — Mildness  of  American  Monkeys.— The 
Howling  Monkeys. — The  Spider-Monkeys. — The  Fox-tail  Monkeys.— The  Saimaris. — Noc- 
turnal Monkeys. — The  Domesticated  Nocturnals. — The  Squirrel-Monkey, Page  669 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

TROPICAL    BEASTS    AND    BIRDS    OF    PREY. 

Variety  of  Carnivorous  Creatures. — Birds  of  Prey :  The  Condor. — His  Marvelous  Flight. — His 
Cowardice. — Modes  of  Capturing  them. — Tlie  Turkey-Buzzard,  or  Carrion  Vulture. — The 
King  of  the  Vultures. — The  Urubu. — Capable  of  Domestication. — The  Harpy  Eagle. — 
The  Sociable  Vulture. — The  Bacha. — The  Fishing  Eagle. — The  Musical  Sparrow-Hawk. — 
The  Secretary  Eagle. — Beasts  of  Prey :  Tlie  Lion. — Fictitious  Character  ascribed  to  him. 
— Mode  of  Seizing  his  Prey. — Lions  and  Giraffe. — Lion  and  Hottentot. — Andersson  and  a 
Lion. — Livingstone's  narrow  Escape. — Lion-Hunting  in  the  Atlas. — By  the  Bushmen. — Cap- 
turing their  Young. — Former  and  present  Range  of  the  Lion. — Lion  and  Rhinoceros. — 
Livingstone's  Estimate  of  the  Lion. — The  Tiger. — Their  Ravages  in  Java. — Wide  Range  of 
the  Tiger. — Tiger-Hunting  in  India. — Escape  from  a  Tiger. — Animals  announcing  the  Ap- 
proach of  a  Tiger. — Turtle-hunting  Tigers. — The  Panther  and  Leopard. — The  Cheetah. — 
The  Hyena. — The  Spotted  and  Brown  Hyenas. — The  Felidaeof  New  World. — The  Jaguar. 
— Hunting  the  Jaguar. — The  Cougar,  or  Puma. — The  Ocelot. — The  Jaguarandi. — The 
Tiger-Cat, , 693 

CHAPTER   XV. 

THE  ELEPHANT — EHINOCEROS — HIPPOPOTAMUS CAMEL — ZEBRA. 

The  Great  Tropical  Pachydermati. — The  Elephant:  Difference  between  the  tame  and  wild 
Elephant. — His  Instinctive  Timidity. — Acuteness  of  His  Senses. — His  Sagacity  in  Climbing 
Hills. — His  wonderful  Trunk. — His  Tusks.— Elephant  Herds. — The  Rogue,  or  Solitary  Ele- 
phant.— The  Asiatic  and  African  Species. — The  African  Elephant  tamed  in  Ancient  Times. 
— Present  Range  of  the  African  Elephant. — Native  Modes  of  Hunting  the  African  Elephant. 
— The  Elephant  and  the  Rifle. — Perils  of  Elephant-Hunters.— Elephant-Hunting  in  Abyssinia. 
—The  Asiatic  Elephant.— Elephant-Hunting  in  Ceylon.— The  Panickeas,  or  Native  Elephant- 
Hunters.— Elephantine  Head- Work.— Obstinate  Brutes.— T/ie  Rhinoceros:  Range  and  Char- 
acter of  the  Rhinoceros.— Two  Species,  the  Black  and  the  White.— Size  of  the  Rhinoceros.— 
Acuteness  of  its  Senses.— Its  winged  Attendant. — Its  parental  Affection. — Its  nocturnal 
Habits.— Modes  of  Hunting  the  Rhinoceros.— The  One-Horned  or  Indian  Rhinoceros.— The 
Two-Horned  Rhinoceros  of  the  Malay  Archipelago. — Rhinoceros-Paths  in  Java.— TAe  Hip- 
popotamus:  Is  the  Hippopotamus  the  Behemoth  of  Job  ?— Habits  of  the  Hippopotamus.— 
Its  uncouth  Aspect.-^Rogue  Hippopotami.— Intelligence  of  the  Hippopotamus.— Uses  of  its 
Skin  and  Teeth.— Mode  of  Killing  the  Hippopotamus.— r/;e  Camel:  Its  Adaptation  to  the 
Tropical  Sand -Wastes.— Its  Physical  Organization  adapted  to  its  Mode  of  Life.— Its  Foot 
and  its  Stomach.— Its  Desert  Home.— The  Camel  and  the  Arab.— The  Two-Humped  and 
One-Humped  Camels.— The  Camel  an  immemorial  Serf.— Its  Aspect  and  Temper.— The 
Giraffe:  Beauty  of  the  Giraffe.— Its  Means  of  Defense.— Its  special  Organization.— The 
Lion  and  the  Giraffe. — Tlie  Giraffe  known  to  the  Ancients. — Zebra  and  Qnaggas:  Their 
Abundance  in  Southern  Africa.— Distinction  Between  the  Quagga  and  the  Zebra.— Capacity 
for  Domestication.— Their  Union  for  Defense.— The  Gnu,  the  Quagga,  and  the  Zebra.— The 
Zebra  the  Tiger-Horse  of  the  Ancients.— The  African  Boar.- The  Malayan  Babirusa.— 
Finis, 722 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAOE. 

1.  Esquimaux  Dog-team,      .     .     .     ,     .  1 

2.  The  Tundra  of  Siberia, 17 

3.  Indian  Summer  Encampment,  Alaska,  18 

4.  Rocks  and  Ice, .  20 

5.  Coast  of  Labrador, 21 

6.  Coast  of  Norway, 22 

7.  Arctic  Forest, 23 

8.  Verge  of  Forest  Region, 24 

9.  Forest  Conflagration, 26 

10.  Arctic  Clothing, 29 

11.  Arctic  Moonlight 80 

12.  Aurora  seen  in  Norway, 31 

13.  Aurora  seen  in  Greenland,    ....  32 

14.  Group  of  Reindeer, 35 

15.  Elks, 39 

16.  The  Musk-ox, 40 

17.  Argali, 41 

18.  The  Snowy  Owl, 43 

19.  Bernide  Goose, 44 

20.  The  Sea-eagle, 44 

21.  Arctic  Navigation 45 

22.*  Among  Hummocks, 46 

23.  Drifting  on  the  Ice, 47 

24.  Forms  of  Icebergs, 47 

2-5.  Gothic  Icebergs, 48 

26.  Pinnacle  Icebergs, 48 

27.  Icebergs  Aground, 49 

28.  Icebergs  and  Glacier,  Frobisher  Bay,  51 

29.  Glacier,  Bate  Inlet, 52 

30.  Scaling  an  Iceberg, 53 

31.  An  Arctic  Channel, 66 

32.  Open  Water, 57 

33.  Glacier  Discharging 58 

34.  The  Whale, 60 

35.  The  Narwhal, 61 

36.  Walruses  on  the  Ice 63 

37.  Homo  of  the  Polar  Bear, 66 

38.  The  Gull 67 

39.  Lava-fields, 68 

40.  Effigy  in  Lava, 70 

41.  The  Strokkr, 72 

42.  Entrance  to  the  Almaunagja,    ...  73 

43.  The  Almaunagja, 74 

44.  The  Hrafnagja, 75 

45.  The  Tintron  Rock, 75 

46.  Fall  of  the  Oxeraa, 76 

47.  Icelandic  Horses, 81 

48.  Shooting  Reindeer, 82 

49.  The  Eider-duck, 83 

50.  The  JyrMcon 85 

51.  The  Giant  Auk 86 

52.  Cathedral  at  Reykjavik, 89 

53.  Thingvalla,Logberg  and  Almaunagja,  92 

54.  Reykjavik,  the  Capital  of  Iceland,     .  98 

55.  Governor's  Residence,  Reykjavik,     .  99 

56.  Icelandic  Houses, 103 


90. 

91. 

92. 

93. 

94. 

95. 

96. 

97. 

98. 

99. 
100. 
101 
102. 
103. 
104. 
105. 
106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
110. 
111. 
112. 


PAQI. 

Church  at  Thingvalla,  ,  ...  .  .105 
The  Pastor's  House,  Thingvalla,  .  106 
The  Pastor  of  Thingvalla, ....  107 

Bridge  River,  Iceland, Ill 

Icelandic  Bog 118 

Coast  of  Iceland, 114 

Westman  Isles, 115 

Home  of  Sea-birds, 117 

Fishing  in  Norway, 120 

Norwegian  Farm, 122 

Steaming  Along  the  Coast,     .     .     .  123 

The  Puffin, 124 

The  Dovrefjeld 127 

Midnight  Sun  off  Spitzbergen,  .  .  131 
Magdalena  Bay,  Spitzbergen,  .     .     .  134 

Burial  in  Spitzbergen, 139 

Arctic  Fox, 140 

Chase  of  the  Walrus,  .  .  .  .  .143 
A  glimpse  of  Jan  Me^-eu's  Island,  .  145 

A  Samoiede  Priest, 179 

Banks  of  the  Irtysch, 185 

Group  of  Kirghis, 188 

View  of  Tagilsk,  .......  191 

The  Beach  at  Nicolayevsk,     .     .     .196 

On  the  Amoor, 197 

Village  on  the  Amoor, 198 

Koriak  Yourt, 199 

Kamchatka  Sables, 201 

Tartar  Encampment,      .     .     .     .     .  204 

Siberian  Peasant, 207 

View  of  Irkutsk, 209 

A  Jakut  Village 229 

Bering's  Monument  at  Petropavlosk,  248 
Church  at  Petropavlosk,     ....  254 

View  of  Petropavlosk, 257 

Dogs  Fishing 259 

Dog-team, 259 

Dogs  Towing  Boat, 260 

Frame-work  of  Tchuktchi  House,    .  262 

Tchuktchi  Canoe, 263 

Tchuktchi  Pipe, 264 

An  Aleut 208 

View  of  Sitka, 270 

A  Baidar, 272 

Fort  St.  Michael 277 

The  Frozen  Yukon, 279 

Under-ground  House, 280 

Fish-traps  on  the  Yukon,     ....  281 

Aurora  at  Nulato 282 

Breaking  up  of  the  Ice, 283 

Fort  Yukon, 285 

A  Deer  Corral 286 

Lip  Ornaments, 287 

A  Baidar 288 

Four-post  Coffin 288 

Tanana  Indian, .  289 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE. 

113.  Winter  Hut  of  Hunters,      .     .    .     .309 

114.  Fort   Edmonton,   North    Saskatche- 

wan  311 

11-5.  Trader's  Camp, 312 

116.  Swamp  formed  by  Deserted  Beaver 

Dam,      .     .     .     ; 314 

117.  Hunting  Bison  in  the  Snow,    .     .     .  319 

118.  Herd  of  Bison 320 

119.  Driving  Bison  over  a  Precipice, .     .  321 

120.  Watcliing  for  Crees, 322 

121.  A  Cree  Village, 324 

122.  The  Albatross, 396 

123.  Strait  of  Magellan 408 

124.  A  Highway  of  Commerce,      .     .     .  416 

125.  Patagonians 417 

126.  Coast  of  Fuegia, 42.5 

127.  Fuegian  Traders, 427 

128.  A  Fuegian  and  his  Food,    ....  429 

129.  Starvation  Beach 432 

130.  Surveying  iu  Greenland,     ....  433 

131.  Hall  and  Companions,  in  Innuit  Cos- 

tume  434 

1.32.  Kudlago, 436 

133.  Greenland  Currency, 437 

134.  Woman   and    Child.      (Drawn   and 

Engraved  by  an  Innuit,)  ....  438 

135.  Festival  of  the  Birthday  of  the  King 

of  Denmark 439 

1.36.  Preparing  Boot-soles, 440 

137.  Wreck  of  the  Rescue, 441 

138.  The  George  Henry  laid  up  for  the 

Winter, 442 

139.  Storm-bound, 443 

140.  Innuit  Stone  Lamp, 444 

141.  Fighting  for  Food, 445 

142.  Through  the  Snow, 446 

143.  Waiting  by  a  Seal-liole, 447 

144.  Looking  for  Seals, 448 

145.  Innuit  Strategy  to  Capture  a  Seal,  .  449 

146.  Seal-hole  and  Igloo, 450 

147.  Waiting  for  a  Blow, 450 

148.  Dog  and  Seal, 451 

149.  Spearing  through  the  Snow,    .     .     .  452 

150.  Dogs  and  Bear, 453 

I'ol.  Barbekark  and  the  Reindeer, .     .     .  454 
152.  Head  of  Reindeer, 454 


PAGE. 

153.  Spearing  the  Walrus, 455 

154.  Immit  Igloos, 455 

l.JD.  Walrus  Skull  and  Tusks,    .     .     ...  457 

156.  The  Woman's  Knife, 457 

157.  Innuit  Implements 458 

1-58.  Finding  the  Dead,      .     .     .     .     .     .  461 

1-39.  Innuit  Summer  Village,      ....  462 

160.  Returning  to  the  Ship, 463 

161.  Over  the  Ice, 464 

162.  The  Frozen  Sailor, 465 

163.  Farewell  of  the  Innuits,      ....  467 

164.  Elephants  Tied  Up, 470 

165.  Waterspout, 471 

166.  The  Puna  of  Peru, 481 

167.  Fountain  of  the  Incas, 488 

168.  Ascending  the  Andes 490 

169.  Cattle-Hunting  on  the  Pampas,   .     .  501 

170.  Natives  of  the  Kalahari,      ....  503 

171.  Igaripe,  or  Canoe-Path,  .....  514 

172.  Forest  on  Panama  Railroad,    .     .     .  526 

173.  Baobab   Tree,    with    the   Grave  of 

Mrs.  Livingston, 528 

174.  Avenue  of  Palms,  Rio  de  Janeiro,   .  539 

175.  Palms  on  the  Middle  Amazon,     .     .  543 

176.  Manufacture  of  Sago, 552 

177.  Siesta  on  the  Amazon, 554 

178.  Robber-Crab  of  the  Malay  Archipel- 

ago,     "    .     .     .     .  580 

179.  Leaf  Butterfly,      .     .    .     .     .     .     .583 

180.  Mosquito,  Natural  Size  and  Magni- 

fied,  ■.     .  585 

181.  A  Termite  Citadel,    .     ...     .     .     .603 

182   Aard  Vark  or  Earth-Hog,  ....  609 

183.  Rattlesnake  Charming  a  Rabbit,      .  622 

184.  Snake  Charming  a  Squirrel,    .     .     .  624 

185.  Killing  the  Snake— Central  Africa,     628 

186.  Alligator  and  Crane, 637 

187.  Natives  of  Aru  shooting  the  great 

Bird  of  Paradise, 654 

188.  African  Weaver-Birds, 660 

189.  Female  Gorilla  and  Young,     .     .     .680 

190.  Female  Orang-Outang,   .  "  .     .     .     .681 

191.  Lions  Pulling  Down  a  Giraffe,     .     .  699 

192.  An  Obstinate  Brute,  ......  720 

193.  A  Little  Head-Work 721 

194.  Chase  of  the  Wild  Boar,    ....  735 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


•J»*s, 


'0ti-' 


TUE   TUNDRA   OF   SIBERIA. 


CHAPTER  L 

THE   ARCTIC    LANDS. 

The  barren  Grounds  or  Tundri. — Abundance  of  animal  Life  on  the  Tundri  in  Summer.— Their  Silence 
and  Desolation  in  Winter. — Protection  afforded  to  Vegetation  by  the  Snow.— Flower-growth  in 
the  highest  Latitudes. — Character  of  Tundra  Vegetation. — Southern  Boundarj'-line  of  the  barren 
Grounds. — Their  Extent. — The  forest  Zone. — Arctic  Trees. — Slowness  of  tTieir  Growth. — Monotony 
of  the  Northern  Forests. — Mosquitoes. — The  various  Causes  which  determine  the  Severity  of  an 
Arctic  Climate. — Insular  and  Continental  Position. — Currents. — Winds. — Extremes  of  Cold  observed 
liy  Sir  E.  Belcher  and  Dr.  Kane.— How  is  Man  able  to  support  the  Rigors  of  an  Arctic  Winter?— 
Proofs  of  a  milder  Climate  having  once  reigned  in  the  Arctic  Regions. — Its  Cause  according  to 
Dr.  Oswald  Heer. — Peculiar  Beauties  of  the  Arctic  Regions. — Sunset,— Long  lunar  Nights.— Tlie 
Aurora. 

A  GLANCE  at  a  map  of  the  Arctic  regions  shows  us  that  many  of  the 
^-^  rivers  belonging  to  the  three  continents — Europe,  Asia,  America — dis- 
charge their  waters  into  the  Polar  Ocean  or  its  tributary  bays.  The  terri- 
tories drained  by  these  streams,  some  of  which  (such  as  the  Mackenzie,  the 
Yukon,  the  Lena,  the  Yenisei,  and  the  Obi)  rank  among  the  giant  rivers  of 
the  earth,  form,  along  with  the  islands  Avithin  or  near  the  Arctic  circle,  the 
vast  region  over  which  the  frost-king  reigns  suj^reme. 

Man  styles  himself  the  lord  of  the  earth,  and  may  with  some  justice  lay 
claim  to  the  title  in  more  genial  lands  where,  armed  with  the  plough,  he  com- 
pels the  soil  to  yield  hira  a  variety  of  fruits;   but  in  those  desolate  tracts 

2 


18 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


which  are  winter-bound  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  he  is  generally  a 
mere  wanderer  over  its  surface — a  hunter,  a  fisherman,  or  a  herdsman — and 
but  few  small  settlements,  separated  from  each  other  by  immense  deserts, 
give  proof  of  his  having  made  some  weak  attempts  to  establish  a  footing. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  with  precision  the  Umits  of  the  Arctic  lands,  since 
many  countries  situated  as  low  as  latitude  60°  or  even  50°,  such  as  South 
Greenland,  Labrador,  Alaska,  Kamchatka,  or  the  country  about  Lake  Baikal, 
have  hi  their  climate  and  productions  a  decidedly  Arctic  character,  while  others 
of  a  far  more  northern  position,  such  as  the  coast  of  Norway,  enjoy  even  in 
winter  a  remarkably  mild  temperature.  But  they  are  naturally  divided  into 
two  principal  and  well-marked  zones — that  of  the  forests,  and  that  of  the  tree- 
less wastes. 


~--^ 


INDIAN   &LMMER  E^C  VMI•ME^T,  ALV'.lvi. 


The  latter,  comprising  the  islands  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  form  a  belt,  more 
or  less  broad,  bounded  by  the  continental  shores  of  the  North  Polar  seas,  and 
gradually  merging  toward  the  south  into  the  forest-region,  which  encircles 
them  with  a  garland  of  evergreen  coniferne.  This  treeless  zone  bears  the 
name  of  the  "  barren  grounds,"  or  the  "  barrens,"  in  North  America,  and  of 
"tundri"  in  Siberia  and  European  Russia.  Its  want  of  trees  is  caused  not 
so  much  by  its  high  northern  latitude  as  by  the  cold  sea-winds  which  sweep 
imchecked  over  the  islands  or  the  flat  coast-lands  of  the  Polar  Ocean,  and 
for  miles  and  miles  compel  even  the  hardiest  plant  to  crouch  before  the  blast 
and  creep  along  the  ground. 

Nothing  can  be  more  melancholy  than  the  aspect  of  the  boundless  morasses 
or  arid  wastes  of  the  tundri.     Dingy  mosses  and  gray  lichens  form  the  chief 


THE   ARCTIC-  LANDS.  19 

veo"etation,  and  a  few  scanty  grasses  or  dwarfish  flowers  that  may  have  found 
a  refuije  in  some  more  sheltered  spot  are  unable  to  relieve  the  dull  monotony 
of  the  scene. 

In  winter,  when  animal  life  has  mostly  retreated  to  the  south'  or  sought  a 
refuo-e  in  burrows  or  in  caves,  an  awful  silence,  interrupted  only  by  the  hooting 
of  a  snow-owl  or  the  yelping  of  a  fox,  reigns  over  their  vast  expanse;  but  in 
spring,  when  the  brown  earth  reappears  from  under  the  melted  snow  and  the 
swamps  begin  to  thaw,  enormous  flights  of  wild  birds  appear  upon  the  scene 
and  enliven  it  for  a  few  months.  An  admirable  instinct  leads  their  winged 
legions  from  distant  climes  to  the  Arctic  wildernesses,  where  in  the  morasses 
or  lakes,  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  on  the  flat  strands,  or  along  the  fish-teem- 
ing coasts,  they  find  an  abundance  of  food,  and  where  at  the  same  time  they 
can  with  greater  security  build  their  nests  and  rear  their  young.  Some  re- 
main on  the  skirts  of  the  forest-region  ;  others,  flying  farther  northward,  lay 
their  eggs  upon  the  naked  tundra.  Eagles  and  hawks  follow  the  traces  of  the 
natatorial  and  strand  birds;  troops  of  ptarmigans  roam  among  the  stunted 
bushes ;  and  when  the  sun  shines,  the  finch  or  the  snow-bunting  warbles  his 
merry  note. 

While  thus  the  warmth  of  summer  attracts  hosts  of  migratory  birds  to  the 
Arctic  wildernesses,  shoals  of  salmon  and  sturgeons  enter  the  rivers  in  obe- 
dience to  the  instinct  that  forces  them  to  quit  the  seas  and  to  swim  stx'eam 
upward,  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  their  spawn  in  the  tranquil  sweet  wa- 
ters of  the  stream  or  lake.  About  this  time  also  the  reindeer  leaves  the 
forests  to  feed  on  the  herbs  and  lichens  of  the  tundra,  and  to  seek  along  the 
shores  fanned  by  the  cooled  sea-breeze  some  protection  against  the  attacks  of 
the  stinging  flies  that  rise  in  myriads  from  the  swamps.  Thus  during  several 
months  the  tundra  presents  an  animated  scene,  in  which  man  also  plays  his 
part.  The  birds  of  the  air,  the  fishes  of  the  water,  the  beasts  of  the  earth,  are 
all  obliged  to  pay  their  tribute  to  his  various  wants,  to  aj^pease  his  hunger,  to 
clothe  his  body,  or  to  gratify  his  greed  of  gain. 

But  as  soon  as  the  first  frosts  of  September  announce  the  approach  of  wm- 
ter,  all  animals,  with  but  few  exceptions,  hasten  to  leave  a  region  Avhere  the 
sources  of  life  must  soon  fail.  The  geese,  ducks,  and  swans  return  in  dense 
flocks  to  the  south ;  the  strand-birds  seek  in  some  lower  latitude  a  softer  soil 
which  allows  their  sharp  beak  to  seize  a  burrowing  prey ;  the  water-fowl  for- 
sake the  bays  and  channels  that  will  soon  be  blocked  up  with  ice ;  the  reindeer 
once  more  return  to  the  forest,  and  in  a  short  time  nothing  is  left  that  can  in- 
duce man  to  prolong  his  stay  in  the  treeless  plain.  Soon  a  thick  mantle  of 
snow  covers  the  hardened  earth,  the  frozen  lake,  the  ice-bound  rivei',  and  con- 
ceals them  all — seven,  eight,  nine  months  long — under  its  monotonous  pall, 
except  Avhere  the  furious  north-east  wind  sweeps  it  away  and  lays  bare  the 
naked  rock. 

This  snow,  which  after  it  has  once  fallen  persists  until  the  long  summer's 
day  has  effectually  thawed  it,  protects  in  an  admirable  manner  the  vegetation 
of  the  higher  latitudes  against  the  cold  of  the  long  winter  season.  For  snow 
is  so  bad  a  conductor  of  heat,  that  in  mid-winter  in  the  high  latitude  of  T8^ 


THE   POLAR  WORLD. 


ROCKS   AND   ICE. 


50'  (Rensselaer  Bay),  while  the  surface  temperature  was  as  low  as  —30°,  Kane 
found  at  two  feet  deep  a  temperature  of  -  8°,  at  four  feet  +2°,  and  at  eight 
feet  +  20°,  or  no  more  than  six  degrees  below  the  freezing-point  of  water. 
Thus  covered  by  a  warm  crystal  snow-mantle,  the  northern  plants  pass  the  long 
winter  in  a  comparatively  mild  temperature,  high  enough  to  maintain  their  life, 
while,  without,  icy  blasts— capable  of  converting  mercury  in^to  a  solid  body — 
howl  over  the  naked  wilderness ;  and  as  the  first  snow-falls  are  more  cellular 
and  less  condensed  than  the  nearly  impalpable  powder  of  winter,  Kane  justly 
observes  that  no  "  eider-down  in  the  cradle  of  an  infant  is  tucked  in  more 
kindly  than  the  sleeping-dress  of  winter  about  the  feeble  plant-life  of  the  Arc- 
tic zone."  Thanks  to  this  protection,  and  to  the  influence  of  a  sun  which  for 
months  circles  abote  the  horizon,  and  in  favorable  localities  calls  forth  the  pow- 
ers of  vegetation  in  an  incredibly  short  time,  even  Washington,  Grinnell  Land, 
and  Spitzbergen  are  able  to  boast  of  flowers.  Morton  jDlucked  a  crucifer  at 
Cape  Constitution  (80°  45'  N.  lat.),  and,  on  the  banks  of  Mary  Minturn  River 
(78°  52'),  Kane  came  across  a  flower-growth  which,  though  drearily  Arctic  in 
its  type,  was  rich  in  variety  and  coloring.  Amid  festuca  and  other  tufted 
grasses  twinkled  the  purple  lychnis  and  the  white  star  of  the  chickweed ;  and, 
not  without  its  pleasing  associations,  he  recognized  a  solitary  hesperis — the 
Arctic  representative  of  the  wall-flowers  of  home. 

Next  to  the  lichens  and  mosses,  which  form  the  chief  vegetation  of  the 
treeless  zone,  the  cruciferje,  the  grasses,  the  saxifragas,  the  caryophylla?,  and 
the  compositfe  are  the  families  of  plants  most  largely  represented  in  the  barren 
grounds  or  tundri.  Though  vegetation  becomes  more  and  more  uniform  on 
advancing  to  the  north,  yet  the  number  of  individual  plants  does  not  decrease. 


THE  ARCTIC   LANDS.  21 

When  the  soil  is  moderately  dry,  the  surface  is  covered  by  a  dense  carpet  of 
lichens  {Cormcularice),  mixed  in  damper  spots  with  Icelandic  moss.  In  more 
tenacious  soils,  other  plants  flourish,  not  however  to  the  exclusion  of  lichens,  ex- 
cept in  tracts  of  meadow  ground,  which  occur  in  sheltered  situations  or  in  the 


COAST   OF   LABKADOK. 


alluvial   inundated  flats  where  tall  reed-grasses  or  dwarf  Avillows   frequently 
grow  as  closely  as  they  can  stand. 

It  naay  easil}-  be  supposed  that  the  boundary-Une  which  separates  the  tnn- 
dri  from  the  forest  zone  is  both  indistinct  and  irregular.  In  some  parts  where 
the  cold  sea-winds  have  a  wider  range,  the  barren  grounds  encroach  consider- 


23  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

ably  upon  the  limits  of  the  forests  ;  in  others,  where  the  configuration  of  the 
laud  prevents  their  action,  the  woods  advance  farther  to  the  north. 

Thus  the  barren  grounds  attain  their  most  southerly  limit  in  Labrador, 
where  they  descend  to  latitude  57°,  and  this  is  sufficiently  explained  by  the 
position  of  that  bleak  peninsula,  bounded  on  three  sides  by  icy  seas,  and  washed 
by  cold  currents  from  the  north.  On  the  opposite  coasts  of  Hudson's  Bay 
they  begin  about  60°,  and  thence  gradually  rise  toward  the  mouth  of  the 
Mackenzie,  where  the  forests  advance  as  high  as  68°,  or  even  still  farther  to  the 
north  along  the  low  banks  of  that  river.  From  the  Mackenzie  the  barrens 
again  descend  until  they  reach'  Bering's  Sea  in  65°  N.  On  the  opposite  or 
Asiatic  shore,  in  the  land  of  the  Tchuktchi,  they  begin  again  more  to  the  south, 
in  63°,  thence  continually  rise  as  far  as  the  Lena,  where  Anjou  found  trees  in 
71°  N.,  and  then  fall  again  toward  the  Obi,  where  the  forests  do  not  even  reach 
the  Arctic  circle.  'From  the  Obi  the  tundri  retreat  farther  and  farther  to  the 
north,  until  finally,  on  the  coasts  of  Norway,  in  latitude  70°,  they  terminate 
with  the  land  itself. 

Hence  we  see  that  the  treeless  zone  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America  occupies 
a  space  larger  than  the  whole  of  Europe.  Even  the  African  Sahara,  or  the 
Pampas  of  South  America,  are  inferior  in  extent  to  the  Siberian  tundri.  But 
the  possession  of  a  few  hundred  square  miles  of  fruitful  territory  on  the  south- 
western frontiers  of  his  vast  empire  would  be  of  greater  value  to  the  Czar  than 
that  of  those  boundless  wastes,  which  are  tenanted  only  by  a  few  wretched 
pastoral  tribes,  or  some  equally  wretched  fishermen. 

The  Arctic  forest-regions  are  of  a  still  greater  extent  than  the  vast  treeless 
plains  which  they  encircle.     When  we  consider  that  they  form  an  almost  con- 


COAST  OF  NORWAY. 


THE  ARCTIC   LANDS, 


'^^-J^^m^^^ 


tinuous  belt,  stretching  through  three  jiarts  of  the  A\orId,  in  ii  breaJtli  of  from 
15°  to  20°,  even  the  woods  of  the  Amazon,  which  cover  a  surface  fifteen  times 
greater  than  that  of  the  United  Kingdom,  shrink  into  comparative  insignifi- 
cance. Unlike  the  tropical  forests,  which  are  characterized  by  an  immense 
variety  of  trees,  these  northern  woods  are  almost  entirely  composed  of  couif- 
erse,  and  one  single  kind  of  fir  or  piue  often  covers  an  immense  extent  of 


24 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


ground.     The  Europeaii  and  Asiatic  species  differ,  however,  from  those  whicli 
grow  in  America. 

Thus  in  the  Russian  empire  and  Scandinavia  we  find  the  Scotch  fir  {Plnus 
sijlvestrls),  tlie  Siberian  fir  and  larch  {Ahies  sibirica,  Larix  sibirica),  the  Plcea 
obovata,  and  the  Pbms  cembra ;  while  in  the  Hudson's  Bay  territories  the 
woods  principally  consist  of  the  white  and  black  spruce  {Abies  alba  and 
nigra),  the  Canadian  larch  {Zarix  canadensis,  and  the  gray  pine  {Pinus 
banJ^siana).  In  both  continents  birch-trees  grow  farther  to  the  north  than 
the  conifers?,  and  the  dwarf  willows  form  dense  thickets  on  the  shores  of  every 
river  and  lake.  Various  species  of  the  service-tree,  the  ash,  and  the  elder  are 
also  met  with  in  the  Arctic  forests ;  and  both  under  the  shelter  of  the  woods 
and  beyond  their  limits,  nature,  as  if  to  compensate  for  the  want  of  fruit-trees, 
produces  in  fi^vorable  localities  an  abundance  of  bilberries,  bogberries,  cran- 
berries, etc.  {EmpetTum,  Vaecinium),  whose  fruit  is  a  great  boon  to  man  and 
beast.  When  congealed  by  the  autumnal  frosts,  the  berries  frequently  remain 
hanging  on  the  bushes  until  the  snow  melts  in  the  following  June,  and  are 
then  a  considerable  resource  to  the  flocks  of  water-fowl  migrating  to  their 
northern  breeding-places,  or  to  the  bear  awakening  from  his  winter  sleep. 


VERGE  OF  FOREST  REGION. 


THE   ARCTIC   LANDS.  25 

Another  distinctive  cli.ivacter  of  the  forests  of  tlie  liigh  bititiules  is  their 
apparent  youth,  so  that  generally  the  traveller  would  hardly  suppose  them  to 
be  more  than  fifty  years,  or  at  most  a  century  old.  Their  juvenile  appearance 
increases  on  advancing  northward,  until  suddenly  their  decrepit  age  is  re- 
vealed by  the  thick  bushes  of  lichens  which  clothe  or  hang  down  from  their 
shrivelled  boughs.  Farther  to  the  south,  large  trees  are  found  scattered  here 
and  there,  but  not  so  numerous  as  to  modify  the  general  appearance  of  the 
forest,  and  even  these  are  mere  dwarfs  when  compared  with  the  gigantic  firs 
of  more  temperate  climates.  This  phenomenon  is  sufficiently  explained  by  the 
shortness  of  the  summer,  which,  though  able  to  bring  forth  new  shoots,  does 
not  last  long  enough  for  the  formation  of  wood.  Hence  the  growth  of  trees 
becomes  slower  and  slower  on  advancing  to  the  north  ;  so  that  on  the  banks 
of  the  Great  Bear  Lake,  for  instance,  400  years  are  necessary  for  the  formation 
of  a  trunk  not  thicker  than  a  man's  waist.  Toward  the  confines  of  the  tundra, 
the  woods  are  reduced  to  stunted  stems,  covered  with  blighted  buds  that  have 
been  unable  to  develop  themselves  into  branches,  and  which  prove  by  their 
numbers  how  frequently  and  how  vainly  they  have  striven  against  the  wind, 
until  finally  the  last  remnants  of  arboreal  vegetation,  vanquished  by  the  blasts 
of  Avinter,  seek  refuge  under  a  carpet  of  lichens  and  mosses,  from  which  their 
annual  shoots  hardly  venture  to  peep  forth, 

A  third  peculiarity  which  distinguishes  the  forests  of  the  north  from  those 
of  the  tropical  world  is  what  may  be  called  their  hai'mless  character.  There 
the  traveller  finds  none  of  those  noxious  plants  whose  juices  contain  a  deadly 
poison,  and  even  thorns  and  prickles  are  of  rare  occui-rence.  No  venomous 
snake  glides  through  the  thicket ;  no  crocodile  lurks  in  the  swamp ;  and  the 
northern  beasts  of  prey — the  bear,  the  lynx,  the  wolf — are  far  less  dangerous 
and  blood-thirsty  than  the  large  felida  of  the  torrid  zone. 
■  The  comparatively  small  number  of  animals  living  in  the  Arctic  forests 
corresponds  with  the  monotony  of  their  vegetation.  Here  we  should  seek  in 
vain  for  that  immense  variety  of  insects,  or  those  troops  of  gaudy  birds  which 
in  the  Brazilian  woods  excite  the  admiration,  and  not  unfrequently  cause  the 
despair  of  the  wanderer ;  here  we  should  in  vain  expect  to  hear  the  clamorous 
voices  that  resound  in  the  tropical  thickets.  No  noisy  monkeys  or  quarrel- 
some parrots  settle  on  the  branches  of  the  trees ;  no  shrill  cicadoe  or  melan- 
choly goat-suckers  interrupt  the  solemn  stillness  of  the  night ;  the  howl  of  the 
hungry  wolf,  or  the  hoarse  screech  of  some  solitary  bird  of  prey,  are  almost 
the  only  sounds  that  ever  disturb  the  repose  of  these  awful  solitudes.  When 
the  tropical  hurricane  sweeps  over  the  virgin  forests,  it  awakens  a  thousand 
voices  of  alarm ;  but  the  Arctic  storm,  however  furiously  it  may  blow,  scarce- 
ly calls  forth  an  echo  from  the  dismal  shades  of  the  pine-woods  of  the  north. 

In  one  respect  only  the  forests  and  swamps  of  the  northern  regions  vie  in 
abundance  of  animal  life  with  those  of  the  equatorial  zone,  for  thQ  legions  of 
gnats  which  the  short  polar  summer  calls  forth  from  the  Arctic  morasses  are  a 
no  less  intolerable  plague  than  the  mosquitoes  of  the  tropical  marshes. 

Though  agriculture  encroaches  but  little  upon  the  Arctic  woods,  yet  the 
agency  of  man  is  gradually  working  a  change  in  their  aspect.     Large  tracts  of 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


forest  are  continually  Avasted  by  extensive  fires,  kindled  accidentally  or  inten- 
tionally, which  spread  with  rapidity  over  a  wide  extent  of  country,  and  con- 


tinue to  burn  until  they  are  extinguished  b}-  a  heavy  rain.  Sooner  or  later  a 
new  growth  of  timber  springs  up,  but  the  soil,  being  generally  enriched  and 
saturated  with  alkali,  now  no  longer  brings  forth  its  aboriginal  firs,  but  gives 
birth  to  a  thicket  of  beeches  {Betula  alba)  in  Asia,  or  of  aspens  in  America. 


THE  ARCTIC  LANDS.  27 

The  line  of  perpetual  snow  may  naturally  be  expected  to  descend  lower  and 
lower  on  advancing  to  the  pole,  and  hence  many  mountainous  regions  or  ele- 
vated plateaux,  such  as  the  interior  of  Spitzbergen,  of  Greenland,  of  Nova 
Zembla,  etc.,  which  in  a  more  temperate  clime  would  be  verdant  with  woods 
or  meadows,  are  here  covered  with  vast  fields  of  ice,  from  which  frequently 
glaciers  descend  down  to  the  verge  of  the  sea.  But  even  in  the  highest  north- 
ern latitudes,  no  land  has  yet  been  found  covered  as  far  as  the  water's  edge 
with  eternal  snow,  or  where  winter  has  entirely  subdued  the  poAvers  of  vegeta- 
tion. The  reindeer  of  Spitzbergen  find  near  80°  N.  lichens  or  grasses  to  feed 
upon  ;  in  favorable  seasons  the  snow  melts  by  the  end  of  June  on  the  plains  of 
Melville  Island,  and  numerous  lemmings,  requiring  vegetable  food  for  their  sub- 
sistence, inhabit  the  deserts  of  New  Siberia.  As  far  as  man  has  reached  to  the 
north,  vegetation,  when  fostered  by  a  sheltered  situation  and  the  refraction  of 
solar  heat  from*  the  rocks,  has  everywhere  been  found  to  rise  to  a  considerable 
altitude  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  and  should  there  be  land  at  the  North  Pole, 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  destitute  neither  of  animal  nor  vege- 
table life.  It  would  be  equally  erroneous  to  suppose  that  the  cold  of  winter  in- 
variably increases  as  we  near  the  pole,  as  the  temperature  of  a  land  is  influ- 
enced by  many  other  causes  besides, its  latitude.  Even  in  the  most  northern 
regions  hitherto  visited  by  man,  the  influence  of  the  sea,  particularly  when  fa- 
vored by  wai-m  currents,  is  found,  to  mitigate  the  severity  of  the  Avinter, 'while 
at  the  same  time  it  diminishes  the  warmth  of  summer.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  large  continental  tracts  of  Asia  or  America  that  shelve  toward  the  pole 
have  a  more  intense  winter  cold  and  a  far  greater  summer's  heat  than  many 
coast-lands  or  islands  situated  far  neai-er  to  the  pole.  Thus,  to  cite  but  a  few 
examples,  the  western  shores  of  Nova  Zembla,  fronting  a  wide  expanse  of  s*ea, 
have  an  average  winter  temperature  of  only  —4°,  and  a  mean  summer  temper- 
ature but  little  above  the  freezing-point  of  water  (+36^°),  while  Jakutsk,  sit- 
uated in  the  heart  of  Siberia,  and  20°  nearer  to  the  Equator,  has  a  winter  of 
—36°  6',  and  a  summer  of  -f  66°  6'. 

The  influence  of  the  winds  is  likewise  of  considerable  importance  in  de- 
termining the  greater  or  lesser  severity  of  an  Arctic  climate.  Thus  the  north- 
erly winds  which  prevail  in  Bafiin's  Bay  and  Davis's  Straits  during  the  sum- 
mer months,  and  fill  the  straits  of  the  American  north-eastern  Archipelago  with 
ice,  are  probably  the  main  cause  of  the  abnormal  depression  of  temperature  in 
that  quarter ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  southerly  winds  that  prevail  during 
summer  in  the  valley  of  the  Mackenzie  tend  greatly  to  extend  the  forest  of 
that  favored  region  nearly  down  to  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea.  Even  in  the 
depth  of  a  Siberian  winter,  a  sudden  change  of  wind  is  able  to  raise  the  ther- 
mometer from  a  mercury-congealing  cold  to  a  temperature  above  the  freezing- 
point  of  water,  and  a  warm  wind  has  been  known  to  cause  ram  to  fall  in  Spitz- 
bergen in  the  month  of  January. 

The  voyages  of  Kane  and  Belchef-  have  made  us  acquainted  with  the  low- 
est temperatures  ever  felt  by  man.  On  Feb.  5,  1854,  while  the  former  -was 
wintering  in  Smith's  Sound  (78°  37'  N.  lat.),  the  mean  of  his  best  spirit-ther- 
mometer  showed  the    unexampled  temperature  of  —08"  or    100°  below  the 


28  THE    POLAR   WORLD. 

freezing-point  of  water.  Then  chloric  ether  became  solid,  and  carefully  pre- 
pared chloroform  exhibited  a  granular  pellicle  on  its  surface.  The  exhalations 
from  the  skin  invested  the  exposed  or  partially  clad  parts  with  a  wreath  of 
vapor.  The  air  had  a  perceptible  pungency  upon  inspiration,  and  every  one, 
as  it  were  involuntarily,  breathed  guardedly  with  compressed  lips.  About  the 
same  time  (February  9  and  10,  1854),  Sir  E.  Belcher  experienced  a  cold  of 
—55°  in  Wellington  Channel  (75°  31'  N.),  and  the  still  lower  temperature  of 

—  62°  on  January  13,  1853,  in  Northumberland  Sound  (76°  52'  K).  Whym- 
per,  on  December  6,  1866,  experienced  —58  at  Nulatto,  Alaska  (64°  42'  N.). 

Whether  the  temperature  of  the  air  descends  still  lower  on  advancing  to- 
Avard  the  pole,  or  whether  these  extreme  degrees  of  cold  are  not  sometimes 
surpassed  in  those  mountainous  regions  of  the  north  which,  though  seen,  have 
never  yet  been  explored,  is  of  course  an  undecided  question :  so  much  is  cer- 
tain, that  the  observations  hitherto  made  during  the  winter  of  the  Arctic  re- 
gions have  been  limited  to  too  short  a  time,  and  are  too  few  in  number,  to  en- 
able us  to  determine  with  any  degree  of  certainty  those  points  where  the 
greatest  cold  prevails.  All  we  know  is,  that  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle,  and 
eight  or  ten  degrees  farther  to  the  south  in  the  interior  of  the  continents  of 
Asia  and  America,  the  average  temperaturg  of  the  winter  generally  ranges  from 

—  20°  to  —30°,  or  even  lower,  and  for  a  great  part  of  the  year  is  able  to  con- 
vert mercury  into  a  solid  body. 

It  may  well  be  asked  how  man  is  able  to  bear  the  excessively  low  tempera- 
ture of  an  Arctic  winter,  which  must  appear  truly  appalling  to  an  inhabitant 
of  the  temperate  zone.  A  thick  fur  clothing ;.  a  hut  small  and  low,  where  the 
warmth  of  a  fire,  or  simply  of  a  train-oil  lamp,  is  husbanded  in  a  narrow  space, 
and,  above  all,  the  wonderful  power  of  the  human  constitution  to  accommodate 
itself  to  every  change  of  climate,  go  far  to  counteract  the  rigor  of  the  cold. 

After  a  very  few  days  the  body  develops  an  increasing  warmth  as  the  ther- 
mometer descends ;  for  the  air  being  condensed  by  the  cold,  the  lungs  inhale 
at  every  bx-eath  a  greater  quantity  of  oxygen,  Avhich  of  course  accelerates  the 
internal  process  of  combustion,  Avhile  at  the  same  time  an  increasing  appetite, 
gratified  with  a  copious  supply  of  animal  food,  of  flesh  and  fat,  enriches  the 
blood  and  enables  it  to  circulate  more  vigorously.  Thus  not  only  the  hardy 
native  of  the  north,  but  even  the  healthy  traveller  soon  gets  accustomed  to 
bear  without  injury  the  rigors  of  an  Arctic  winter. 

"  The  mysterious  compensations,"  says  Kane,  "  by  which  we  adapt  our- 
selves to  climate  are  more  striking  here  than  in  the  tropics.  In  the  Polar  zone 
the  assault  is  immediate  and  sudden,  and,  unlike  the  insidious  fatality  of  hot 
countries,  produces  its  results  rapidly.  It  requires  hardly  a  single  winter  to 
tell  who  are  to  be  the  heat-making  and  acclimatized  men.  Petersen,  for  in- 
stance,  who  has  resided  for  two  years  at  Upernavik,  seldom  enters  a  room  with 
a  fire.  Another  of  our  party,  George  Piley,  with  a  vigorous  constitution,  es- 
tablished habits  of  free  exposure,  and  Active  cheerful  temperament,  has  so 
inured  himself  to  the  cold,  that  he  sleeps  on  our  sledge  journeys  without  a 
blanket  or  any  other  covering  than  his  walking  suit,  while  the  outside  tem- 
perature is  —30°." 


THE   ARCTIC   LANDS.  29 

There  are  many  proofs  that  a  juikler  chniate  once  reigned  in  the  nortliern 
regions  of  the  globe.     Fossil  pieces  of  Avood,  petrified  acorns   and  fir-cones 


ARCTIC    CLOTHING. 


have  been  found  in  the  interior  of  Banks's  Land  by  M'Clure's  sledging-parties. 
At  Anakerdluk,  in  North  Greenland  (70°  N.),  a  large  forest  lies  buried  on  a 
mountain  surrounded  by  glaciers,  1080  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Not 
only  the  trunks  and  branches,  but  even  the  leaves,  fruit-cones,  and  seeds  have 
been  preserved  in  the  soil,  and  enable  the  botanist  to  determine  the  species  of 
the  plants  to  which  they  belong.  They  show  that,  besides  firs  and  sequoias, 
oaks,  plantains,  elms,  magnolias,  and  even  laurels,  indicating  a  climate  such  as 
that  of  Lausanne  or  Geneva,  flourished  during  the  miooene  period  in  a  coun- 
try where  now  even  the  willow  is  compelled  to  creep  along  the  ground.  Dur- 
ing the  same  epoch  of  the  earth's  history  Spitzbergen  was  likewise  covered 
with  stately  forests.  The  same  poplars  and  the  same  swamp-cypress  (Taxo- 
dium  dubium)  which  then  flourished  in  North  Greenland  have  been  found  in 
a  fossilized  state  at  Bell  Sound  {10,°  N.)  by  the  Swedish  naturalists,  who  also 
discovered  a  plantain  and  a  linden  as  high  as  78°  and  79°  in  King's  Bay — a 
proof  that  in  those  times  the  climate  of  Spitzbergen  can  not  have  been  colder 


30  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

than  tbat  which  now  reigns  in  Southern  Sweden  and  Norway,  eighteen  degrees 
nearer  to  the  line. 

We  know  that  at  present  the  fir,  the  poplar,  and  the  beech  grow  fifteen  de- 
grees farther  to  the  north  than  the  plantain — and  the  miocene  period  no  doubt 
exhibited  the  same  proportion.  Thus. the  poplars  and  firs  which  then  grew 
in  Spitzbergen  along  with  plantains  and  lindens  must  have  ranged  as  far  as 
the  pole  itself,  supposing  that  point  to  be  dry  land. 

In  the  miocene  times  the  Arctic  zone  evidently  presented  a  very  different 
aspect  from  that  which  it  wears  at  present.  Now,  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  year,  an  immense  glacial  desert,  which  through  its  floating  bergs  and  drift- 
ice  depresses  the  temperature  of  countries  situated  far  to  the  south,  it  then 
consisted  of  verdant  lands  covered  with  luxuriant  forests  and  bathed  by  an 
open  sea. 

What  may  have  been  the  cause  of  these  amazing  changes  of  climate  ?  The 
readiest  answer  "seems  to  be — a  different  distribution  of  sea  and  land ;  but 
there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  in  the  miocene  times  there  was  less  land  in 
the  Arctic  zone  than  at  present,  nor  can  any  possible  combination  of  w^ater  and 
dry  land  be  imagined  sufiicient  to  account  for  the  growth  of  laurels  in  Green- 
land or  of  plantains  in  Spitzbergen.  Dr.  Oswald  Heer  is  inclined  to  seek  for 
an  explanation  of  the  phenomenon,  not  in  mere  local  terrestrial  changes,  but  in 
a  difference  of  the  earth's  position  in  the  heavens. 

We  now  know  that  our  sun,  with  his  attendant  planets  and  satellites,  per- 


ARCTIC   MOONLIGHT. 


forms  a  vast  circle,  embracing  perhaps  huudreds  of  thousands  of  years,  round 
another  star,  and  that  we  are  constantly  entering  new  regions  of  space  untrav- 


THE   ARCTIC   LANDS.  31 

elled  by  our  earth  before.  We  come  from  the  unknown,  and  phmge  into  the 
unknown  ;  but  so  much  is  certain,  that  our  solar  system  rolls  at  present  through 
a  space  but  thinly  peopled  with  stars,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  it 
may  once  have  wandered  through  one  of  those  celestial  provinces  where,  as 
the  telescope  shows  us,  constellations  are  far  more  densely  clustered.  But, 
as  every  star  is  a  blazing  sun,  the  greater  or  lesser  number  of  these  heavenly 
bodies  must  evidentljlhave  a  proportionate  influence  upon  the  temperature  of 
space;  and  thus  we  may  suppose  that  during  the  miocene  period  our  earth, 
being  at  that  time  in  a  populous  sidereal  region,  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  a 
higher  temperature,  which  clothed  even  its  poles  with  verdure.  In  the  course 
of  ages  the  sun  conducted  his  herd  of  planets  into  more  solitary  and  colder 
regions,  which  caused  the  warm  miocene  times  to  be  followed  by  the  glacial 
period,  during  which  the  Swiss  flat  lands  bore  an  Arctic  character,  and  finally 


AURORA   SEEN   IN   NORWAY. 


the  sun  emerged  into  a  space  of  an  intermediate  character,  Avhich  determines 
the  present  condition  of  the  climates  of  our  globe. 

Though  Nature  generally  wears  a  more  stern  and  forbidding  aspect  on  ad- 
vancing toward  the  pole,  yet  the  high  latitudes  have  many  beauties  of  their 


32 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


EN    IN-   GKEENLAND. 


own.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  magnificence  of  an  Arctic  sunset,  clothing  the 
snow-clad  mountains  and  the  skies  with  all  the  glories  of  color,  or  be  more 
serenely  beautiful  than  the  clear  star-light  night,  illumined  by  the  brilliant 
moon,  which  for  days  continually  circles  around  the  horizon,  never  setting  until 


THE   ARCTIC   LxVNDS.  33 

she  has  run  her  long  course  of  brightness.  The  uniform  Avhiteness  of  the  land- 
scape and  the  general  transparency  of  the  atmosphere  add  to  the  lustre  of  her 
beams,  which  serve  the  natives  to  guide  their  nomadic  life,  aUd  to  lead  them 
to  their  hunting-grounds. 

But  of  all  the  magnificent  si^ectacles  that  relieve  the  monotonous  gloom  of 
the  Arctic  winter,  there  is  none  to  equal  the  magical  beauty  of  the  Aurora. 
Night  covers  the  §now-clad  earth ;  the  stars  glimmer  feebly  through  the  haze 
which  so  frequently  dims  their  brilliancy  in  the  high  latitudes,  Avhen  suddenly 
a  broad  and  clear  bow  of  light  spans  the  horizon  in  the  dii-ection  where  it  is 
traversed  by  the  magnetic  meridian.  This  bow  sometimes  remains  for  several 
hours,  heaving  or  waving  to  and  fro,  before  it  sends  forth  streams  of  light 
ascending  to  the  zenith.  Sometimes  these  flashes  proceed  from  the  bow  of 
light  alone;  at  others  they  simultaneously  shoot  forth  from  many  opposite 
parts  of  the  horizon,  and  form  a  vast  sea  of  fire  whose  brilliant  waves  are  con- 
tinually changing  their  position.  Finally  they  all  unite  in  a  magnificent  crown 
or  copula  of  light,  with  the  appearance  of  which  the  phenomenon  attains  its 
highest  degree  of  splendor.  The  brilliancy  of  the  streams,  which  are  com- 
monly red  at  their  base,  green  in  the  middle,  and  light  yellow  toward  the 
zenith,  increases,  while  at  the  same  time  they  dart  Avith  greater  vivacity  through 
the  skies.  The  colors  are  wonderfully  transparent,  the  red  approaching  to  a 
clear  blood-red,  the  green  to  a  pale  emerald  tint.  On  turning  from  the  flaming 
firmament  to  the  earth,  this  also  is  seen  to  glow  with  a  magical  light.  The 
dark  sea,  black  as  jet,  forms  a  striking  contrast  to  the  white  snow-plain  or  the 
distant  ice-mountain ;  all  the  outlines  tremble  as  if  they  belonged  to  the 
unreal  world  of  dreams.  The  imposing  silence  of  the  night  heightens  the 
charms  of  the  magnificent  spectacle. 

But  gradually  the  crown  fades,  the  bow  of  light  dissolves,  the  streams  be- 
come shorter,  less  frequent,  and  less  vivid  ;  and  finally  the  gloom  of  winter 
once  more  descends  upon  the  northern  desert. 

3 


34  THE  POLAR   WORLD. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ARCTIC  LAND  QUADRUPEDS  AND  BIRDS. 

The  Eeindeer.— Structure  of  its  Foot.— Clattering  Noise  when  talking.— Antlers.— Extraordinary 
olfactorj'  Powers.— The  Icelandic  JIoss. —Present  and  Former  Eange  of  the  Reindeer. — Its  invalu- 
able Qualities  as  an  Arctic  domestic  Animal.— Revolts  against  Oppression.— Enemies  of  the  Rein- 
deer.—The  Wolf.— The  Glutton  or  "Wolverine.— Gad-flies.— The  Elk  or  Moose-deer. — The  Musk- 
ox. — The  Wild  Sheep  of  the  Rock}'  Mountains. — The  Siberian  Argali. — The  Arctic  Fox.— Its  Bur- 
rows.— The  Lemmings.— Their  Migrations  and  Enemies.— Arctic  Anatidae. — The  Snow-bunting.— 
The  Lapland  Bunting.— The  Sea-eagle.— Drowned  by  a  Dolphin. 

THE  reindeer  may  well  be  called  the  camel  of  the  northern  wastes,  for  it  is 
a  no  less  valuable  companion  to  the  Laplander  or  to  the  Samojede  than  the 
"  ship  of  the  desert "  to  the  wandering  Bedouin.  It  is  the  only  member  of  the 
■  numerous  deer  family  that  has  been  domesticated  by  man ;  but  though  un- 
doubtedly the  most  useful,  it  is  by  no  means  the  most  comely  of  its  race.  Its 
clear,  dark  eye  "has,  indeed,  a  beautiful  expression,  but  it  has  neither  the  noble 
proportions  of  the  stag  nor  the  grace  of  the  roebuck,  and  its  thick  square-form- 
ed body  is  far  from  being  a  model  of  elegance.  Its  legs  are  short  and  thick, 
its  feet  broad,  but  extremely  well  adapted  for  walking  over  the  snow  or  on  a 
swampy  ground.  The  front  hoofs,  which  are  capable  of  great  lateral  expansion, 
curve  upward,  while  the  two  secondary  ones  behind  (which  are  but  slightly 
developed  in  the  fallow  deer  and  other  members  of  the  family)  are  considera- 
bly prolonged :  a  structure  which,  by  giving  the  animal  a  broader  base  to  stand 
upon,  prevents  it  from  sinking  too  deeply  into  the  snow  or  the  morass.  Had 
the  foot  of  the  reindeer  been  formed  like  that  of  our  stag,  it  would  have  been 
as  unable  to  drag  the  Laplander's  sledge  with  such  velocity  over  the  yielding 
snow-fields  as  the  camel  would  be  to  perform  his  long  marches  through  the 
desert  Avithout  the  broad  elastic  sole-pad  on  which  he  firmly  paces  the  unsta- 
ble sands. 

The  short  legs  and  broad  feet  of  the  reindeer  likewise  enable  it  to  swim  with 
greater  ease — a  power  of  no  small  importance  in  countries  abounding  in  rivers 
and  lakes,  and  where  the  scarcity  of  food  renders  perpetual  migrations  necessa- 
ry. When  the  reindeer  walks  or  merely  moves,  a  remarkable  clattering  sound 
is  heard  to  some  distance,  about  the  cause  of  which  naturalists  and  travellers 
by  no  means  agree.  Most  probably  it  results  from  the  great  length  of  the  two 
digits  of  the  cloven  hoof,  which  when  the  animal  sets  its  foot  upon  the  ground 
separate  widely,  and  when  it  again  raises  its  hoof  suddenly  clap  against  each 
other. 

A  long  mane  of  a  dirty  white  color  hangs  from  the  neck  of  the  reindeer.  In 
suramet  the  body  is  brown  above  and  Avhite  beneath ;  in  winter,  long-haired 
and  white.  Its  antlers  are  very  different  from  those  of  the  stag,  having  broad 
palmated  summits,  and  branching  back  to  the  length  of  three  or  four  feet. 


QUADRUPEDS  AND   BIRDS. 


35 


1%1 


Their  weight  is  frequently  very  considerable — twenty  or  twenty-five  pounds  ; 
and  it  is  remarkable  that  both  sexes  have  hoi'ns,  while  in  all  other  members  of 
tlie  deer  race  the  males  alone  are  in  possession  of  this  ornament  or  weapon. 

The  female  brings  forth  in  May  a  single  calf,  rarely  two.     This  is  small  and 
weak,  but  after  a  few  days  it  follows  the  mother,  who  suckles  her  young  but  a 


36  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

short  time,  as  it  is  soon  able  to  seek  and  to  find  its  food.  The  reindeer  gives 
very  little  rnilk — at  the  very  utmost,  after  the  young  has  been  weaned,  a  bottle- 
ful  daily ;  but  the  quality  is  excellent,  for  it  is  uncommonly  thick  and  nutritious. 
It  consists  almost  entirely  of  cream,  so  that  a  great  deal  of  water  can  be  added 
before  it  becomes  inferior  to  the  best  cow-milk.  Its  taste  is  excellent,  but  the 
butter  made  from  it  is  rancid,  and  hardly  to  be  eaten,  while  the  cheese  is  very 
good. 

The  only  food  of  the  reindeer  during  winter  consists  of  moss,  and  the  most 
surprising  circumstance  in  his  history  is  the  instinct,  or  the  extraordinary  olfac- 
tory powers,  whereby  he  is  enabled  to  discover  it  when  hidden  beneath  the 
snow.  However  deep  the  Lichen  rangiferinus  may  be  buried,  the  animal  is 
aware  of  its  presence  the  moment  he  comes  to  the  spot,  and  this  kind  of  food 
is  never  so  agreeable  to  him  as  when  he  digs  for  it  himself.  In  his  manner  of 
doing  this  he  is  remarkably  adroit.  Having  first  ascertained,  by  thrusting  his 
muzzle  into  the  snow,  whether  the  moss  lies  below  or  not,  he  begins  making  a 
hole  with  his  fore  feet,  and  contimies  working  mitil  at  length  he  uncovers  the 
lichen.  No  instance  has  ever  occurred  of  a  reindeer  making  such  a  cavity  with- 
out discovering  the  moss  he  seeks.  In  summer  their  food  is  of  a  different  na- 
ture ;  they  are  then  pastured  upon  green  herbs  or  the  leaves  of  trees.  Judg- 
ing from  the  lichen's  appearance  in  the  hot  months,  Avhen  it  is  dry  and  brittle, 
one  might  easily  wonder  that  so  large  a  quadruped  as  the  reindeer  should 
make  it  his  favorite  food  and  fatten  upon  it ;  but  toward  the  month  of  Septem- 
ber the  lichen  becomes  soft,  tender,  and  damp,  with  a  taste  like  wheat-bran.  In 
this  state  its  luxuriant  and  flowery  ramifications  somewhat  resemble  the  leaves 
of  endive,  and  are  as  white  as  snow,  % 

Though  domesticated  since  time  immemorial,  the  reindeer  has  only  partly 
been  brought  under  the  yokg  of  man,  and  wanders  in  large  wild  herds  both  in 
the  North  American  Avastes,  where  it  has  never  yet  been  reduced  to  servitude, 
and  in  the  forests  and  tundras  of  the  Old  World. 

In  America,  where  it  is  called  "  caribou,"  it  extends  from  Labrador  to  Mel- 
ville Island  and  Washington  Land ;  in  Europe  and  Asia  it  is  found  from  Lap- 
land and  Norway,  and  from  the  mountains  of  Mongolia  and  the  banks  of  the 
Ufa,  as  far  as  Nova  Zembla  and  Spitzbergen.  Many  centuries  ago — probably 
during  the  glacial  period — its  range  was  still  more  extensive,  as  reindeer  bones 
are  frequently  found  in  French  and  German  caves,  and  bear  testimony  to  the 
severity  of  the  climate  which  at  that  time  reigned  in  Central  Europe ;  for  the 
reindeer  is  a  cold-loving  animal,  and  will  not  thrive  under  a  milder  sky.  All 
attempts  to  prolong  its  life  in  our  zoological  gardens  have  failed,  and  even  in 
the  royal  park  at  Stockholm  Hogguer  saw  some  of  these  animals,  which  were 
quite  languid  and  emaciated  during  the  summer,  although  care  had  been 
taken  to  provide  them  with  a  cool  grotto  to  which  they  could  retire  during  the 
warmer  hours  of  the  day.  In  summer  the  reindeer  can  enjoy  health  only  in  the 
fresh  mountain  air  or  along  the  bracing  sea-shore,  and  has  as  great  a  longing  for 
a  low  temperature  as  man  for  the  genial  warmth  of  his  fireside  in  winter. 

The  reindeer  is  easily  tamed,  and  soon  get^  accustomed  to  its  master,  whose 
society  it  loves,  attracted  as  it  were  by  a  kind  of  innate  sympathy ;  for,  unlike 


THE  ARCTIC   LANDS.  37 

all  other  domestic  animals,  it  is  by  no  means  dependent  on  man  for  its  subsist- 
ence, but  finds  its  nourishment  alone,  and  wanders  about  freely  in  summer  and 
in  winter  without  ever  being  inclosed  in  a  stable.  These  qualities  are  inesti- 
mable in  countries  where  it  would  be  utterly  impossible  to  keep  any  domestic 
animal  requiring  shelter  and  stores  of  provisions  dui-ing  the  long  winter  months, 
and  make  the  reindeer  the  fit  companion  of  the  northern  nomad,  Avhose  simple 
wants  it  almost  wholly  supplies.  During  his  wanderings,  it  carries  his  tent  and 
scanty  household  furniture,  or  drags  his  sledge  over  the  snow.  On  account  of  the 
weakness  of  its  back-bone,  it  is  less  fit  for  riding,  and  requires  to  be  mounted  with 
care,  as  a  violent  shock  easily  dislocates  its  vertebral  column ;  the  saddle  is  placed 
on  the  haunches.  You  would  hardly  suppose  the  reindeer  to  be  the  same  animal 
when  languidly  creeping  along  under  a  rider's  weight,  as  when,  unencumbered 
by  a  load,  it  vaults  with  the  lightness  of  a  bird  over  the  obstacles  in  its  way  to 
obey  the  call  of  its  master.  The  reindeer  can  be  easily  trained  to  drag  a  sledge, 
but  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  beat  or  otherwise  ill-treat  it,  as  it  then  be- 
comes obstinate,  and  quite  unmanageable.  When  forced  to  drag  too  heavy  a 
load,  or  taxed  in  any  way  above  its  strength,  it  not  seldom  turns  round  upon 
its  tyrant,  and  attacks  him  with  its  horns  and  fore  feet.  To  save  himself  from 
its  fury,  he  is  then  obliged  to  overturn  his  sledge,  and  to  seek  a  refuge  under 
its  bottom  until  the  rage  of  the  animal  has  abated. 

After  the  death  of  the  reindeer,  it  may  truly  be  said  that  every  part  of  its 
body  is  put  to  some  use.  The  flesh  is  very  good,  and  the  tongue  and  marrow 
are  considered  a  great  delicacy.  The  blood,  of  which  not  a  drop  is  allowed  to 
be  lost,  is  either  drunk  warm  or  made  up  into  a  kind  of  black  pudding.  The 
skin  furnishes  not  only  clothing  impervious  to  the  cold,  but  tents  and  bedding; 
and  spoons,  knife-handles,  and  other  household  utensils  are  made  out  of  the 
bones  and  horns ;  the  latter  serve  also,  like  the  claws,  for  the  preparation  of  an 
excellent  glue,  which  the  Chinese,  who  buy  them  for  this  purpose  of  the  Rus- 
sians, use  as  a  nutritious  jelly.  In  Tornea  the  skins  of  new-born  reindeer  are 
prepared  and  sent  to  St.  Petersburg  to  be  manufactured  into  gloves,  which  are 
extremely  soft,  but  very  dear. 

Thus  the  cocoa-nut  palm,  the  tree  of  a  hundred  uses,  hardly  renders  a 
greater  variety  of  services  to  the  islanders  of  the  Indian  Ocean  than  the  rein- 
deer to  the  Laplander  or  the  Samojede ;  and,  to  the  honor  of  these  barbarians 
be  it  mentioned,  they  treat  their  invaluable  friend  and  companion  with  a  grate- 
ful affection  which  might  serve  as  an  example  to  far  more  civilized  nations. 

The  reindeer  attains  an  age  of  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  y-ears,  but  in  its 
domesticated  state  it  is  generally  killed  when  from  six  to  ten  years  old.  Its 
most  dangerous  enemies  are  the  wolf,  and  the  glutton  or  wolverine  ( Gulo  ho- 
realis  or  arcticus),  which  belongs  to  the  bloodthirsty  marten  and  weasel  family, 
and  is  said  to  be  of  uncommon  fierceness  and  strength.  It  is  about  the  size 
of  a  large  badger,  between  which  animal  and  the  pole-cat  it  seems  to  be  inter- 
mediate, nearly  resembling  the  former  in  its  general  figure  and  aspect,  and 
agreeing  with  the  latter  as  to  its  dentition.  No  dog  is  capable  of  mastering 
a  glutton,  and  even  the  wolf  is  hardly  able  to  scare  it  from  its  prey.  Its  feet 
are  very  short,  so  that  it  can  not  run  swiftly,  but  it  climbs  with  great  facility 


38  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

upon  trees,  or  ascends  even  almost  pei-pendicular  rock-walls,  where  it  also 
a  refuge  when  pursued. 

When  it  perceives  a  herd  of  reindeer  browsing  near  a  wood  or  a  precipice, 
it  generally  lies  in  wait  upon  a  branch  or  some  high  cliff,  and  springs  down 
upon  the  first  animal  that  comes  within  its  reach.  Sometimes  also  it  steals 
unawares  upon  its  prey,  and  suddenly  bounding  upon  its  back,  kills  it  by  a  sin- 
gle bite  in  the  neck.  Many  fables  worthy  of  Munchausen  have  been  told  about  its 
voracity;  for  instance,  that  it  is  able  to  devour  two  reindeer  at  one  meal,  and 
that,  when  its  stomach  is  exorbitantly  distended  with  food,  it  will  press  itself 
between  two  trees  or  stones  to  make  room  for  a  new  repast.  It  will,  indeed, 
kill  in  one  night  six  or  eight  reindeer,  but  it  contents  itself  with  sucking  their 
blood,  as  the  weasel  does  with  fowls,  and  eats  no  more  at  one  meal  than  any 
other  carnivorous  animal  of  its  own  size. 

Besides  the  attacks  of  its  mightier  enemies,  the  reindeer  is  subject  to  the 
persecutions  of  two  species  of  gad-fly,  which  torment  it  exceedingly.  The 
one  {(Estrus  tarancU),  called  Hurbma  by  the  Laplanders, deposits  its  glutinous 
eggs  upon  the  animal's  back.  The  larvae,  on  creeping  out,  immediately  bore 
themselves  into  the  skin,  where  by  their  motion  and  suction  they  cause  so 
many  small  swellings  or  boils,  which  gradually  grow  to  the  size  of  an  inch  or 
more  in  diameter,  with  an  opening  at  the  top  of  each,  through  which  the  larvce 
may  be  seen  imbedded  in  a  purulent  fluid.  Frequently  the  Avhole  back  of  the 
animal  is  covered  Avith  these  boils,  which,  by  draining  its  fluids,  produce  ema- 
ciation and  disease.  As  if  aware  of  this  danger,  the  reindeer  runs  wild  and  fu- 
rious as  soon  as  it  hears  the  buzzing  of  the  fly,  and  seeks  a  refuge  in  the  nearest . 
water.  The  other  species  of  gad-fly  ( Q^st7'us  nasalis)  lays  its  eggs  in  the  nostrils 
of  the  reindeer  ;  and  the  larvae,  boi'ing  themselves  into  the  fauces  and  beneath  the 
tongue  of  the  poor  animal,  are  a  great  source  of  annoyance,  as  is  shown  by  its 
frequent  sniffling  and  shaking  of  the  head. 

A  pestilential  disorder  like  the  rinderpest  will  sometimes  sweep  a^vay  whole 
herds.  Thus  in  a  few  weeks  a  rich  Laplander  or  Samojede  may  be  reduced  to 
poverty,  and  the  proud  possessor  of  several  thousands  of  reindeer  be  compel- 
led to  seek  the  precarious  livelihood  of  the  northern  fisherman. 

The  elk  or  moose-deer  ( Cervus  alces)  is  another  member  of  the  cervine  race 
peculiar  to  the  forests  of  the  north.  In  size  it  is  far  superior  to  the  stag,  but  it 
can  not  boast  of  an  elegant  shape,  the  head  being  disproportionately  large,  the 
neck  short  and  tliick,  and  its  immense  horns,  which  sometimes  weigh  near  fifty 
pounds,  each  dilating  almost  immediately  from  the  base  into  a  broad  palmated 
form;  while  its  long  legs,  high  shoulders,  and  heavy  upper  lip  hanging  very 
much  over  the  lower,  give  it  an  uncouth  appearance.  The  color  of  the  elk  is  a 
dark  grayish-brown,  but  much  paler  on  the  legs  and  beneath  the  tail. 

We  owe  the  first  description  of  this  gigantic  deer  to  Julius  Caesar,  in  whose 
time  it  was  still  a  common  inhabitant  of  the  German  forests.  But  the  conquer- 
or of  Gaul  can  hardly  have  seen  it  himself,  or  he  would  not  have  ascribed  to  it 
a  single  horn,  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  or  said  that  both  sexes  are 
]ierfectly  alike,  for  the  female  is  smaller  and  has  no  antlers.  At  present  the 
elk  is  still  found  in  the  swampy  forests  of   East  Prussia,  Lithuania,  and  Po- 


ARCTIC   LAND   QUADRUPEDS   AND   BIRDS. 


40  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

land,  but  it  cliiefly  resides  in  the  more  northern  woods  of  Russia,  SiberiOj 
and  America.  It  is  a  mild  and  harmless  animal,  principally  supporting  itself 
by  browsing  the  boughs  of  Avillows,  asps,  service-trees,  and  other  soft  spe- 
cies of  wood.  It  does  not,  like  the  reindeer,  seek  a  refuge  against  the  at- 
tacks of  the  gad-flies,  by  wandering  to  the  coasts  of  the  sea,  or  retreating  to 
the  bare  mountains,  where  it  would  soon  perish  for  the  want  of  adequate  food, 
but  plunges  up  to  the  nose  into  the  next  river,  where  it  finds,  moreover,  a  spe- 
cies of  water-grass  {Festuca  Jiuitans)  which  it  likes  to  feed  upon.  Though 
naturally  mild  and  harmless,  it  displays  a  high  degree  of  courage,  and  even  fe- 
rocity when  suddenly  attacked  ;  defending  itself  with  great  vigor,  not  only  with 
its  horns,  but  also  by  striking  violently  with  its  fore  feet,  in  the  use  of  which 
it  is  particularly  dexterous.  It  is  generally  caught  in  traps,  as  it  is  extremely 
shy  and  watchful,  and  finds  an  easy  retreat  in  the  swamp  or  the  forest.  The 
only  time  of  the  year  when  it  can  be  easily  chased  is  in  the  spring,  when  the 
softened  snow  gets  covered  during  the  night  with  a  thin  crust  of  ice  which  is 
too  weak  to  bear  the  animal's  weight. 

Though  not  ranging  so  far  north  as  the  reindeer  or  the  elk,  we  find  in  the 
Old  World  the  red-deer  {Cervus  elaphus),  in  the  vicinity  of  Drontheim,  in  Nor- 
way, and  along  with  the  roebuck  beyond  Lake  Baikal,  in  Siberia,  while  in 
America  the  large-eared  deer  [Cervus  macrotis),  and  the  Wapiti,  or  Canada  stag 
[Cervus  strong i/Io-cer as),  extend  their  excursions  beyond  55°  of  northern  lati- 
tude. The  latter  is  mucli  larger  and  of  a  stronger  make  than  the  European 
red-deer,  frequently  growing  to  the  height  of  our  tallest  oxen,  and  possessing 
great  activity  as  well  as  strength.  The  flesh  is  little  prized,  but  the  hide,  Avhen 
made  into  leather  after  the  Indian  fashion,  is  said  not  to  turn  hard  in  drying- 
after  being  wet — a  quality  which  justly  entitles  it  to  a  preference  over  almost 
every  other  kind  of  leather. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  quadrupeds  of  the  high  northern  regions  is  the 

musk-ox  (  Ovihos  moschatus),  which 
by  some  naturalists  has  been  consid- 
ered as  intermediate  between  the 
sheep  and  the  ox.  It  is  about  the 
height  of  a  deer,  but  of  much  stout- 
er proportions.  The  horns  are  very 
broad  at  the  base,  almost  meeting 
on  the  forehead,  and  curving  down- 
vv'ard  between  the  eye  and  ears  un- 
til about  the  level  of  the  mouth, 
when  they  turn  upward.  Its  long 
^^^  thick  brown  or   black  hair  hanging- 

down  below  the  middle  of  the  leg, 
THE  MUSK-OX.  aud  covcrlng  on  all  parts  of  the  ani- 

mal a  fine  kind  of  soft  ash-colored 
wool,  which  is  of  the  finest  description,  and  capable  of  forming  the  most  beau- 
tiful fabrics  manufactured,  enables  it  to  remain  even  during  the  winter  beyond 
V0°  of  northern  latitude.     In  spring  it  wanders  over  the  ice  as  far  as  Melville 


ARCTIC  LAND   QUADRUPEDS  AND   BIRDS. 


41 


Island,  or  even  Smith's  Sound,  wliere  a  number  of  its  bones  were  found  bv 
Dr.  ivane.  "In  September  it  withdraws  more  to  the  south,  and  spends  the 
coldest  months  on  the  verge  of  the  foi-est  region.  Like  the  reindeer,  it  sub- 
sists chiefly  on  lichens  and  grasses.  It  runs  nimbly,  and  climbs  hills  and  rocks 
with  great  ease.  Its  fossil  remains,  or  those  of  a  very  analogous  species,  have 
been  discovered  in  Siberia :  at  present  it  is  exclusively  confined  to  the  New 
World. 

In  the  Rocky  Mountains,  from  the  Mexican  Cordillera  plateaux  as  far  as  68° 
N.  lat.,  dwells  the  wild  sheep  (  Ovis  montana),  distinguished  by  the  almost  cir- 
cular bend  of  its  large,  triangular,  transversely  striped  horns,  from  its  relative 


the  Siberian  argali  ( Ovis  arrjaU),  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  parent  of  our  do- 
mestic sheep,  and  far  surpasses  it  in  size  and  delicacy  of  flesh.  Both  the  Amer- 
ican and  the  Asiatic  wild  sheep  are  in  the  highest  degree  active  and  vigorous, 
ascending  abrupt  precipices  with  great  agility,  and,  like  the  wild  goat,  going 
over  the  narrowest  and  most  dangerous  passes  with  perfect  safety. 

Among  the  carnivorous  quadrupeds  of  the  northern  regions,  many,  like  the 
lynx,  the  wolf,  the  bear,  the  glutton,  and  other  members  of  the  weasel  trilie, 
have  their  head-quarters  in  the  forests,  and  only  occasionally  I'oani  over  the  tun- 


42  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

dras  ;  but  the  Arctic  fox  (  Canis  lagopus)  almost  exclusively  inhabits  the  treeless 
wastes  that  fringe  the  Polar  Ocean,  and  is  found  on  almost  all  the  islands  that  lie 
])uried  in  its  bosom.  This  ])retty  little  creature,  which  in  winter  grows  per- 
fectly white,  knows  how  to  protect  itself  against  the  most  intense  cold,  either  by 
seeking  a  refuge  in  the  clefts  of  rocks,  or  by  burrowing  to  a  coiisiderable  depth 
in  a  sandy  soil.  It  principally  preys  upon  lemmings,  stoats,  polar  hares,  as 
well  as  upon  all  kinds  of  water-fowl  and  their  eggs ;  but  when  pinched  by 
hunger,  it  does  not  disdain  the  carcasses  of  fish,  or  the  molluscs  and  crustaceans 
it  may  chance  to  pick  up  on  the  shore.  Its  enemies  are  the  glutton,  the  snowy 
owl,  and  man,  who,  from  the  Equator  to  the  poles,  leaves  no  ci'eature  unmoleste.d 
that  can  in  any  way  satisfy  his  w\auts. 

The  lemmings,  of  which  there  are  many  species,  are  small  rodents,  peculiar 
to  the  Ai-ctic  regions,  both  in  the  New  and  in  the  Old  World,  where  they  are 
found  as  far  to  the  north  as  vegetation  extends.  They  live  on  grass,  roots,  the 
shoots  of  the  willow,  and  the  dwarf  birch,  but  chiefly  on  lichens.  They  do  not 
gather  hoards  of  provisions  for  the  winter,  but  live  upon  what  they  find  be- 
neath the  snow.  They  seldom  prove  injurious  to  man,  as  the  regions  they  in- 
habit are  generally  situated  beyond  the  limits  of  agriculture.  From  the  voles, 
to  whom  they  are  closely  allied,  they  are  distinguished  by  having  the  foot-sole 
covered  with  stiff  hairs,  and  by  the  strong  crooked  claws  with  which  their  fore 
feet  are  armed.  The  best  known  species  is  the  Norwegian  lemming  {Lemmus 
wonre^i'cws),  which  is  found  on  the  high  mountains  of  the  Dovrefjeld,  and 
farther  to  the  north  on  the  dry  parts  of  the  tundra,  where  it  inhabits  small 
burrows  under  stones  or  in  the  moss.  Its  long  and  thick  hair  is  of  a  tawny 
color,  and  jDrettily  marked  with  black  sjDOts.  The  migrations  of  the  lemming 
have  been  grossly  exaggerated  by  Olaus  Magnus  and  Pontoppidan,  to  whom 
the  natural  history  of  the  North  owes  so  many  fables.  As  they  breed  several 
times  in  the  year,  producing  five  or  six  at  a  birth,  they  of  course  multiply  very 
fast  under  favorable  circumstances,  and  are  then  forced  to  leave  the  district 
which  is  no  longer  able  to  afford  them  food.  But  this  takes  -place  very  sel- 
dom, for  when  Mr.  Brehm  visited  Scandinavia,  the  people  on  the  Dovrefjeld 
knew  nothing  aboixt  the  migrations  of  the  lemming,  and  his  inquiries  on  the 
subject  proved  equally  fruitless  in  LajDland  and  in  Finland,  At  all  events,  it  is 
a  fortunate  circumstance  that  the  lemmings  have  so  many  enemies,  as  their 
rapid  multiplication  might  else  endanger  the  balance  of  existence  in  the  northern 
regions.  The  inclemencies  of  the  climate  are  a  chief  means  for  keej^ing  them 
in  check.  A  wet  summer,  an  early  cold  and  snowless  autumn  destroy  them 
by  millions,  and  then  of  course  years  are  necessary  to  recruit  their  numbers. 
With  the  exception  of  the  bear  and  the  hedgehog,  they  are  pursued  by  all  the 
northern  carnivora.  The  wolf,  the  fox,  the  glutton,  the  marten,  the  ermine 
devour  them  with  avidity,  and  a  good  lemming  season  is  a  time  of  unusual 
plenty  for  the  hungry  Laplander's  dog.  The  snowy  owl,  whose  dense  plumage 
enables  it  to  be  a  constant  resident  on  the  tundra,  almost  exclusively  frequents 
those  places  where  lemmings,  its  favorite  food,  are  to  be  found  ;  the  buzzards 
are  constantly  active  in  their  destruction  ;  the  crow  feeds  its  young  with  lem- 
mings ;  and  even   the  poor  Lap,  when  pressed  by  hunger,  seizes  a  stick,  and, 


ARCTIC   LAND    QUADRUPEDS   AND   BIRDS.  43 

for  want  of  better  game,  goes  out  lemming-hunting,  and  rejoices  when  he  can 
kill  a  sufficient  number  for  his  dinner. 

Several  birds,  such  as  the  snowy  owl  and  the  ptarmigan  {Lruppus  alhus), 
which  can  easily  procure  its  food  under  the  snow,  winter  in  the  highest  lati- 
tudes ;  but  by  far  the  greater  number  are  merely  summer  visitants  of  the  Arc- 
tic regions.  After  the  little  bunting,  the  first  arrivals  in  spring  are  the  snow- 
geese,  who  likewise  are  the  first  to  leave  the  dreary  regions  of  the  north  on 
their  southerly  migration.     The  common  and  king  eider-duck,  the  Brent  geese, 


TUB    SNOWY    OWL. 


the  great  northern  black  and  red  throated  divers,  are  the  next  to  make  their 
appearance,  followed  by  the  pintail  and  longtail  ducks  {Anas  caudacuta  and 
f/lacialis),  the  latest  visitors  of  the  season.  These  birds  generally  take  their 
departure  in  the  same  order  as  they  arrive.  The  period  of  their  stay  is  but 
short,  but  their  presence  imparts  a  wonderfully  cheerful  aspect  to  regions  at 
other  times  so  deserted  and  dreary.  As  soon  as  the  young  are  sufficiently 
fledged,  they  again  betake  themselves  to  the  southward  ;  the  character  of  the 
season  much  influencing  the  period  of  their  departure. 

As  far  as  man  has  penetrated,  on  the  most  northern  islets  of  Spitzbergen, 
or  on  the  ice-blocked  shores  of  Kennedy  Channel,  the  eider-duck  and  others 
of  the  Arctic  anatida?  build  their  nests  ;  and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that 
if  the  pole  has  breeding-places  for  them,  it  re-echoes  with  their  cries.  Nor 
need  they  fear  to  plunge  into  the  very  heart  of  the  Arctic  zone,  for  the  flight 
of  a  goose  being  forty  or  fifty  miles  an  hour,  these  birds  may  breed  in  the  re- 
motest northern  solitude,  and  in  a  few  hours,  on  a  fall  of  deep  autumn  snow, 
convey  themselves  by  their  swiftness  of  wing  to  better  feeding-grounds. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  Arctic  birds  is  the  snow-bunting  {Plec- 
trophanes  nivaUs),  which  may  properly  be  called  the  polar  singing-bird,  as  it 
breeds  in  the  most  northern  isles,  such  as  Spitzbergen  and  Novaja  Zemlya,  or 


44 


THE   POLAR    WORLD. 


BEKNIDE   GOOSE.. 


on  tlie  highest  mountains  of  the  Dovref jeld,  in  Scandinavia,  where  it  enlivens 
the  fugitive  summer  with  its  short  but  agreeable  notes,  sounding  doubly  sweet 
from  the  treeless  wastes  in  which  they  are  heard.     It  invariably  builds  its 

nest,  which  it  lines  with  feathers  und  down, 
in  the  fissures  of  mountain  rocks  or  under 
large  stones,  and  the  entrance  is  generally 
so  narrow  as  merely  to  allow  the  parent 
birds  to  pass.  The  remarkably  dense  win- 
ter plumage  of  the  snoAV-bunting  especially 
qualifies  it  for  a  northern  residence,  and 
when  in  captivity  it  will  rather  bear  the 
severest  cold  than  even  a  moderate  degree 
of  warmth.  In  its  breeding-places  it  lives 
almost  exclusively  on  insects,  particularly 
gnats:  during  the  winter  it  feeds  on  all 
sorts  of  seeds,  and  then  famine  frequently  compels  it  to  wander  to  a  less  rig- 
orous climate. 

The  Lapland  bunting  {Centro2Jhanes  lajjponicus),  whose  white  and  black 
plumage  is  agreeably  diversified  with  red,  is  likewise  an  inhabitant  of  the 
higher  latitudes,  where  it  is  frequently  seen  in  the  bai*ren  grounds  and  tundras. 
Both  these  birds  are  distinguished  by  the  very  long  claw  of  their  hind  toe,  a 
structure  which  enables  them  to  run  about  with  ease  upon  the  snow. 

Among  the  raptorial  birds  of  the  Arctic  regions,  the  sea-eagle  {Ilalicntus 
alMcilla)  holds  a  conspicuous  rank.  At  his  approach  the  gull  and  the  auk 
conceal  themselves  in  the  fissui-es  of  the  rocks,  but  are  frequently  dragged 
forth  by  their  relentless  enemy.  The  divers  are,  according  to  Wahlengren, 
more  imperilled,  from  his  attacks  than  those  sea-birds  which  do  not  plunge,  for 
the  latter  rise  into  the  air  as  soon  as  their  piercing  eye  es.pies  the  universally 
dreaded  tyrant,  and  thus  escape  ;  while  the  former,  blindly  trusting  to  the  ele- 
ment in  which  they  are  capable  of  finding  a  temporary  refuge,  allow  him  to 

approach,  and  then  suddenly  diving,  fancy 
themselves  in  safety,  while  the  eagle  is  only 
waiting  for  the  moment  of  their  re-appear- 
ance to  repeat  his  attack.  Twice  or  thrice 
they  may  possibly  escajie  his  claws  by  a  rapid 
plunge,  but  when  for  the  fourth  time  they 
dive  out  of  the  water,  and  remain  but  one 
instant  above  the  surface,  that  instant  seals 
their  doom.  The  sea-eagle  is  equally  for- 
midable to  the  denizens  of  the  ocean,  but 
sometimes  too  great  a  confidence  in  his 
strength  leads  to  his  destruction,  for  Kitt- 
litz  was  informed  by  the  inhabitants  of  Kam- 
schatka  that,  pouncing  upon  a  dolphin,  he  is 
not  seldom  dragged  down  into  the  water  by  the  diving  cetacean  in  whose  skin 
his  talons  remain  fixed. 


Cj 


-^;ll\\ 


THE   SEA-EAGLE. 


THE  ARCTIC    SEAS. 


45 


ARCTIC   NAVIGATION. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   AECTIC    SEAS. 

Dangers  peculiar  to  the  Arctic  Sea. — Ice-fields. — Hummocks.— Collision  of  Ice-fields.— Icebergs.— Their 
Origin. — Their  Size. — The  Glaciers  which  give  them  Birth. — Their  Beauty.— Sometimes  useful 
Auxiliaries  to  the  Mariner. — Dangers  of  anchoring  to  a  Berg. — A  crumbling  Berg. — The  Ice-blink, 
— Fogs. — Transparency  of  the  Atmosphere. — Phenomena  of  Reflection  and  Refraction. — Causes 
which  prevent  the  Accumulation  of  Polar  Ice. — Tides.— Currents. — Ice  a  bad  Conductor  of  Heat.— 
Wise  Provisions  of  Nature. 

^T^HE  heart  of  the  first  navigator,  says  Horace,  must  have  been  shielded  with 
^  threefold  brass — and  yet  the  poet  knew  but  the  sunny  Mediterranean,  with 
its  tepid  floods  and  smiling  shores  :  how,  then,  would  he  have  found  Avords  to 
express  his  astonishment  at  the  intrepid  seamen  who,  to  open  new  vistas  to 
science  or  new  roads  to  commerce,  first  ventured  to  face  the  unknown  terrors 
of  tlie  Arctic  main  ? 

In  every  part  of  the  ocean  the  mariner  has  to  guard  against  the  perils  of 
hidden  shoals  and  sunken  cliffs,  but  the  high  northern  waters  are  doubly  and 
trebly  dangerous;  for  here,  besides  those  rocks  which  are  firmly  rooted  to  the 
ground,  there  are  others  which,  freely  floating  about,  threaten  to  crush  his  ves- 
sel to  pieces,  or  to  force  it  along  Avith  them  in  helpless  bondage. 

The  Arctic  navigators  have  given  various  names  to  these  movable  shoals. 


46  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

which  are  the  cause  of  so  much  delay  and  danger.  They  are  icebergs  when  they 
tower  to  a  considerable  height  above  the  waters,  and  ice-fields  when  they  have  a 
vast  horizontal  extension.  A  floe  is  a  detached  portion  of  a  field  ;  pack-ice,  a 
large  area  of  floes  or  smaller  fragments  closely  driven  together  so  as  to  oppose  a 
firm  barrier  to  the  progress  of  a  ship  ;  and  drift-ice,  loose  ice  in  motion,  but  not 
so  firmly  packed  as  to  prevent  a  vessel  from  making  her  way  through  its  yield- 
ing masses. 

The  large  ice-fields  which  the  whaler  encounters  in  Baffin's  Bay,  or  on  the 
seas  between  Spitzbergen  and  Greenland,  constitute  one  of  the  marvels  of  the 
deep.  There  is  a  solemn  grandeur  in  the  slow  majestic  motion  with  which 
they  are  drifted  by  the  currents  to  the  south  ;  and  their  enormous  masses,  as 
mile  after  mile  comes  floating  by,  impress  the  spectator  with  the  idea  of  a 
boundless  extent  and  an  irresistible  jDow^er.  But,  vast  and  mighty  as  they  are, 
they  are  unable  to  withstand  the  elements  combined  for  their  destruction,  and 
their  apparently  triumphal  march  leads  them  only  to  their  ruin. 

When  they  first  descend  from  their  northern  strongholds,  the  ice  of  which 
they  are  composed  is  of  the  average  thickness  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet,  and 
their  surface  is  sometimes  tolerably  smooth  and  even,  but  in  general  it  is  cov- 
ered with  numberless  ice-blocks  or  hummocks  piled  upon  each  other  in  wild  con- 


AMONG  HUMMOCKS. 


fusion  to  a  height  of  forty  or  fifty  feet,  the  result  of  repeated  collisions  before 
flakes  and  floes  were  soldered  into  fields.  Before  the  end  of  June  they  are  cov- 
ered with  snow,  sometimes  six  feet  deep,  wdiich  melting  during  the  summer 
forms  small  ponds  or  lakes  upon  their  surface. 


THE   ARCTIC   SEAS. 


DRIFTING   IN   THE   ICE. 


Not  seldom  ice-fields  are  whirled  about  in  rotatory  motion,  which  causes 
their  circumference  to  gyrate  with  a  velocity  of  several  miles  per  hour.  When 
a  field  thus  sweeping  through  the  waters  comes  into  collision  with  another 


^m-^^^- 


FOKMS  OF   ICEBERGS. 


48 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


which  may  possibly  be  revolving  with  equal  rapidity  in  an  opposite  direction 
— when  masses  not  seldom  twenty  or  thirty  miles  in  diameter,  and  each  weigh- 
ing many  millions  of  tons,  clash  to- 
gether, imagination  can  hardly  con- 
ceive a  more  appalling  scene.  The 
whalers  at  all  times  require  unremit- 
ting vigilance  to  secure  their  safety, 
but  scarcely  in  any  situation  so  much 
as  when  navigating  amidst  these 
fields,  which  are  more  particularly 
dangerous  in  foggy  weather,  as  their 
motions  can  not  then  be  distinctly  ob- 
served. No  wonder  that  since  the 
establishment  of  the  fishery  numbers 
of  vessels  have  been  crushed  to  pieces 
between  two  fields  in  motion,  for  the 
strongest  ship  ever  built  must  needs 
be  utterly  unable  to  resist  their  power.  Some  haA'^e  been  uplifted  and  thrown 
upon  the  ice;  some  have  had  their  hulls  completely  torn  open;  and  others 
have  been  overrun  by  the  ice,  and  buried  beneath  the  fragments  piled  upon 
their  wreck. 

The  icebergs,  which,  as  their  name 
indicates,  rise  above  the  water  to  a 
much  more  considerable  height  than 
the  ice-fields,  have  a  very  different  or- 
igin, as  they  are  not  formed  in  the 
sea  itself,  but  by  the  glaciers  of  the 
northern  highlands.  As  our  rivers 
are  continually  j^ouring  their  streams 
into  the  ocean,  so  many  of  the  gla- 
ciers or  ice-rivers  of  the  Arctic  zone, 
descending  to  the  water-edge,  are 
slowly  but  constantly  forcing  them- 
selves farther  and  farther  into  the 
sea.  In  the  summer  season,  Avhen 
the  ice  is  particularly  fragile,  the 
force  of  cohesion  is  often  overcome 
by  the  weight  of  the  prodigious  mass- 
es that  overhang  the  sea  or  have  been 
undermined  by  its  waters  ;  and  in  the 
winter,  when  the  air  is  probably  40° 
or  50°  below  zero  and  the  sea  from 
28°  to  30°  above,  the  unequal  expan- 
sion of  those  parts  of  the  mass  ex- 
posed to  so  great  a  difference  of  temperature  can  not  fail  to  produce  the  sep- 
aration of  large  portions. 


i^' 


FOK.MS    or   ICEBERGS. 


THE  ARCTIC   SEAS.  40 

Most  of  these  swimming  glacier-fragments,  or  icebergs,  which  are  met  with 
by  the  whaler  in  the  Northern  Atlantic,  are  formed  on  the  mountainous  west 
coast  of  Greenland  by  the  large  glaciers  which  discharge  themselves  into  the 
fiords  from  Smith's  Sound  to  Disco  Bay,  as  here  the  sea  is  sufficiently  deep  to 
float  them  away,  in  spite  of  the  enormous  magnitude  they  frequently  attain. 
As  they  drift  along  down  Baffin's  Bay  and  Davis's  Strait,  they  not  seldom  run 


aground  on  some  shallow  shore,  where,  bidding  defiance  to  the  short  summer, 
they  frequently  remain  for  many  a  year. 

Dr.  Hayes  measured  an  immense  iceberg  which  had  stranded  off  the  little 
harbor  of  Tessuissak,  to  the  north  of  Melville  Bay.  The  square  wall  which 
faced  toward  his  base  of  measurement  was  315  feet  high,  and  a  fraction  over 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  long.  Being  almost  square-sided  above  the  sea,  the 
same  shape  must  have  extended  beneath  it ;  and  since,  by  measurements  made 
two  days  before,  Hayes  had  discovered  that  fresh-water  ice  floating  in  salt  wa- 
ter has  above  the  surface  to  below  it  the  proportion  of  one  to  seven,  this  crys- 
tallized mountain  must  have  gone  aground  in  a  depth  of  nearly  half  a  mile.     A 

4 


50  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

rude  estimate  of  its  size,  made  on  the  spot,  gave  in  cubical  contents  about  27,000 
millions  of  feet,  and  in  weight  something  like  2000  millions  of  tons  ! 

Captain  Ross  in  his  first  voyage  mentions  another  of  these  wrecked  bergs, 
Avhich  was  found  to  be  4169  yards  long,  3689  yards  broad,  and  51  feet  high 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  was  aground  in  61  fathoms,  and  its  weight  was 
estimated  by  an  oificer  of  the  "Alexander"  at  1,292,397,673  tons.  On  as^cend- 
ing  the  flat  top  of  this  iceberg,  it  was  found  occupied  by  a  huge  white  bear, 
who  justly  deeming  "  discretion  the  best  part  of  valor,"  sprang  into  the  sea  be- 
fore he  could  be  fired  at. 

The  vast  dimensions  of  the  icebergs  appear  less  astonishing  when  we  con- 
sider that  many  of  the  glaciers  or  ice-rivers  from  which  they  are  dislodged  are 
equal  in  size  or  volume  to  the  largest  streams  of  continental  Europe. 

Thus  one  of  the  eight  glaciers  existing  in  the  district  of  Omenak,  in  Green- 
land, is  no  less  than  an  English  mile  broad,  and  forms  an  ice-wall  rising  160 
feet  above  the  sea.  Further  to  the  north,  Melville  Bay  and  Whale  Sound  are 
the  seat  of  vast  ice-rivers.  Here  Tyndall  glacier  forms  a  coast-line  of  ice  over 
two  miles  long,  almost  burying  its  face  in  the  sea,  and  carrying  the  eye  along  a 
broad  and  winding  valley,  up  steps  of  ice  of  giant  height,  until  at  length  the 
slope  loses  itself  in  the  wiknown  ice-desert  beyond.  But  grand  above  all  is  the 
magnificent  Humboldt  glacier,  which,  connecting  Greenland  and  Washington 
Land,  forms  a  solid  glassy  wall  300  feet  above  the  water-level,  with  an  unknown 
depth  below  it,  while  its  curved  face  extends  full  sixty  miles  in  length  from 
Cape  Agassiz  to  Cape  Forbes.  In  the  temperate  zone  it  would  be  one  of  the 
mightiest  rivers  of  the  earth  ;  here,  in  the  frozen  solitudes  of  the  North,  it  slow- 
ly drops  its  vast  fragments  into  the  waters,  making  the  solitudes  around  re-echo 
with  their  fall. 

As  the  Polar  shores  of  continental  America  and  Siberia  are  generally  flat, 
and  below  the  snow-line,  they  are  consequently  deprived  both  of  glaciers  and 
of  the  huge  floating  masses  to  which  these  give  birth. 

In  a  high  sea  the  waves  beat  against  an  iceberg  as  against  a  rock ;  and  in 
calm  weather  where  there  is  a  swell,  the  noise  made  by  their  rising  and  faling 
is  tremendous.  Their  usual  form  is  that  of  a  high  vertical  wall,  gradually 
sloping  down  to  the  opposite  side,  which  is  very  low ;  but  frequently  they  ex- 
hibit the  most  fantastic  shapes,  particularly  after  they  have  been  a  long  time 
exposed  to  the  corroiiing  power  of  the  waves,  or  of  warm  rains  pelting  them 
from  above. 

A  number  of  icebergs  floating  in  the  sea  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent 
spectacles  of  nature,  but  the  wonderful  beauty  of  these  crystal  cliffs  never  ap- 
pears to  greater  advantage  than  when  clothed  by  the  midnight  sun  with  all  the 
splendid  colors  of  twilight. 

"  The  bergs,"  says  Dr.  Hayes,  describing  one  of  these  enchanting  nights, 
"  had  wholly  lost  their  chilly  aspect,  and  glittering  in  the  blaze  of  the  brilliant 
heavens,  seemed  in  the  distance  like  masses  of  burnished  metal  or  solid  flame. 
Nearer  at  hand  they  were  huge  blocks  of  Parian  marble  inlaid  Avith  mammoth 
gems  of  pearl  and  opal.  One  in  particular  exhibited  the  perfection  of  the 
grand.     Its  form  was  not  unlike  that  of  the  Colosseum,  and  it  lay  so  far  away 


THE   ARCTIC    SEAS. 


51 


that  half  its  height  was  buried  beneath  the  line  of  blood-red  waters.  Tlie  sun, 
slowly  rolling  along  the  horizon,  passed  behind  it,  and  it  seemed  as  if  the 
old  Roman  ruins  had  suddenly  taken  fire.  In  the  shadow  of  the  bergs  the 
water  was  a  rich  green,  and  nothing  could  be  more  soft  and  tender  than  the 
gradations  of  color  made  by  the  sea  shoaling  on  the  sloj^ing  tongue  of  a  bero- 


THE  POLAR   WORLD. 


GI  VCIEK,  I  I  Tr    IMTT 


close  beside  us.  The  tint  increased  in  intensity  where  the  ice  overhung  the 
water,  and  a  deep  cavern  near  by  exhibited  the  solid  color  of  the  malachite  min- 
gled with  the  transparency  of  the  emerald,  while  in  strange  contrast  a  broad 
streak  of  cobalt  blue  ran  diagonally  through  its  body.  The  bewitching  charac- 
ter of  the  scene  was  heightened  by  a  thousand  little  cascades  which  leaped  into 
the  sea  from  these  floating  masses,  the  water  being  discharged  from  lakes  of  melt- 
ed snow  and  ice  which  reposed  in  quietude  far  up  in  the  valleys  separating  the 
high  icy  hills  of  their  upper  surface.  From  other  bergs  large  pieces  were  now 
and  then  detached,  plunging  down  into  the  water  with  deafening  noise,  while 
the  slow  moving  swell ,of  the  ocean  resounded  through  their  broken  archways." 

A  similar  gorgeous  spectacle  was  witnessed  by  Dr.  Kane  in  Melville  Bay. 
The  midnight  sun  came  out  over  a  great  berg,  kindling  variously-colored  fires 
on  every  part  of  its  surface,  and  making  the  ice  around  the  ship  one  great  re- 
sjilendency  of  gemwork,  blazing  cai'buncles  and  rubies,  and  molten  gold. 

In  the  night  the  icebergs  are  readily  distinguished  even  at  a  distance  by 
their  natural  effulgence,  and  in  foggy  Aveather  by  a  peculiar  blackness  in  the 
atmosphere.  As  they  are  not  unfrequently  drifted  by  the  Greenland  stream 
considerably  to  the  south  of  Newfoundland,  sometimes  even  as  far  as  the  for- 
tieth or  thirty-ninth  degree  of  latitude  (May,  1841,  June,  1842),  ships  sailing 
through  the  north-western  Atlantic  require  to  be  always  on  their  guard  against 
them.  The  ill-fated  "  President,"  one  of  our  first  ocean-steamers,  which  was 
,  lost  on  its  way  to  New  York,  Avithout  leaving  a  trace  behind,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  sunk  by  a  collision  with  an  iceberg,  and  no  doubt  many^a  gallant 
bark  has  either  foundered  in  the  night,  or  been  hurled  by  the  storm  against 
these  floatiiig  rocks. 


THE   ARCTIC    SEAS. 


53 


But  though  often  dangerous  neighbors,  the  bergs  occasionally  in-ove  useful 
auxiliaries  to  the  mariner.  From  their  grelrter  bulk  lying  below  the  watei-- 
line,  they  are  either  drifted  along  by  the  under-current  against  the  wind,  or, 
from  their  vast  dimensions,  are  not  i^erceptibly  influenced  even  by  the  strongest 
gale,  but,  on  the  contrary,  have  the  appearance  of  moving  to  windward,  because 
every  other  kind  of  ice  is  drifted  rapidly  past  them.  Thus  in  strong  adverse 
winds,  their  broad  masses,  fronting  the  storm  like  bulwarks,  not  seldom  afford 
protection  to  ships  mooring  under  their  lee. 

Anchoring  to  a  berg  is,  however,  not  always  unattended  with  danger,  pai-- 
ticularly  when  the  summer  is  far  advanced,  or  in  a  lower  latitude,  as  all  ice  be- 
comes exceedingly  fragile  w^hen  acted  on  by  the  sun  or  by  a  temperate  atmos- 


SCALING  AN  ICEBERG. 


phere.  The  blow  of  an  axe  then  sometimes  suffices  to  rend  an  iceberg  asunder, 
and  to  bury  the  careless  seaman  beneath  its  ruins,  or  to  hurl  him  into  the  yawn- 
ing chasm. 

Thus  Scoresby  relates  the  adventure  of  two  sailors  who  were  attempting  to 
fix  an  anchor  to  a  berg.  They  began  to  hew  a  hole  into  the  ice,  but  scarcely 
had  the  first  blow  been  struck,  when  suddenly  the  immense  mass  split  from  top 
to  bottom  and  fell  asunder,  the  two  halves  falling  in  contrary  directions  with  a 
prodigious  crash.  One  of  the  sailors,  Avho  was  possessed  of  great  presence  of 
mind,  immediately  scaled  the  huge  fragment  on  which  he  was  standing,  and 
remained  rocking  to  and  fro  on  its  summit  until  its  equilibrium  Avas  restored ; 
but  his  companion,  falling  between  the  masses,  would  most  likely  Iiave  been 
crushed  to  pieces  if  the  current  caused  by  their  motion  had  not  swept  him 
within  reach  of  the  boat  that  was  waiting  for  them. 

Frequently  large  pieces  detach  themselves  spontaneously  from  an  iceberg 


54  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

and  fall  into  the  sea  with  a  tremendous  noise.  When  this  circumstance,  called 
"  calving,"  takes  place,  the  icebeij|f  loses  its  equilibrium,  sometimes  turns  on 
one  side,  and  is  occasionally  inveited. 

Dr.  Hayes  witnessed  the  crumbling  of  an  immense  berg,  resembling  in  its 
general  appearance  the  British  House  of  Parliament.  First  one  lofty  tower 
came  tumbling  into  the  water,  starting  from  its  surface  an  immense  flock  of 
gulls ;  then  another  followed ;  and  at  length,  after  five  hours  of  rolling  and 
crashing,  there  remained  of  this  splendid  mass  of  congelation  not  a  fragment 
that  rose  fifty  feet  above  the  water. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  of  the  Polar  Sea  is  the  ice-blink,  or 
reflection  of  the  ice  against  the  sky.  A  stripe  of  light,  similar  to  the  early 
dawn  of  morning,  but  without  its  redness,  appears  above  the  horizon,  and  traces 
a  complete  aerial  map  of  the  ice  to  a  distance  of  many  miles  beyond  the  ordi- 
nary reach  of  vision.  To  the  experienced  navigator  the  "  blink  "  is  frequently 
of  the  greatest  use,  as  it  not  only  points  out  the  vicinity  of  the  drift-ice,  but 
indicates  its  nature,  whether  compact  or  loose,  continuous  or  open.  Thus 
Scoresby  relates  that  on  the  7th  of  June,  1821,  he  saw  so  distinct  an  ice-blink, 
that  as  far  as  twenty  or  thirty  miles  all  round  the  horizon  he  was  able  to  ascer- 
tain the  figure  and  probable  extent  of  each  ice-field.  The  packed  ice  was  dis- 
tinguished from  the  larger  fields  by  a  more  obscure  and  yellow  color ;  while 
each  water-lane  or  open  passage  was  indicated  by  a  deep  blue  stripe  or  patch. 
By  this  means  he  Avas  enabled  to  find  his  way  out  of  the  vast  masses  of  ice  in 
which  he  had  been  detained  for  several  days,  and  to  emerge  into  the  open  sea. 

The  tendency  of  the  pack-ice  to  separate  in  calm  weather,  so  that  one  might 
almost  be  tempted  to  believe  in  a  mutual  repulsive  power  of  the  individual 
blocks,  is  likewise  favorable  to  the  Arctic  navigator.  The  perpetual  daylight 
of  summer  is  another  advantage,  but  unfortunately  the  sun  is  too  often  veiled  ^ 
by  dense  mists,  which  frequently  obscure  the  air  for  weeks  together,  particular- 
ly in  July.  These  fogs,  which  are  a  great  impediment  to  the  whaler's  opera- 
tions, have  a  very  depressing  influence  upon  the  spirits ;  and  as  they  are  at- 
tended with  a  low  temperature,  which  even  at  noon  does  not  rise  much  above 
freezing-point,  the  damp  cold  is  also  physically  extremely  unpleasant. 

At  other  times  the  sun  sweeps  two  or  three  times  round  the  pole  without 
being  for  a  moment  obscured  by  a  cloud,  and  then  the  transparency  of  the  air 
is  such  that  objects  the  most  remote  may  be  seen  perfectly  distinct  and  clear. 
A  ship's  top-gallant  mast,  at  the  distance  of  five  or  six  leagues,  may  be  discern- 
ed when  just  appearing  above  the  horizon  with  a  common  perspective-glass, 
and  the  summits  of  mountains  are  visible  at  the  distance  of  from  sixty  to  a 
hundred  miles. 

On  such  sunny  days,  the  strong  contrasts  of  light  and  shade  between  the 
glistening  snow  and  the  dark  protruding  rocks  produce  a  remarkable  deception 
in  the  apparent  distance  of  the  land,  along  a  steep  mountainous  coast.  When 
at  the  distance  of  twenty  miles  from  Spitzbergen,  for  instance,  it  would  be  easy 
to  induce  even  a  judicious  stranger  to  undei'take  a  passage  in  a  boat  to  the 
shoi'e,  from  a  belief  that  he  was  within  a  league  of  the  land.  At  this  distance 
the  portions  of  rock  and  patches  of  snow,  as  well  as  the  contour  of  the  different 


THE   ARCTIC    SEAS.  55 

hills,  are  as  distinctly  marked  as  similar  objects  in  many  other  countries,  not 
having  snow  about  them,  would  be  at  a  fourth  or  a  fifth  part  of  the  distance. 

,  Nothing  can  be  more  wonderful  than  the  phenomena  of  the  atmosphere  de- 
pendent on  reflection  and  refraction,  which  are  frequently  observed  in  the  Arc- 
tic seas,  particularly  at  the  commencement  or  approach  of  easterly  winds.  They 
are  probably  occasioned  by  the  commixture,  near  the  surface  of  the  land  or  sea, 
of  two  streams  of  air  of  different  temperatures,  so  as  to  occasion  an  irregular 
deposition  of  imperfectly  condensed  vapor,  which  when  passing  the  verge  of  the 
horizon  apparently  raises  the  objects  there  situated  to  a  considerable  distance 
above  it,  or  extends  their  height  beyond  their  natural  dimensions.  Ice,  land, 
ships,  boats,  and  other  objects,  when  thus  enlarged  and  elevated,  are  said  to 
loom.  The  lower  part  of  looming  objects  are  sometimes  connected  with  the 
horizon  by  an  apparent  fibrous  or  columnar  extension  of  their  parts ;  at  other 
times  they  appear  to  be  quite  lifted  into  the  air,  a  void  space  being  seen  between 
them  and  the  horizon. 

A  most  remai-kable  delusion  of  this  kind  was  observed  by  Scoresby  while 
sailing  through  the  open  ice,  far  from  land.  Suddenly  an  immense  amphitheatre 
inclosed  by  high  walls  of  basaltic  ice,  so  like  natural  rock  as  to  deceive  one  of 
his  most  experienced  officers,  rose  around  the  ship.  Sometimes  the  refraction 
produced  on  all  sides  a  similar  effect,  but  still  more  frequently  remarkable  con- 
trasts. Single  ice-blocks  expanded  into  architectural  figures  of  an  extraordina- 
ry height,  and  sometimes  the  distant,  deeply  indented  ice-border  looked  like  a 
number  of  towers  or  minarets,  or  like  a  dense  forest  of  naked  trees.  Scarcely 
had  an  object  acquired  a  distinct  form,  when  it  began  to  dissolve  into  another. 

It  is  Avell  known  that  similar  causes  produce  similar  .effects  in  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  earth.  In  the  midst  of  the  tropical  ocean,  the  mariner  sees  ver- 
dant islands  rise  from  the  waters,  and  in  the  treeless  desert  fantastic  palm- 
groves  wave  their  fronds,  as  if  in  mockery  of  the  thirsty  caravan. 

When  we  consider  the  intense  cold  which  reigns  during  the  greatest  part  of 
the  year  in  the  Arctic  regions,  we  might  naturally  expect  to  find  the  whole  of 
the  Polar  Sea  covered,  during  the  winter  at  least,  with  one  solid  unbroken  sheet 
of  ice.  But  experience  teaches  us  that  this  is  by  no  means  the  case ;  for  the 
currents,  the  tides,  the  winds,  and  the  swell  of  a  turbulent  ocean  are  mighty 
causes  of  disruption,  or  strong  impediments  to  congelation.  Both  Lieutenant 
de  Haven  and  Sir  Francis  M'Clintock*  were  helplessly  carried  along,  in  the 
depth  of  winter,  by  the  pack-ice  in  Lancaster  Sound  and  Baffin's  Bay.  A 
berg  impelled  by  a  strong  under-current  rips  open  an  ice-field  as  if  it  were  a 
thin  sheet  of  glass  ;  and  in  channels,  or  on  coasts  where  the  tides  rise  to  a  con- 
siderable height,  their  flux  and  reflux  is  continually  opening  crevices  and  lanes 
in  the  ice  which  covers  the  waters.  That  even  in  the  highest  latitudes  the  sea 
does  not  close  except  when  at  rest,  was  fully  experienced  by  Dr.  Hayes  during 
his  wintering  at  Port  Foulke ;  for  at  all  times,  even  when  the  temperature  of 
the  air  was  below  the  freezing-point  of  mercury,  he  could  hear  from  the  deck 
of  his  schooner  the  roar  of  the  beating  waves.  From  all  these  causes  there 
has  at  no  point  within  the  Arctic  Circle  been  found  a  firm  ice-belt  extending, 

*  S?e  Chapter  XXXII. 


56 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


either  in  wintei-  or  in  summer,  more  than  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  miles  from 
land.  And  even  in  the  narrow  channels  separating  the  islands  of  the  Parry 
Archipelago,  or  at  the  mouth  of  Smith  Sound,  the  Avaters  will  not  freeze  over, 
except  when  sheltered  by  the  land,  or  when  an  ice-pack,  accumulated  by  long 
continuance  of  winds  from  one  quarter,  affords  the  same  protection. 

But  the  constant  motion  of  the*Polar  Sea,  wherever  it  expands  to  a  consider- 


THE   ARCTIC    SEAS.  57 

able  breadtli,  would  be  insufficient  to  prevent  its  total  congelation,  if  it  Aveve 
not  assisted  by  other  physical  causes.  A  magnificent  system  of  currents  is 
continually  displacing  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  and  forcing  the  warm  floods  of 
the  tropical  regions  to  wandey  to  the  pole,  while  the  cold  streams  of  the  frigid 
zone  are  as  constantly  migrating  toward  the  Equator.  Thus  we  see  the  Gulf 
Stream  flowing  through  the  broad  gateway  east  of  Spitzbergen,  and  forcing 
out  a  return  current  of  cold  water  to  the  west  of  Spitzbergen,  and  through 
Davis's  Strait. 

The  comparatively  warm  floods  which,  in  consequence  of  this  great  law  of 
circulation,  come  pouring  into  the  Arctic  seas,  naturally  require  some  time 
before  they  are  sufficiently  chilled  to  be  converted  into  ice ;  and  as  sea-water 
has  its  maximum  of  density,  or,  in  other  words,  is  heaviest  a  few  degrees  above 
the  freezing-point  of  Avater,  and  then  necessarily  sinks,  the  whole  depth  of  the 


OPEN   WATEa 


sea  must  of  course  be  cpoled  down  to  that  temperature  before  freezing  can 
take  place.  Ice  being  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  likewise  limits  the  process  of 
congelation  ;  for  after  attaining  a  thickness  of  ten  or  fifteen  feet,  its  growth  is 
very  slow,  and  probably  even  ceases  altogether ;  for  when  floating  fields,  or 
floes,  are  found  of  a  greater  thickness,  this  increase  is  due  to  the  snow  that 
falls  upon  their  surface,  or  to  the  accumulation  of  hummocks  caused  by  their 
collision. 

Thus,  by  the  combined  influence  of  these  various  physical  agencies,  bounds 
have  been  set  to  the  congelation  of  the  Polar  waters.  Were  it  otherwise,  the 
Arctic  lands  would  have  been  mere  uninhabitable  wastes ;  for  the  existence  of 
the  seals,  the  walrus,  and  the  whale  depends  upon  their  finding  some  open  Ava- 
ter  at  every  season  of  the  year ;  and  deprived  of  this  resource,  all  the  Esqui- 
maux, whose  various  tribes  fringe  the  coasts  in  the  highest  latitudes  hitherto 
discovered,  would  perish  in  a  single  Avinter. 

If  the  Arctic  glaciers  did  not  discharge  their  bergs  into  the  sea,  or  if  no 
currents  conveyed  the  ice-floes  of  the, north  into  loAver  latitudes,  ice  Avould  be 


58  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

constantly  accumulating  in  the  Polar  world,  and,  destroying  the  balance  of  na- 
ture, would  ultimately  endanger  the  existence  of  man  over  the  whole  surface 
of  the  globe. 


ARCTIC  IVL^RINE  ANI^IALS.  59 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ARCTIC  MARINE  ANIMALS. 

Populousness  of  the  Arctic  Seas. — The  Greenland  Whale. — The  Fin  Whales. —  The  Narwhal. — 
The  Beluga,  or  White  Dolphin. — The  Black  Dolphin.— His  wholesale  Massacre  on  the  Faeroe  Isl- 
ands.—The  Ore,  or  Grampus. — The  Seals. — The  Walrus. — Its  acute  Smell.— Historj'  of  a  young 
Walrus.— Parental  Affection. — The  Polar  Bear. — His  Sagacity. — Hibernation  of  the  She-bear. — 
Sea-birds. 

THE  vast  multitudes  of  animated  beings  Avhich  people  the  Polar  Seas  form 
a  remarkable  contrast  to  the  nakedness  of  their  bleak  and  desolate  shores. 
The  colder  surface-waters  almost  perpetually  exposed  to  a  chilly  air,  and  fre- 
quently covered,  even  in  summer,  with  floating  ice,  are  indeed  unfavorable  to 
the  development  of  organic  life ;  but  this  adverse  influence  is  modified  by  the 
higher  temperature  which  constantly  prevails  at  a  greater  depth ;  for,  contrary 
to  what  takes  place  in  the  equatorial  seas,  we  find  in  the  Polar  Ocean  an  in- 
crease of  temperature  from  the  surface  downward,  in  consequence  of  the 
warmer  under-currents,  flowing  from  the  south  northward,  and  passing  be- 
neath the  cold  waters  of  the  superficial  Arctic  current. 

Thus  the  severity  of  the  Polar  winter  remains  unfelt  at  a  greater  depth  of 
the  sea,  where  myriads  of  creatui*es  find  a  secure  retreat  against  the  frost,  and 
whence  they  emerge  during  the  long  summer's  day,  either  to  line  the  shores  or 
to  ascend  the  broad  rivers  of  the  Arctic  world.  Between  the  parallels  of  74° 
and  80°  Scoresby  observed  that  the  color  of  the  Greenland  sea  varies  from  the 
purest  ultramarine  to  olive  green,  and  from  crystalline  transparency  to  striking 
opacity — appearances  which  are  not  transitory,  but  permanent.  This  green 
semi-opaque  water,  whose  position  varies  with  the  currents,  often  forming  iso- 
lated strijDes,  and  sometimes  spreading  over  two  or  three  degrees  of  latitude, 
mainly  owes  its  singular  aspect  to  small  medusce  and  nudibranchiate  molluscs. 
It  is  calculated  to  form  one-fourth  part  of  the  surface  of  the  sea  between  the 
above-mentioned  parallels,  so  that  many  thousands  of  square  miles  are  absolute- 
ly teeming  with  life. 

On  the  coast  of  Greenland,  where  the  waters  are  so  exceedingly  clear  that 
the  bottom  and  every  object  upon  it  are  plainly  visible  even  at  a  depth  of 
eighty  fathoms,  the  ground  is  seen  covered  with  gigantic  tangles,  which,  togeth- 
er with  the  animal  world  circulating  among  their  fronds,  remind  the  spectator 
of  the  coral-reefs  of  the  tropical  ocean.  Nullipores,  mussels,  alcyonians,  sertu- 
larians,  ascidians,  and  a  variety  of  other  sessile  animals,  incrust  every  stone  or 
fill  every  hollow  or  crevice  of  the  rocky  ground.  A  dead  seal  or  fish  thrown 
into  the  sea  is  soon  converted  into  a  skeleton  by  the  myriads  of  small  crustaceans 
which  infest  these  northern  waters,  and,  like  the  ants  in  the  equatorial  forests, 
perform  the  part  of  scavengers  of  the  deep. 


GO  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

Thus  we  find  an  exiiberance  of  life,  in  its  smaller  and  smallest  forms,  jieo- 
pling  the  Arctic  waters,  and  affording  nourishment  to  a  variety  of  strange  arid 
bulky  creatures — cetaceans,  walruses,  and  seals — which  annually  attract  thou- 
sands of  adventurous  seamen  to  the  icy  ocean. 

Of  these  sea-mammalians,  the  most  important  to  civilized  man  is  undoubted- 
ly the  Greenland  whale  {Balonna  mysticetus),  or  smooth-back,  thus  called  from 
its  having  no  dorsal  fin.  Formerly  these  whales  were  harpooned  in  considerable 
numbers  in  the  Icelandic  Avaters,  or  in  the  fiords  of  Spitzbergen  and  Danish 
Greenland  ;  then  Davis's  Straits  became  the  favorite  fishing-grounds  ;  and  more 
recently  the  inlets  and  various  channels  to  the  east  of  Baffin's  Bay  have  been 
invaded ;  while,  on  the  opposite  side  of  America,  several  hundreds  of  whalers 
penetrate  every  year  through  Bering's  Straits  into  the  icy  sea  beyond,  where 
previously  they  lived  and  multiplied,  unmolested  except  by  the  Esquimaux. 


THE  WHALE. 


More  fortunate  than  the  smooth-back,  the  rorquals,  or  fin-whales  {Balcenop- 
teraboops,muscidus,2)hl/salis,  and  rostratus),  stiW  remain  in  their  ancient  seats, 
from  Avhich  they  are  not  likely  to  be  dislodged,  as  the  agility  of  their  move- 
ments makes  their  capture  more  difiicult  and  dangerous  ;  while  at  the  same  time 
the  small  quantity  of  their  fat  and  the  shortness  of  their  baleen  render  it  far  less 
remunerative.  They  are  of  a  more  slender  form  of  body,  and  with  a  more 
pointed  muzzle  than  the  Greenland  whale ;  and  while  the  latter  attains  a  length 
of  only  sixty  feet,  the  Balmnoptera  hoojys  grows  to  the  vast  length  of  100  feet 
and  more.  There  is  also  a  difference  in  their  food,  for  the  Greenland  whale 
chiefly  feeds  upon  the  minute  animals  that  crowd  the  olive-colored  waters  above 
described,  or  on  the  hosts  of  little  pteropods  that  are  found  in  many  parts  of 
the  Arctic  seas,  while  the  rorquals  frequently  accompany  the  herring-shoals,  and 
carry  death  and  destruction  into  their  ranks. 

The  seas  of  Novaja  Zemlya,  Spitzbergen,  and  Greenland  are  the  domain  of 
the  narwhal,  or  sea-unicorn,  a  cetacean  quite  as  strange,  but  not  so  fabulous  as 
the  terrestrial  animal  which  figures  in  the  arms  of  England.     The  use  of  the 


ARCTIC   MARINE  ANDIALS.  61 

enormous  spirally  wound  tusk  projecting  from  its  upper  jaw,  and  from  which 
it  derives  its  popular  name,  has  4iot  yet  been  clearly  ascertained,  some  holding 
it  to  be  an  instrument  of  defense,  w  hile  others  suppose  it  to  be  only  an  orna- 
ment or  mark  of  the  superior  dignity  of  the  sex  to  which  it  has  been  awarded. 
Among  the  numerous  dolphins  which  people  the  Arctic  and  Subarctic  seas, 
the  beluga  {Delphlnas  leucas),  improperly  called  the  white  whale,  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting.  When  young  it  has  a  brown  color,  which  gradually  changes 
into  a  perfect  white.  It  attains  a  length  of  from  twelve  to  twenty  feet,  has  no 
dorsal  fin,  a  strong  tail  three  feet  broad,  and  a  round  head  Avith  a  broad  trun- 
cated snout.  Beyond  56°  of  latitude  it  is  frequently  seen  in  large  shoals,  par- 
ticularly near  the  estuaries  of  the  large  Siberian  and  North  American  rivers, 
which  it  often  ascends  to  a  considerable  distance  in  pursuit  of  the  salmon.  A 
troop  of  belugas  diving  out  of  the  dark  waves  of  the  Arctic  Sea  is  said  to  afford 


THE  NARWHAL. 


a  magnificent  spectacle.  Their  white  color  appears  dazzling,  from  the  con- 
trast of  the  sombre  background,  as  they  dart  about  with  arrow-like  velocity. 

The  black  dolphin  ( Globiceplialus  globiceps)  is  likewise  veiy  common  in 
the  Arctic  seas,  both  beyond  Bering's  Straits  and  between  Greenland  and  Spitz- 
bergen,  whence  it  frequently  makes  excursions  to  the  south.  It  grows  to  the 
length  of  twenty-four  feet,  and  is  about  ten  feet  in  circumference.  The  skin, 
like  that  of  the  dolphin  tribe  in  general,  is  smooth,  resembling  oiled  silk ;  the 
color  a  bluish-black  on  the  back,  and  generally  whitish  on  the  belly ;  the  blub- 
ber is  three  or  four  inches  thick. 

The  full-grown  have  generally  twenty-two  or  twenty-four  teeth  in  each  jaAv; 
and  when  the  mouth  is  shut,  the  teeth  lock  between  one  another,  like  the  teeth 
of  a  trap.  The  dorsal  fin  is  about  fifteen  inches  high,  the  tail  five  feet  broad ; 
the  pectoral  fins  are  as  riiany,  long  and  comparatively  narrow ;  so  that,  armed 
with  such  excellent  paddles,  the  black  dolphin  is  inferior  to  none  of  his  relatives 
in  swiftness.  Of  an  eminently  social  disposition,  these  dolphins  sometimes  con- 
gregate in  herds  of  many  hundreds,  under  the  guidance  of  several  old  expcri- 


62  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

enced  males,  Avhom  the  rest  follow  like  a  flock  of  sheep — a  property  from  which 
the  animal  is  called  in  Shetland  the  "  ca'ing  whale."  No  cetacean  strands  more 
frequently  than  the  black  dolphin,  and  occasionally  large  herds  have  been  driven 
on  the  shores  of  Iceland,  Norway,  and  the  Orkney,  Shetland  and  Faeroe  islands, 
where  their  capture  is  hailed  as  a  godsend.  The  intelligence  that  a  shoal  of 
ca'ing  whales  or  grinds  has  been  seen  approaching  the  coast,  creates  great  ex- 
citement among  the  otherwise  phlegmatic  inhabitants  of  the  Faeroe  Islands. 
The  whole  neighborhood,  old  and  young,  is  instantly  in  motion,  and  soon  numer- 
ous boats  shoot  off  from  shore  to  intercept  the  retreat  of  the  dolphins.  Slowly 
and  steadily  they  are  driven  toward  the  coast;  the  phalanx  of  their  enemies 
draws  closer  and  closer  together  ;  terrified  by  stones  and  blows,  they  run  ashore, 
and  lie  gasping  as  the  flood  recedes.  Then  begins  the  work  of  death,  amid  the 
loud  shouts  of  the  executioners  and  the  furious  splashings  of  the  victims.  In 
this  manner  more  than  800  grinds  were  massacred  on  August  16, 1*7  76;  and 
during  the  four  summer  months  that  Langbye  sojourned  on  the  island  in  1817, 
623  were  driven  on  shore,  and  served  to  pay  one-half  of  the  imported  corn. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  many  years  frequently  pass  without  yielding  one  single 
black  whale  to  the  tender  mercies  of  the  islanders. 

The  ferocious  ore,  or  grampus  {Delphinus  orca),  is  the  tiger  of  the  Arctic 
seas.  Black  above,  white  beneath,  it  is  distinguished  by  its  large  dorsal  fin, 
which  curves  backward  toward  the  tail,  and  rises  to  the  height  of  two  feet  or 
more.'  Measuring  no  less  than  twenty-five  feet  in  length  and  twelve  or  thirteen 
in  girth,  of  a  courage  equal  to  its  strength,  and  armed  with  formidable  teeth, 
thirty  in  each  jaw,  the  grampus  is  the  dread  of  the  seals,  whom  it  overtakes  in 
spite  of  their  rapid  flight ;  and  the  whale  himself  would  consider  it  as  his  most 
formidable  enemy,  were  it  not  for  the  persecutions  of  man.  The  grampus  gen- 
erally ploughs  the  seas  in  small  ti'oops  of  four  or  five,  following  each  other  in 
close  single  file,  and  alternately  disappearing  and  rising  so  as  to  resemble  the 
undulatory  motions  of  one  large  serpentiform  animal. 

The  family  of  the  seals  has  also  numerous  and  mighty  representatives  in  the 
Arctic  waters.  In  the  sea  of  Bering  we  meet  with  the  formidable  sea-lion  |pd 
the  valuable  sea-bear,  while  the  harp-seal,  the  bearded  seal,  and  the  hispid  seals 
{Phoca  groenlandica,  harhata,  hispida),  spreading  from  the  Parry  Islands  to 
Novaja  Zemlya,  yield  the  tribute  of  their  flesh  to  numerous  wild  tribes,  and 
that  of  their  skins  to  the  European  hunter. 

Few  Arctic  animals  are  more  valuable  to  man,  or  more  frequently  mentioned 
in  Polar  voyages  than  the  walrus  or  morse  ( Trichechxis  rosmarus),  which, 
though  allied  to  the  seals,  differs  greatly  from  them  by  the  development  of  the 
canines  of  the  upper  jaw,  which  form  two  enormous  tusks  projecting  down- 
ward to  the  length  of  two  feet.  The  morse  is  one  of  the  largest  quadrupeds  ex- 
isting, as  it  attains  a  length  of  twenty  feet,  and  a  weight  of  from  fifteen  hundred 
to  two  thousand  pounds.  In  uncouthness  of  form  it  surpasses  even  the  ungain- 
ly hippopotamus.  It  has  a  small  head  with  a  remarkably  thick  upper  lip,  cov- 
ered with  large  pellucid  whiskers  or  bristles";  the  neck  is  thick  and  short ;  the 
naked  gray  or-  red-brown  skin  hangs  loosely  on  the  ponderous  and  elongated 
trunk ;  and  the  short  feet  terminate  in  broad  fin-like  paddles,  resembling  large 


ARCTIC  31AK1JNE  ANlALiLS. 


ill-fashioued  flaps  of  leather.  Its  movements  on  land  are  extremely  slow  and 
awkward,  resembling  those  of  a  huge  caterpillar,  but  in  the  water  it  has  all  the 
activity  of  the  seals,  or  even  surpasses  them  in  speed. 


•„iiiiiiijii!iiiii!B»;iima:a'!Rii«^!'ia!iiiiiii 


Gregarious,  hke  the  seals  and  many  of  the  dolphins,  the  walruses  love  to  he 
on  the  ice  or  on  the  sand-banks,  closely  huddled  together.     On  the  spot  where 


64  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

a  walrus  lands,  others  are  sure  to  follow  ;  and  when  the  iirst  comers  block  the 
shore,  those  which  arrive  later,  instead  of  landing  on  a  free  spot  farther  on, 
prefer  giving  their  friends  who  are  in  the  way  a  gentle  push  with  their  tusks 
so  as  to  induce  them  to  make  room. 

Timorous  and  almost  helpless  on  land,  where,  in  spite  of  its  formidable 
tusks,  it  falls  an  easy  prey  to  the  attacks  of  man,  the  walrus  evinces  a  greater 
degree  of  courage  in  the  water,  where  it  is  able  to  make  a  better  use  of  the 
strength  and  weapons  bestowed  upon  it  by  nature.  Many  instances  are  known 
where  walruses,  which  never  attack  but  when  provoked,  have  turned  upon  their 
assailants,  or  have  even  assembled  from  a  distance  to  assist  a  wounded  com- 
rade. 

Like  the  seals,  the  walrus  is  easily  tamed,  and  of  a  most  affectionate  temper. 
This  was  shown  in  a  remarkable  manner  by  a  young  walrus  brought  alive  from 
Archangel  to  St.  Petersburg  in  1829.  Its  keeper,  Madame  Dennebecq,  having' 
tended  it  with  the  greatest  care,  the  grateful  animal  expressed  its  pleasure 
whenever  she  came  near  it  by  an  affectionate  grunt.  It  not  only  followed  her 
with  its  eyes,  but  was  never  happier  than  when  allowed  to  lay  its  head  in  her 
lap.  The  tenderness  was  reciprocal,  and  Madame  Dennebecq  used  to  talk  of 
her  walrus  with  the  same  warmth  of  affection  as  if  it  had  been  a  pet  lapdog. 

That  parental  love  should  be  highly  developed  in  animals  thus  susceptible 
of  friendship  may  easily  be  imagined.  Mr.  Lamont,  an  English  gentleman 
whom  the  love  of  sport  led  a  few  years  since  to  Spitzbergen,  relates  the  case  of 
a  wounded  walrus  who  held  a  very  young  calf  under  her  right  arm.  "When- 
ever the  harpoon  was  raised  against  it,  the  mother  carefully  shielded  it  with 
her  own  body.  Tlie  countenance  of  this  poor  animal  was  never  to  be  forgot- 
ten :  that  of  the  calf  expressive  of  abject  terror,  and  yet  of  such  a  boundless 
confidence  in  its  mother's  power  of  protecting  it,  as  it  swam  along  under  her 
wing,  and  the  old  cow's  face  showing  such  reckless  defiance  for  all  that  could 
be  done  to  herself,  and  yet  such  terrible  anxiety  as  to  the  safety  of  her  calf. 
This  parental  affection  is  shamefully  misused  by  man,  for  it  is  a  common 
artifice  of  the  walrus-hunters  to  catch  a  young  animal  and  make  it  grunt,  in 
order  to  attract  a  herd. 

The  walrus  is  confined  to  the  coasts  of  the  Arctic  regions,  UTiless  when  drift- 
ice,  or  some  other  accident,  carries  it  away  into  the  open  sea.  Its  chief  resorts 
are  Spitzbergen,  Nova  Zembla,  I^orth  Greenland,  the  shores  of  Hudson's  and 
Bafiin's  bays ;  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Polar  Ocean,  the  coasts  of  Ber- 
ing's Sea,  and  to  the  north  of  Bering's  Straits,  the  American  and  Asiatic  shores 
from  Point  Barrow  to  Cape  North.  It  has  nowhere  been  found  on  the  coasts 
of  Siberia  from  the  mouth  of  the  Jenisei  to  the  last-mentioned  promontory, 
and  on  those  of  America  from  Point  Barrow  to  Lancaster  Sound;  so  that  it 
inhabits  two  distinct  regions,  separated  from  each  other  by  vast  extents  of 
coast.  Its  food  seems  to  consist  principally  of  marine  plants  and  shell-fish, 
though  Scoresby  relates  that  he  found  the  remains  of  fishes,  or  even  of  seals,  in 
its  stomach. 

As  the  Polar  bear  is  frequently  found  above  a  hundred  miles  from  the  near- 
est land,  upon  loose  ice  steadily  drifting  into  the  sea,  it  seems  but  fair  to  assign 


ARCTIC   MARINE  ANIMALS.  65 

him  a  place  among  the  marine  animals  of  the  Arctic  zone.  He  hunts  by  scent, 
and  is  constantly  rmming  across  and  against  the  wind,  which  prevails  from  the 
northward,  so  that  the  same  instinct  which  directs  his  search  for  prey  also 
serves  the  important  purpose  of  guiding  him  ia  the  direction  of  the  land  and 
more  solid  ice.  His  favorite  food  is*  the  seal,  which  he  surprises  crouching 
down  with  his  fore  paws  doubled  underneath,  and  pushing  himself  noiselessly 
forward  with  his  hinder  legs  until  within  a  few  yards,  when  he  springs  upon 
his  victim,  whether  in  the  water  or  upon  the  ice.  He  can  swim  at  the  rate  of 
three  miles  an  hour,  and  can  dive  to  a  considerable  distance.  Though  he  at- 
tacks man  when  hungry,  wounded,  or  provoked,  he  will  not  injure  him  when 
•  food  more  to  his  liking  is  at  hand.  Sir  Francis  M'Clintock  relates  an  anecdote 
of  a  native  of  Upernavik  who  was  out  one  dark  winter's  day  visiting  his  seal- 
nets.  He  found  a  seal  entangled,  and  whilst  kneeling  down  over  it  upon  the 
ice  to  get  it  clear,  he  received  a  slap  on  the  back — from  his  companion  as  he 
supposed ;  but  a  second  and  heavier  blow  made  him  look  smartly  round.  He 
was  horror-stricken  to  see  a  peculiarly  grim  old  bear  instead  of  his  comrade. 
Without  taking  further  notice  of  the  man,  Bruin  tore  the  seal  out  of  the  net, 
and  began  his  supper.  He  was  not  interrupted,  nor  did  the  man  wait  to  see 
the  meal  finished,  fearing,  no  doubt,  that  his  uninvited  and  unceremonious  guest 
might  keep  a  corner  for  him. 

Many  instances  have  been  observed  of  the  peculiar  sagacity  of  th*e  Polar 
bear,  Scoresby  relates  that  the  captain  of  a  whaler,  being  anxious  to  procure 
a  bear  without  wounding  the  skin,  made  trial  of  the  stratagem  of  laying  the 
noose  of  a  rope  in  the  snow,  and  placing  a  piece  of  kreng,  or  whale's  carcass, 
within  it.  A  bear,  ranging  the  neighboring  ice,  was  soon  enticed  to  the  spot. 
Approaching  the  bait,  he  seized  it  in  his  mouth ;  but  his  foot,  at  the  same 
moment,  by  a  jerk  of  the  rope,  being  entangled  in  the  noose,  he  pushed  it  off 
with  the  adjoining  paw,  and  deliberately  retired.  After  having  eaten  the  piece 
he  carried  away  with  him,  he  returned.  The  noose,  with  another  piece  of 
kreng,  being  then  replaced,  he  pushed  the  rope  aside,  and  again  walked  tri- 
umphantly off  with  the  kreng.  A  third  time  the  noose  was  laid,  and  this  time 
the  rope  was  buried  in  the  snow,  and  the  bait  laid  in  a  deep  hole  dug  in  the 
centre.  But  Bruin,  after  snuffing  about  the  place  for  a  few  minutes,  scraped 
the  snow  away  with  his  paw,  threw  the  rope  aside,  and  escaped  unhurt  with 
his  prize. 

The  she-bear  is  taught  by  a  wonderful  instinct  to  shelter  her  young  under 
the  snow.  Towards  the  month  of  December  she  retreats  to  the  side  of  a  rock, 
where,  by  dint  of  scraping  and  allowing  the  snow  to  fall  upon  her,  she  forms  a 
cell  in  which  to  reside  during  the  winter.  There  is  no  fear  that  she  should  be 
stifled  for  want  of  aii-,  for  the  warmth  of  her  breath  always  keeps  a  small  pas- 
sage open,  and  the  snow,  instead  of  forming  a  thick  uniform  sheet,  is  broken 
by  a  little  hole,  round  which  is  collected  a  mass  of  glittering  hoar-frost,  caused 
by  the  congelation  of  the  breath.  Within  this  strange  nursery  she  produces 
her  young,  and  remains  with  them  beneath  the  snow  until  the  month  of  March, 
when  she  emerges  into  the  open  air  with  her  baby  bears.  As  the  time  passes 
on,  the  breath  of  the  family,  together  with  the  warmth  exhaled  from  their 

5 


66 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


HOME  OF  THE   POLAR  BEAK. 


bodies,  serves  to  enlarge  the  cell,  so  that  Avith  their  increasing  dimensions  the 
accommodation  is  increased  to  suit  them.  As  the  only  use  of  the  snow-burrow 
is  to  shelter  the  young,  the  male  bears  do  not  hibernate  like  the  females,  but 
roam  freely  about  during  the  winter  months.  Before  retiring  under  the  snow, 
the  bear  eats  enormously,  and,  driven  by  an  unfailing  instinct,  resorts  to  the 
most  nutritious  diet,  so  that  she  becomes  prodigiously  fat,  thus  laying  in  an  in- 
ternal store  of  alimentaiy  matter  which  enables  her  not  only  to  support  her 
own  life,  but  to  suckle  her  young  during  her  long  seclusion,  without  taking  a 
morsel  of  food.  By  an  admirable  provision  of  nature,  the  young  are  of  won- 
derfully small  dimensions  when  compared  with  the  parent ;  and  as  their  growth, 
as  long  as  they  remain  confined  in  their  crystal  nursery,  is  remarkably  slow, 
they  consequently  need  but  little  food  and  space. 

The  Polar  bear  is  armed  with  formidable  weapons,  and  a  proportionate 
power  to  use  them.  His  claws  are  two  inches  in  length,  and  his  canine  teeth, 
exclusive  of  the  part  in  the  jaw,  about  an  inch  and  a  half.  Thus  the  hoards 
of  provisions  which  are  fi-equently  deposited  by  Arctic  voyagers  to  provide  for 
some  future  want,  have  no  greater  enemy  than  the  Polar  bear.  "  The  final 
cache,"  says  Kane,  "  which  I  relied  so  much  upon,  was  entirely  destroyed.  It 
had  been  built  with  extreme  care,  of  rocks  Avhich  had  been  assembled  by  very 
heavy  labor,  and  adjusted  with  much  aid,  often,  from  capstan-bars  as  levers. 


ARCTIC  MARINE  ANIMALS.  67 

The  entire  construction  was,  so  far  as  our  means  permitted,  most  effective  and 
resisting.  Yet  these  tigers  of  the  ice  seemed  hardly  to  have  encountered  an 
obstacle.  Not  a  morsel  of  pemmican  remained,  except  in  the  iron  cases,  which 
being  round,  with  conical  ends,  defied  both  claws  and  teeth.  They  had  rolled 
and  pawed  them  in  every  direction,  tossing  them  about  like  footballs,  although 
over  eighty  pounds  in  weight.  An  alcohol  can,  strongly  iron-bound,  was 
dashed  into  small  fragments,  and  a  tin  -can  of  liquor  smashed  and  twisted 
almost  into  a  ball.  The  claws  of  the  beast  had  perforated  the  metal  and  torn 
it  up  as  with  a  chisel.  They  were  too  dainty  for  salt  meats  ;  ground  coffee 
they  had  an  evident  rehsh  for ;  old  canvas  was  a  favorite,  for  some  reason  or 
other ;  even  our  flag,  which  had  been  reared  '  to  take  possession '  of  the 
waste,  was  gnawed  down  to  the  very  staff.  They  had  made  a  regular  frolic  of 
it ;  rolling  our  bread-barrels  over  the  ice  ;  and,  unable  to  masticate  our  heavy 
India-rubber  cloth,  they  had  tied  it  up  in  unimaginable  hard  knots." 

Numbers  of  sea-birds  are  found  breeding  along  the  Arctic  shores  as  far  as 
man  has  hitherto  penetrated ;  some  even  keep  the  sea  in  the  high  latitudes  all 
the  winter,  wherever  open  water  exists.  On  the  most  northern  rocks  the  razor- 
1)ill  rears  its  young,  and  the  fulmar  and  Ross's  gull  have  been  seen  in  lanes  of 
Avater  beyond  82°  lat.  As  the  sun  gains  in  power,  enormous  troops  of  puffins, 
looms,  dovekies,  rotges,  skuas,  burgermasters,  Sabine's  gulls,  kittiwakes,  ivory 


gulls,  and  Arctic  terns,  return  to  the  north.  There  they  enjoy  the  long  sum- 
^mer  day,  and  revel  in  the  abundance  of  the  fish-teeming  waters,  bringing  life 
and  animation  into  solitudes  seldom  or  perhaps  never  disturbed  by  the  presence 
of  man,  and  mingling  their  wild  screams  with  the  hoarse-resounding  surge  or 
the  howling  of  the  storm.  In  many  localities  they  breed  in  such  abundance, 
that  it  may  be  said,  almost  without  exaggeration,  that  they  darken  the  sun 
when  they  fly,  and  hide  the  waters  when  they  swim. 


68 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


LAVA-FIELDS. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ICELAND. 

Volcanic  Origin  of  the  Island.— The  Klofa  Jcjkul.— Lava-streams.— The  Burning  Mountains  of  Krisu- 
vik.— The  Mud-caldrons  of  Reykjahlid.— The  Tungo-hver  at  Reykholt.— The  Great  Geysir.— The 
Strokkr.— Crystal  Pools.— The  Almannagja.— The  Surts-hellir. — Beautiful  Ice-cave.— The  Gotha 
Foss. — The  Detti  Foss. — Climate. — Vegetation. — Cattle. — Barbarous  Mode  of  Sheep-sheering. — 
Reindeer.— Polar  Bears.— Birds.— The  Eider-duck. — Videy. — Vigr. — The  Wild  Swan. — The  Ra- 
ven.—The  Jerfalcon.— The  Giant  auk,  or  Geirfugl.— Fish.— Fishing  Season.— The  White  Shark.— 
Mineral  Kingdom, — Sulphur. — Peat. — Drift-wood. 

ICELAND  might  as  well  be  called  Fireland,  for  all  its  40,000  square  miles 
have  originally  been  upheaved  fi-om  the  depths  of  the  waters  by  volcanic 
power.  First,  at  some  immeasurably  distant  period  of  the  world's  history,  the, 
small  nucleus  of  the  future  island  began  to  struggle  into  existence  against  the 
superincumbent  weight  of  the  ocean ;  then,  in  the  course  of  ages,  cone  rose 
after  cone,  crater  was  formed  after  crater,  eruption  followed  on  eruption,  and 
lava-stream  on  lava-stream,  until  finally  the  Iceland  of  the  present  day  was 
piled  up  with  her  gigantic  "jokuls,"  or  ice-mountains,  and  her  vast  promon- 
tories, stretching  like  huge  buttresses  far  out  into  the  sea. 

In  winter,  when  an  almost  perpetual  night  covers  the  wastes  of  this  fire-born 
land,  and  the  waves  of  a  stormy  ocean  thunder  against  its  shores,  imagination 
can  hardly  picture  a  more  desolate  scene ;  but  in  summer  the  rugged  nature 
of  Iceland  invests  itself  with  many  a  charm.     Then  the  eye  reposes  with  de- 


ICELAND.  69 

light  on  green  valleys  and  crystal  lakes,  on  the  purple  hills  or  snow-capped 
mountains  rising  in  Alpine  grandeur  above  the  distant  horizon,  and  the  stran- 
ger might  almost  be  tempted  to  exclaim  with  her  patriotic  sons,  "  Iceland  is  the 
best  land  under  the  sun."  That  it  is  one  of  the  most  interesting — through  its 
history,  its  inhabitants,  and,  above  all,  its  natural  curiosities — no  one  can  doubt. 
It  has  all  that  can  please  and  fascinate  the  poet,  the  artist,  the  geologist,  or  the 
historian ;  the  prosaic  utilitarian  alone,  accustomed  to  value  a  country  merely 
by  its  productions,  might  turn  with  some  contempt  fi'om  a  land  without  corn, 
without  forests,  without  mineral  riches,  and  covered  for  about  two-thirds  of  its 
surface  with  bogs,  lava- wastes,  and  glaciers. 

The  curse  of  sterility  rests  chiefly  on  the  south-eastern  and  central  parts  of 
the  island.  Here  nothing  is  to  be  seen  but  deserts  of  volcanic  stone  or  im- 
mense ice-fields,  the  largest  of  which — the  Klofa  Jokul — alone  extends  over 
more  than  4000  square  miles.  The  interior  of  this  vast  region  of  neve  and 
glacier  is  totally  unknown.  The  highest  peaks,  the  most  dreadful  volcanoes  of 
the  island,  rise  on  the  southern  and  south-western  borders  of  this  hitherto  inac- 
cessible waste  ;  the  Oraefa  looking  down  from  a  height  of  6000  feet  upon  all 
its  rivals — the  Skaptar,  a  name  of  dreadful  significance  in  the  annals  of  Iceland, 
and  farther  on,  like  the  advanced  guards  of  this  host  of  slumbering  fires,  the 
Katla,  the  Myrdal,  the  Eyjafjalla,  and  the  Hecla,  the  most  renowned,  though 
not  the  most  terrible,  of  all  the  volcanoes  of  Iceland. 

As  the  ice-fields  of  this  northern  island  far  surpass  in  magnitude  those  of 
the  Alps,  so  also  the  lava-streams  of  ^tna  or  Vesuvius  are  insignificant  when 
compared  with  the  enormous  masses  of  molten  stone  which  at  various  periods 
have  issued  from  the  craters  of  Iceland.  From  Mount  Skjaldebreith,  on  both 
sides  of  the  lake  of  Thingvalla  as  far  as  Cape  Reykjanes,  the  traveller  sees  an 
uninterrupted  lava-field  more  than  sixty  miles  long,  and  frequently  from  twelve 
to  fifteen  broad ;  and  lava-streams  of  still  more  gigantic  proportions  exist  in 
many  other  parts  of  the  island,  particularly  in  the  interior.  In  general,  these 
lava-streams  have  cooled  down  into  the  most  fantastic  forms  imaginable.  "  It 
is  hardly  possible,"  says  Mr.  Holland,  "  to  give  any  idea  of  the  general  appear- 
ance of  these  once  molten  masses.  Here  a  great  crag  has  toppled  over  into 
some  deep  crevasse,  there  a  huge  mass  has  been  upheaved  above  the  fiery 
stream  which  has  seethed  and  boiled  around  its  base.  Here  is  every  shape 
and  figure  that  sculpture  could  design  or  imagination  picture,  jumbled  to- 
gether in  grotesque  confusion,  whilst  everywhere  myriads  of  horrid  spikes  and 
sharp  shapeless  irregularities  bristle  amidst  them." 

By  the  eruptions  of  the  Icelandic  volcanoes  many  a  fair  meadow-land  has 
been  converted  into  a  stony  wilderness ;  but  if  the  subten-anean  fires  have  fre- 
quently brought  ruin  and  desolation  over  the  island,  they  have  also  endowed  it 
with  many  natural  wonders. 

In  the  "  burning  mountains "  of  Krisuvik,  on  the  south-western  coast,  a 
whole  hill-slope,  with  a  deep  narrow  gorge  at  its  foot,  is  covered  with  innumer- 
able boiling  springs  and  fumaroles,  whose  dense  exhalations,  spreading  an  in- 
tolerable stench,  issue  out  of  the  earth  with  a  hissing  noise,  and  completely  hide 
the  view. 


70 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


The  Namar,  or  boiling  mud-caldrons  of  Reykjalilid,  situated  among  a  range 
of  mountains  near  the  My  vatu  (Gnat-Lake),  in  one  of  the  most  solitary  spots  in 
the  north  of  the  island,  on  the  border  of  enormous  lava-fields  and  of  a  vast  un- 
known wilderness,  exhibit  volcanic  power  on  a  still  more  gigantic  scale.  There 
are  no  less  than  twelve  of  these  seething  pits,  all  filled  with  a  disgusting  thick 
slimy  gray  or  black  liquid,  boiling  or  simmering  with  greater  or  less  vehemence, 
and  emitting  dense  volumns  of  steam  strongly  impregnated  with  sulphurous 
gases.  Some  sputter  furiously,  scattering  their  contents  on  every  side,  while  in 
others  the  muddy  soup  appears  too  thick  to  boil,  and  after  remaining  quiescent 
for  about  half  a  minute,  rises  up  a  few  inches  in  the  centre  of  the  basin,  emits 
a  puff  of  steam,  and  then  subsides  into  its  former  state.  The  diameter  of  the 
largest  of  all  the  pits  can  not  be  less  than  fifteen  feet ;  and  it  is  a  sort  of  mud 
Geysir,  for  at  intervals  a  column  of  its  black  liquid  contents,  accompanied  with 
a  violent  rush  of  steam,  is  thrown  uj)  to  the  height  of  six  or  eight  feet.  Pro- 
fessor Sartorius  von  Waltershausen,  one  of  the  few  travellers  who  have  visited 
this  remarkable  spot,  says  that  the  witches  in  Macbeth  could  not  possibly  have 
desired  a  more  fitting  place  for  the  preparation  of  their  infernal  gruel  than  the 
mud-caldrons  of  Reykjahlid. 

Among  the  hot  or  boiling  springs  of  Iceland,  which  in  hundreds  of  places 
gush  forth  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  some  are  of  a  gentle  and  even  flow,  and 
can  be  used  for  bathing,  washing,  or  boiling,  while  others  of  an  intermittent  na- 
ture are  mere  objects  of  curiosity  or  wonder.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
the  latter  is  the  Tungo-hver,  at  Reykholt,  in  the  "  valley  of  smoke,"  thus  named 
from  the  columns  of  vapor  emitted  by  the  thermal  springs  which  are  here  scat- 
tered about  with  a  lavish  hand.  It  consists  of  two  fountains  within  a  yard  of 
each  other — the  larger  one  vomiting  a  column  of  boiling  water  ten  feet  high  for 
the  space  of  about  four  minutes,  when  it  entirely  subsides,  and  then  the  smaller 
one  operates  for  about  three  minutes,  ejecting  a  column  of  about  five  feet. 
The  alternation  is  perfectly  regular  in  time  and  force,  and  there  are  authentic  ac- 
counts of  its  unfailing  exactitude  for  the  last  hundred  years. 

But  of  all  the  springs  and  fountains  of  Iceland  there  is  none  to  equal,  either 
in  grandeur  or  renown,  the  Great  Geysir,  which  is  not  merely  one  of  the  curi- 


ICELAND.  71 

osities  of  the  country,  but  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  earth,  as  there  is  nothing- 
to  compare  to  it  in  any  other  part  -of  the  world. 

At  the  foot  of  the  Laugafjall  hill,  in  a  green  plam,  through  which  several 
rivers  meander  like  threads  of  silver,  and  where  chains  of  dark-colored  mount- 
ains, overtopped  here  and  there  by  distant  snow-peaks,  form  a  grand  but  mel- 
ancholy panorama,  dense  volumes  of  steam  indicate  from  afar  the  site  of  a 
whole  system  of  thermal  springs  congregated  on  a  small  piece  of  ground  which 
does  not  exceed  twelve  acres.  In  any  other  spot,  the  smallest  of  these  boiling 
fountains  would  arrest  the  traveller's  attention,  but  here  his  whole  mind  is  ab- 
sorbed by  the  Great  Geysir.  In  the  course  of  countless  ages  this  monarch  of 
springs  has  formed,  out  of  the  silica  it  deposits,  a  mound  which  rises  to  about 
thirty  feet  above  the  general  surface  of  the  plain,  and  slopes  on  all  sides  to  the 
distance  of  a  hundred  feet  or  thereabouts  from  the  border  of  a  large  circular 
basin  situated  in  its  centre,  and  measuring  about  fifty-six  feet  in  the  greatest 
diameter  and  fifty-two  feet  in  the  narrowest.  In  the  middle  of  this  basin, 
forming  as  it  were  a  gigantic  funnel,  there  is  a  pipe  or  tube,  which  at  its  open- 
ing in  the  basin  is  eighteen  or  sixteen  feet  in  diameter,  but  narrows  consider- 
ably at  a  little  distance  from  the  mouth,  and  then  appears  to  be  not  more  than 
ten  or  twelve  feet  in  diameter.  It  has  been  probed  to  a  depth  of  seventy  feet, 
but  it  is  more  than  probable  that  hidden  channels  ramify  farther  into  the  bow- 
els of  the  earth.  The  sides  of  the  tube  are  smoothly  polished,  and  so  hard  that 
it  is  not  possible  to  strike  off  a  piece  of  it  with  a  hammer. 

Generally  the  whole  basin  is  found  filled  up  to  the  brim  with  sea-green  wa- 
ter as  pure  as  crystal,  and  of  a  temperature  of  from  180°  to  190°.  Astonished 
at  the  placid  tranquilUty  of  the  pool,  the  traveller  can  hardly  believe  that  he  is 
really  standing  on  the  brink  of  the  far-famed  Geysir ;  but  suddenly  a  subterra- 
nean thunder  is  heard,  the  ground  trembles  under  his  feet,  the  water  in  the  ba- 
sin begins  to  simmer,  and  large  bubbles  of  steam  rise  from  the  tube  and  burst 
on  reaching  the  surface,  throwing  up  small  jets  of  spray  to  the  height  of  sev- 
eral feet.  Every  instant  he  expects  to  witness  the  grand  spectacle  which  has 
chiefly  induced  him  to  visit  this  northern  land,  but  soon  the  basin  becomes  tran- 
quil as  before,  and  the  dense  vapors  produced  by  the  ebullition  are  wafted  away 
by  the  breeze.  These  smaller  eruptions  are  regularly  repeated  every  eighty  or 
ninety  minutes,  but  frequently  the  traveller  is  obliged  to  wait  a  whole  day,  or 
even  longer,  before  he  sees  the  whole  power  of  the  Geysir.  A  detonation  loud- 
er than  usual  precedes  one  of  these  grand  eruptions  ;  the  water  in  the  basin  is 
violently  agitated ;  the  tube  boils  vehemently  ;  and  suddenly  a  magnificent  col- 
umn of  water,  clothed  in  vapor  of  a  dazzling  whiteness,  shoots  up  into  the 
air  with  immense  impetuosity  and  noise  to  the  height  of  seventy  or  eighty 
feet,  and,  radiating  at  its  apex,  showers  water  and  steam  in  every  direction.  A 
second  eruption  and  a  third  rapidly  follow,  and  after  a  few  minutes  the  fairy 
spectacle  has  passed  away  like  a  fantastic  vision.  The  basin  is  now  completely 
dried  up,  and  on  looking  down  into  the  shaft,  one  is  astonished  to  see  the  water 
about  six  feet  from  the  rim,  and  as  tranquil  as  in  an  ordinary  well.  After 
about  thirty  or  forty  minutes  it  again  begins  to  rise,  and  after  a  few  hours 
reaches  the  brim  of  the  basin,  whence  it  flows  down  the  slope  of  the  mound 


'3  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

into  the  Hvita,  or  White  River.  Soon  the  subterraneous  thunder,  the  shaking  of 
the  ground,  the  simmering  above  the  tube,  and  the  other  phenomena  which  at- 
tend each  minor  eruption,  begin  again,  to  be  followed  by  a  new  period  of  rest, 
and  thus  this  wonderful  play  of  nature  goes  on  day  after  day,  year  after  year, 
and  century  after  century.  The  mound  of  the  Geysir  bears  witness  to  its  im- 
mense antiquity,  as  its  water  contains  but  a  minute  portion  of  silica. 

After  the  Geysir,  the  most  remarkable  fountain  of  these  Phlegra?.an  fields  is 
the  great  Strokkr,  situated  about  four  hundred  feet  from  the  former.     Its  tube. 


THE   STROKKR. 


the  margin  of  which  is  almost  even  with  the  general  surface,  the  small  mound 
and  basin  being  hardly  discernible,  is  funnel-shaped,  or  resembling  the  flower  of 
a  convolvulus,  having  a  depth  of  forty-eight  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  six  feet  at 
the  mouth,  but  contracting,  at  twenty-two  feet  from  the  bottom,  to  only  eleven 
inches.  The  water  stands  from  nine  to  twelve  feet  under  the  brim,  and  is  gen- 
erally in  violent  ebullition.  A  short  time  before  the  beginning  of  the  erup- 
tions, which  are  more  frequent  than  those  of  the  Great  Geysir,  an  enormous 
mass  of  steam  rushes  from  the  tube,  and  is  followed  by  a  rapid  succession  of  jets, 
sometimes  rising  to  the  height  of  120  or  150  feet,  and  dissolving  into  silvery 
mist.  A  peculiarity  of  the  Strokkr  is  that  it  can  at  any  time  be  provoked  to  an 
eruption  by  throwing  into  the  orifice  large  masses  of  peat  or  turf ;  thus  chok- 
ing the  shaft,  and  preventing  the  free  escape  of  the  steam.  After  the  lapse  of 
about  ten  minutes,  the  boiling  fluid,  as  if  indignant  at  this  attempt  upon  its 
liberty,  heaves  up  a  column  of  mud  and  water,  with  fragments  of  peat,  as  black 
as  ink. 


ICELAND.  73 

About  150  paces  from  the  Great  Gcysir  are  several  pools  of  the  most  beau- 
tifully clear  water,  tinting  with  every  shade  of  the  purest  green  and  blue  the 
fantastical  forms  of  the  silicious  travertin  which  clothes  their  sides.  The  slight- 
est motion  communicated  to  the  surface  quivers  down  to  the  bottom  of  these 
crystal  grottoes,  and  imparts  what  might  be  called  a  sympathetic  tremor  of  the 
water  to  every  delicate  incrustation  and  plant-like  efflorescence.  "  Aladdin's 
Cave  could  not  be  more  beautiful,"  says  Preyer  ;  and  Mr.  Holland  remarks  that 
neither  description  nor  drawing  is  capable  of  giving  a  sufficient  idea  of  the  sin- 
gularity and  loveliness  of  this  spot.  In  many  places  it  is  dangerous  to  approach 
within  several  feet  of  the  margin,  as  the  earth  overhangs  the  water,  and  is  hol- 
low underneath,  supported  only  by  incrustations  scarcely  a  foot  thick.  A 
plunge  into  waters  of  about  200°  would  be  paying  rather  too  dearly  for  the 
contemplation  of  their  fairy-like  beauty. 


ENTRANCE  TO  THE  ALMANNAGJA. 


The  gigantic  chasm  of  the  Almannagja  is  another  of  the  volcanic  wonders 
of  Iceland.  After  a  long  and  tedious  ride  over  the  vast  lava-plain  which  extends 
between  the  Skalafell  and  the  lake  of  Thingvalla,  the  traveller  suddenly  find^ 
himself  arrested  in  his  path  by  an  apparently  insurmountable  obstacle,  for  the 


74 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


enormous  Almaunagja,  or  AUman's  Rift,  suddenly  gapes  beneath  bis  feet — a 
colossal  rent  extendiag  above  a  mile  in  length,  and  inclosed  on  both  sides  by 
abrupt  walls  of  black  lava,  frequently  upward  of  a  hundred  feet  high,  and  sep- 
arated from  about  fifty  to  seventy  feet  from  each  other. 


%'tV 


THE  alma>::nagja. 


A  corresponding  chasm,  but  of  inferior  dimensions,  the  Hrafnagja,  or  Ra- 
ven's Rift,  opens  its  black  rampart  to  the  east,  about  eight  miles  farther  on  ; 
and  both  form  the  boundaries  of  the  verdant  plain  of  Thiugvalla,  which  by  a 
grand  convulsion  of  nature  has  itself  been  shattered  into  innumerable  small 
parallel  crevices  and  fissures  fifty  or  sixty  feet  deep. 

Of  the  Hrafnagja  Mr.  Ross  Browne  says  :  "  A  toilsome  ride  of  eight  miles 
brought  us  to  the  edge  of  the  Pass,  which  in  point  of  rugged  grandeur  far 
surpasses  the  Almaunagja,  though  it  lacks  the  extent  and  symmetry  which  give 
the  latter  such  a  remarkable  effect.  Here  was  a  tremendous  gap  in  the  earth, 
over  a  hundred  feet  deep,  hacked  and  shivered  into  a  thousand  fantastic  shapes ; 
the  sides  a  succession  of  the  wildest  accidents ;  the  bottom  a  chaos  of  broken 
lava,  all  tossed  about  in  the  most  terrific  confusion.  It  is  not,  hoAvever,  the  ex- 
traordinary desolation  of  the  scene  that  constitutes  its  princij^al  interest.  The 
resistless  power  which  had  rent  the  great  lava-bed  asunder,  as  if  touched  with 
pity  at  the  ruin,  had  also  flung  from  the  tottering  cliffs  a  causeway  across  the 
gap,  which  now  forms  the  only  means  of  passing  over  the  great  Hrafnagja. 
No  human  hands  could  have  created  such  a  colossal  work  as  this ;  the  imagi- 
nation is  lost  in  its  massive  grandeur ;  and  when  we  reflect  that  miles  of  an 
almost  impassable  country  would  otherwise  have  to  be  traversed  in  order  to 


ICELAND. 


75 


^^-^^^^t^^^ 


THE  HKAFNAGJA. 


reach  the  opposite  side  of  the  gap,  the  eondusion  is  irresistible  that  in  the  bat- 
tle of  the  elements  Nature  still  had  a  kindly  remembrance  of  man. 


TUE    TlNTllUN    KUCK. 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


"Five  or  six  miles  beyond  the  Hrafnagja,  near  the  summit  of  a  dividing 
ridge,  we  came  upon  a  very  singular  volcanic  formation,  called  the  Tintron. 
It  stands,  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  trail,  on  a  rise  of  scoria  and  burnt  earth, 
from  which  it  juts  up  in  rugged  relief  to  the  height  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet. 
This  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  huge  clinker,  not  unlike  what  comes  out  of  a  grate 
— ^hard,  glassy  in  spots,  and  scraggy  all  over.  The  top  part  is  shaped  like  a 
shell ;  in  the  centre  is  a  hole  about  three  feet  in  diameter,  which  opens  into  a 
vast  subterranean  cavity  of  unknown  depth.  Whether  the  Tintron  is  an  ex- 
tinct crater,  through  which  fires  shot  out  of  the  earth  in  by-gone  times,  or  an 
isolated  mass  of  lava,  whirled  through  the  air  out  of  some  distant  volcano,  is 
a  question  that  geologists  must  determine.  The  probability  is  that  it  is  one 
of  those  natural  curiosities  so  common  in  Iceland  which  defy  research.  The 
Avhole  country  is  full  of  anomalies — bogs  where  one  would  expect  to  find  dry 
land,  and  parched  deserts  where  it  would  not  seem  strange  to  see  bogs ;  fire 
where  water  ought  to  be,  and  water  in  the  place  of  fire." 

"  Ages  ago,"  says  Lord  Dufferin,  "  some  vast  commotion  shook  the  foun- 
dations of  the  island  ;  and  bubbling  up  from  sources  far  away  amid  the  inland 
hills,  a  fierj  deluge  must  have  rushed  down  between  their  ridges,  until,  esca- 
ping from  the  narrower  gorges,  it  found  space  to  spread  itself  into  one  broad 
sheet  of  molten  stone  over  an  entire  district  of  country,  reducing  its  varied 
surface  to  one  vast  blackened  level.     One  of  two  things  then  occurred  :  either, 


aries,  to 
the  lava 


^*lk 


the  \itiified  mass  contracting  as  it 
cooled,  the  centre  area  of  fifty  square 
miles  (the  present  plain  of  Thingvalla) 
burst  asunder  at  either  side  from  the 
adjoining  plateau, and  sinking  down  to 
its  present  level,  left  t\^o  parallel  gjas, 
or  chasms,  which  form  its  lateral  bound- 
mark  the  limits  of  the  disruption ;  or  else,  while  the  pith  or  marrow  of 
was  still  in  a  fluid  state,  its  upper  surface  became  solid,  and  formed  a 


FALL   OF   THE   OXERAA. 


ICELAND.  77 

roof,  beneath  which  the  molten  stream  flowed  on  to  lower  levels,  leaving  a  vast 
cavern  into  which  the  upper  crust  subsequently  plumped  down."  In  the  lapse 
of  years,  the  bottom  of  the  Almannagja  has  become  gradually  filled  up  to  an 
even  surface,  covered  with  the  most  beautiful  turf,  except  where  the  river 
Oxeraa,  bounding  in  a  magnificent  cataract  from  the  higher  plateau  over  the 
precipice,  flows  for  a  certain  distance  between  its  walls.  At  the  foot  of  the 
fall  the  waters  linger  for  a  moment  in  a  dai-k,  deep,  brimming  pool,  hemmed 
in  by  a  circle  of  ruined  rocks,  in  which  anciently  all  women  convicted  of 
capital  crimes  were  immediately  drowned.  Many  a  poor  crone,  accused  of 
witchcraft,  has  thus  ended  her  days  in  the  Almannagja.  As  may  easily  be  im- 
agined, it  is  rather  a  nerve-ti-ying  task  to  descend  into  the  chasm  over  a  rugged 
lava-slope,  where  the  least  false  step  may  prove  fatal ;  but  the  Icelandic  horses' 
are  so  sure-footed  that  they  can  safely  be  trusted.  From  the  bottom  it  is 
easy  to  distinguish  on  the  one  face  marks  and  formations  exactly  correspond- 
ing, though  at  a  different  level,  with  those  on  the  face  opposite,  and  evidently 
showing  that  they  once  had  dovetailed  into  each  other,  before  the  igneous 
mass  was  rent  asunder. 

Two  leagues  from  Kalmanstunga,  in  an  immense  lava-field,  which  probably 
originated  in  the  Bald  Jokul,  are  situated  the  renowned  Surts-hellir,  or  caves 
of  Surtur,  the  prince  of  darkness  and  fire  of  the  ancient  Scandinavian  mytholo- 
gy. The  principal  entrance  to  the  caves  is  an  extensive  chasm  formed  by  the 
falling  in  of  a  part  of  the  lava-roof ;  so  that,  on  descending  into  it,  the  visitor 
finds  himself  right  in  the  mouth  of  the  main  cavern,  which  runs  in  an  almost 
straight  line,  and  is  nearly  a  mile  in  length.  Its  average  height  is  about  forty, 
and  its  breadth  fifty  feet.  The  lava-crust  which  forms  its  roof  is  about  twelve 
feet  thick,  and  has  the  appearance  of  being  stratified  and  columnar,  like  basaltic 
pillars,  in  its  formation.  Many  of  the  blocks  of  lava  thus  formed  have  become 
detached  and  fallen  into  the  cavern,  where  they  He  piled  up  in  great  heaps,  and 
heavily  tax  the  patience  of  the  traveller,  who  has  to  scramble  over  the  rugged 
stones,  and  can  hardly  avoid  slipping  and  stumbling  into  the  holes  between 
them,  varied  by  pools  of  water  and  masses  of  snow.  But  after  having  toiled 
and  plodded  to  the  extremity  of  this  dismal  cavern,  his  perseverance  is  amply 
rewarded  by  the  sight  of  an  ice-grotto,  whose  fairy  beauty  appears  still  more 
charming,  in  contrast  with  its  gloomy  vestibule.  From  the  crystal  floor  rises 
group  after  group  of  transparent  pillars  tapering  to  a  point,  while  from  the 
roof  brilliant  icy  pendants  hang  down  to  meet  them.  Columns  and  arches  of 
ice  are  ranged  along  the  crystalline  walls,  and  the  light  of  the  candles  is  reflect- 
ed back  a  hundred-fold  from  every  side,  till  the  whole  cavern  shines  with  aston- 
ishing lustre.  Mr.  Holland,  the  latest  visitor  of. the  Surts-hellir,  declares  he 
never  saw  a  more  brilliant  spectacle  ;  and  the  German  naturalist,  Preyer,  pro- 
nounces it  one  of  the  most  magnificent  sights  in  nature,  reminding  him  of  the 
fairy  grottoes  of  the  Arabian  Nights'  Tales. 

From  the  mountains  and  the  vast  plateau  which  occupies  the  centre  of  the 
island,  numerous  rivers  descend  on  all  sides,  which,  fed  in  summer  by  the  melt- 
ing glaciers,  pour  enormous  quantities  of  turbid  water  into  the  sea,  or  convert 
large  alluvial  flats  into  morasses.      Though  of  a  considerable  breadth,  their 


78  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

course  is  frequently  very  short,  particularly  along  the  southern  coast,  where 
the  jokuls  from  which  they  derive  their  birth  are  only  sei^arated  from  the 
sea  by  a  narrow  foreland.  In  their  impetuous  flow,  they  not  seldom  bear  huge 
blocks  of  stone  along  with  them,  and  cut  off  all  communication  between  the 
inhabitants  of  their  opposite  banks. 

The  chief  rivers  of  Iceland  are,  in  the  south,  the  Thiorsa  and  the  Ilvita, 
which  are  not  inferior  in  width  to  the  Rhine  in  the  middle  part  of  its  course ; 
in  the  north,  the  Skjalfandafljot  and  the  Jokulsa  and  the  Jokulsa  i  Axarfirdi, 
large  and  rapid  streams  above  a  hundred  miles  long ;  and  in  the  east  the  La- 
garfliot.  As  may  be  exj^ected  in  a  mountainous  country,  containing  many 
glacier-fed  rivers,  Iceland  has  numerous  cascades,  many  of  them  rivalling  or 
surpassing  in  beauty  the  far-famed  falls  of  Switzerland. 

One  of  the  most  celebrated  of  these  gems  of  nature  is  the  Goda-foss,  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  island,  formed  by  the  deep  and  rapid  Skjalfandafljot,  as  it 
rushes  with  a  deafening  roar  over  rocks  fifty  feet  high  into  the  caldron  below ; 
but  it  is  far  surpassed  in  magnificence  by  the  Dettifoss,  a  fall  of  the  Jukulsa  i 
Axarfirdi. 

"  In  some  of  old  earth's  convulsions,"  says  its  discoverer,  Mr.  Gould, — for 
from  its  remote  situation,  deep  in  the  northern  wilds  of  Iceland,  it  had  escaped 
the  curious  eye  of  previous  travellers — "the  crust  of  rock  has  been  rent,  and  a 
frightful  fissure  formed  in  the  basalt,  about  200  feet  deep,  wuth  the  sides  co- 
lumnar and  perpendicular.  The  gash  terminates  abruptly  at  an  acute  angle, 
and  at  this  spot  the  great  river  rolls  in.  The  wreaths  of  water  sweeping 
down  ;  the  frenzy  of  the  confined  streams  where  they  meet,  shooting  into  each 
other  fi-oni  either  side  at  the  apex  of  an  angle ;  the  Avild  rebound  when  they 
strike  a  head  of  rock,  lurching  out  half  way  down  ;  the  fitful  gleam  of  battling 
torrents,  obtained  through  a  veil  of  eddying  vapor ;  the  Geysir-spouts  which 
blow  up  about  seventy  feet  from  holes  v>^henc6  basaltic  columns  have  been  shot 
by  the  force  of  the  descending  water ;  the  blasts  of  spray  which  rush  upward 
and  burst  into  fierce  showers  on  the  brink,  feeding  rills  which  plunge  over  the 
edge  as  soon  as  they  are  born ;  the  white  writhing  vortex  below,  with  now  and 
then  an  ice-green  wave  tearing  through  the  ioam  to  lash  against  the  walls ;  the 
thunder  and  bellowing  of  the  water,  which  make  the  rock  shudder  under  foot, 
are  all  stamped  on  ray  mind  with  a  vividness  which  it  will  take  years  to  efface. 
The  Almannagja  is  nothing  to  this  chasm,  and  Schaffhausen  is  dwarfed  by 
Dettifoss." 

The  ocean-currents  which  wash  the  coasts  of  Iceland  from  opposite  direc- 
tions have  a  considerable  influence  on  its  climate.  The  south  and  west  coasts, 
fronting  the  Atlantic,  and  exposed  to  the  Gulf  Stream,  remain  ice-free  even  in 
winter,  and  enjoy  a  comparatively  mild  temperature,  while  the  cold  Polar  cur- 
rent, flowing  in  a  south-western  direction  from  Spitzbergen  to  Jan  Mayen  and 
Iceland,  conveys  almost  every  year  to  the  eastern  and  northern  shores  of  the 
island  large  masses  of  drift-ice,  which  sometimes  do  not  disappear  before  July 
or  even  August.  According  to  Dr.  Thorstensen,  the  mean  annual  temperature 
of  the  air  at  Reykjavik  is  +40°,  and  that  of  the  sea  +42°,  while  according  to 
Herr  von  Scheele  the  mean  annual  temperature  at  Akureyre,  on  the  north  coast, 


ICELAOT).  79 

is  only  +33°,  though  even  this  shows  a  comparatively  mild  climate  in  so  high 
a  latitude.  But  if  Iceland,  thanks  to  its  insiilar  position  and  to  the  influence 
of  the  Gulf  Stream,  remains  free  from  the  excessive  winter  cold  of  the  Arctic 
continents,  its  summer,  on  the  other  hand,  is  inferior  in  warmth  to  tliat  which 
reigns  in  the  interior  of  Siberia,  or  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  territories. 

The  mean  summer  temperature  at  Reykjavik  is  not  above  +64°;  during 
many  years  the  thei'mometer  never  rises  a  single  time  above  +80°;  sometimes 
even  its  maximum  is  not  higher  than  +59°  ;  and,  on  the  northern  coast,  snow 
not  seldom  falls  even  in  the  middle  of  summer.  Under  such  circumstances,  the 
cultivation  of  the  cereals  is  of  course  impossible ;  and  when  the  drift-ice  re- 
mains longer  than  usual  on  the  northern  coasts,  it  prevents  even  the  growth  of 
the  grass,  and  want  and  famine  are  the  consequence. 

The  Icelandic  summer  is  characterized  by  constant  changes  in  the  weather, 
rain  continually  alternating  with  sunshine,  as  with  us  in  April.  The  air  is  but 
seldom  tranquil,  and  storms  of  terrific  violence  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 
Towards  the  end  of  September  winter  begins,  preceded  by  mists,  which  finally 
descend  in  thick  masses  of  snow.  Travelling  over  the  mountain-tracks  is  at 
this  time  particularly  dangerous;  although  cairns  or  piles  of  stone  serve  to 
point  out  the  way,  and  here  and  there,  as  over  the  passes  of  the  Alps,  small  huts 
have  been  erected  to  serve  as  a  refuge  for  the  traveller. 

In  former  times  Iceland  could  boast  of  forests,  so  that  houses  and  even  ships 
used  to  be  built  of  indigenous  timber;  at  present  it  is  almost  entirely  destitute 
of  trees,  for  the  dwarf  shrubberies  here  and  there  met  with,  where  the  birch 
hardly  attains  the. height  of  twenty  feet,  are  not  to  be  dignified  with  the  name 
of  woods.  A  service-tree  {Sorhus  ancuparia)  fourteen  feet  high,  and  measur- 
ing three  inches  in  diameter  at  the  foot,  is  the  boast  of  the  governoi-'s  garden 
at  Reykjavik  ;  it  is,  however,  surpassed  by  another  at  Akureyre,  which  spreads 
a  full  crown  twenty  feet  from  the  ground,  but  never  sees  its  clusters  of  berries 
ripen  into  scai'let. 

The  damp  and  cool  Icelandic  summer,  though  it  prevents  the  successful  cul- 
tivation of  corn,  is  favorable  to  the  growth  of  grasses,  so  that  in  some  of  the 
better  farms  the  pasture-grounds  are  hardly  inferior  to  the  finest  meadows  in 
England.  About  one-third  of  the  surface  of  the  country  is  covered  with  vege- 
tation of  some  sort  or  other  fit  for  the  nourishment  of  cattle ;  but,  as  yet,  art 
has  done  little  for  its  improvement — ploughing,  sowing,  drainage,  and  levelling, 
being  things  undreamt  of.  With  the  exception  of  the  grasses,  which  are  of 
paramount  importance,  and  the  trees,  which,  in  spite  of  their  stunted  propor- 
tions, are  of  great  value,  as  they  supply  the  islanders  with  the  charcoal  needed 
for  shoeing  their  horses,  few  of  the  indigenous  plants  of  Iceland  are  of  any  use 
to  man.  The  Ayigelica  archangelica  is  eaten  raw  with  butter;  the  matted 
roots  or  stems  of  the  Menyanthes  trifoliata  serve  to  protect  the  backs  of  the 
horses  against  the  rubbing  of  the  saddle ;  and  the  Icelandic  moss,  which  is  fre- 
quently boiled  in  milk,  is  likewise  an  article  of  exportation.  The  want  of  bet- 
ter grain  frequently  compels  the  poor  islanders  to  bake  a  kind  of  bread  from 
the  seeds  of  the  sand-reed  {Ehjmus  arenarlus),  which  on  our  dunes  are  merely 
picked  by  the  birds  of  passage  ;  and  the  oarweed  or  tangle  {Laminaria  sac- 


80  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

charina)  is  prized  as  a  vegetable  in  a  land  where  potatoes  and  turnips  are  but 
rarely  cultivated. 

When  the  first  settlers  came  to  Iceland,  they  found  but  two  indigenous 
land-quadrupeds :  a  species  of  field-vole  {Arvicola  oeconomus)  and  the  Arctic 
fox ;  but  the  seas  and  shores  were  no  doubt  tenanted  by  a  larger  number  of 
whales,  dolphins,  and  seals  than  at  the  present  day. 

The  ox,  the  sheep,  and  the  horse  which  accompanied  the  Norse  colonists  to 
their  new  home,  form  the  staple  wealth  of  their  descendants ;  for  the  number 
of  those  who  live  by  breeding  cattle  is  as  three  to  one,  compared  with  those 
who  chiefly  depend  on  the  sea  for  their  subsistence.  Milk  and  Avhey  are  almost 
the  only  beverages  of  the  Icelanders.  Without  butter  they  will  eat  no  fish ; 
and  curdled  milk,  which  they  eat  fresh  in  summer  and  preserve  in  a  sour  state 
during  the  winter,  is  their  favorite  repast.  Thus  they  set  the  highest  value  on 
their  cattle,  and  tend  them  with  the  greatest  care.  In  the  preservation  of  their 
sheep,  they  are  much  hami^ered  by  the  badness  of  the  climate,  by  the  scantiness 
of  winter  food,  and  by  the  attacks  of  the  eagles,  the  ravens,  and  the  foxes,  more 
particularly  at  the  lambing  season,  when  vast  numbers  of  the  young  animals 
are  carried  off  by  all  of  them.  The  wool  is  not  sheared  off,  but  torn  from  the 
animal's  back,  and  woven  by  the  peasantry,  during  the  long  winter  evenings,  into 
a  kind  of  coarse  cloth,  or  knit  into  gloves  and  stockings,  which  form  one  of  the 
chief  articles  of  export. 

"  While  at  breakfast,"  says  Mr.  Shepherd,  "  we  witnessed  the  Icelandic  meth- 
od of  sheep-shearing.  Three  or  four  powerful  young  women  seized,  and  easily 
threw  on  their  backs  the  struggling  victims.  The  legs  were. then  tied,  and  the 
wool  pulled  off  by  main  force.  It  seemed,  from  the  contortions  of  some  of  the 
wretched  animals,  to  be  a  cruel  method ;  but  we  were  told  that  there  is  a  period 
in  the  year  when  the  young  wool,  beginning  to  grow,  pushes  the  old  out  before 
it,  so  that  the  old  coat  is  easily  pulled  out."  The  number  of  heads  of  cattle  in 
the  island  is  about  40,000,  that  of  the  sheep  500,000. 

The  horses,  which  number  from  50,000  to  60,000,  though  small,  are  very  ro- 
bust and  hardy.  There  being  no  wheel  carriages  on  the  island,  they  are  mere- 
ly used  for  riding  and  as  beasts  of  burden.  Their  services  are  indispensable, 
as  without  them  the  Icelanders  would  not  have  the  means  of  travelling  and  car- 
rying their  produce  to  the  fishing  villages  or  ports  at  which  the  annual  supplies 
arrive  from  Copenhagen.  In  winter  the  poor  animals  must  find  their  own  food, 
and  are  consequently  mere  skeletons  in  spring  ;  they,  however,  soon  recover  in 
summer,  though  even  then  they  have  nothing  whatever  but  the  grass  and  small 
plants  which  they  can  pick  up  on  the  hills. 

The  dogs  are  very  similar  to  those  of  Lapland  and  Greenland.  Like  them, 
they  have  long  hair,  forming  a  kind  of  collar  round  the  neck,  a  pointed  nose, 
pointed  ears,  and  an  elevated  curled  tail,  with  a  temper  which  may  be  charac- 
terized as  restless  and  irritable.     Their  general  color  is  white. 

In  the  year  IVVO  thirteen  reindeer  were  brought  from  Norway.  Ten  of 
them  died  during  the  passage,  but  the  three  that  survived  have  multiplied  so 
fast  that  large  herds  now  roam  over  the  uninhabited  wastes.  During  the  win- 
ter, when  hunger  drives  them  into  the  lower  districts,  they  are  frequently  shot; 


ICELAND. 


81 


ICELANDIC   HORSES. 


but  no  attempts  have  been  made  to  tame  them :  for,  though  indispensable  to  the 
Laplander,  they  are  quite  superfluous  in  Iceland,  which  is  too  rugged  and  too 
much  intersected  by  streams  to  admit  of  sledging.  They  are,  in  fact,  generally 
considered  as  a  nuisance,  as  they  eat  away  the  Icelandic  moss,  which  the  island- 
ers would  willingly  keep  for  their  own  use. 

The  Polar  bear  is  but  a  casual  visitor  in  Iceland.  About  a  dozen  come 
drifting  every  year  with  the  ice  from  Jan  Mayen,  or  Spitzbergen,  to  the  north- 
ern shores.  Ravenous  with  hunger,  they  immediately  attack  the  first  herds 
they  meet  Avith  ;  but  their  ravages  do  not  last  loiig,  for  the  neighborhood,  aris- 
ing in  arms,  soon  puts  an  end  to  their  existence. 

In  Iceland  the  ornithologist  finds  a  rich  field  for  his  favorite  study,  as  there 
are  no  less  than  eighty-two  different  species  of  indigenous  birds,  besides  twenty- 
one  that  are  only  casual  visitors,  and  six  that  have  been  introduced  by  man. 

The  swampy  grounds  in  the  interior  of  the  country  are  peopled  with  legions 
of  golden  and  king  plovers,  of  snipes  and  red-shanks ;  the  lakes  abound  with 
swans,  ducks,  and  geese  of  various  kinds ;  the  snow-bunting  enlivens  the  soli- 
tude of  the  rocky  wilderness  with  his  lively  note,  and,  wherever  grass  grows, 
the  common  "pipit  {A7ithus  2)'>'citensis)  builds  its  neat  little  nest,  well  lined  with 
horsehair.  Like  the  lark,  he  rises  singing  from  the  ground,  and  frequently 
surprises  the  traveller  with  his  melodious  warbling,  which  sounds  doubly  sweet 
in  the  lifeless  waste. 

The  eider-duck  holds  the  first  rank  among  the  useful  birds  of  Iceland.  Its 
chief  breeding-places  are  small  flat  islands  on  various  parts  of  the  coast,  where 
it  is  safe  from  the  attacks  of  the  Arctic  fox,  such  as  Akurey,  Flatey,  and  Videy, 


83 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


which,  from  its  vicinity  to  Reykjavik,  is  frequently  visited  by  travellers.     All 
these  breeding-places  are  private  property,  and  several  have  been  for  centuries 


in  the  possession  of  the  same  families,  which,  thanks  to  the  birds,  are  among  the 
wealthiest  of  the  land.  It  may  easily  be  imagined  that  the  eider-ducks  are 
guarded  with  the  most  sedulous  care.     Whoever  kills  one  is  obhged  to  pay  a 


ICELAND. 


83 


EIDER-DUCK. 


fine  of  thirty  dollars ;  and  the  secreting  of 
an  egg,  or  the  pocketing  of  a  few  downs,  is 
l)unished  with  all  the  rigor  of  the  law.  The 
chief  occupation  of  Mr.  Stephenson,  the  aged 
proprietor  of  Videy,  who  dwells  alone  on  the 
islet,  is  to  examine  through  his  telescope  all 
the  boats  that  approach,  so  as  to  be  sure  that 
there  are  no  guns  on  board.  During  the 
breeding  season  no  one  is  allowed  to  land 
without  his  special  permission,  and  all  noise, 
shouting,  or  loud  speaking  is  strictly  prohib- 
ited. But,  in  spite  of  these  precautions,  we 
are  informed  by  recent  travellers  that  latterly  the  greater  part  of  the  ducks  of 
Videy  have  been  tempted  to  leave  their  old  quarters  for  the  neighboring  Engey, 
Avhose  proprietor  hit  upon  the  plan  of  laying  hay  upon  the  strand,  so  as  to  afford 
them  greater  facilities  for  nest-building.  The  eider-down  is  easily  collected,  as  the 
birds  are  quite  tame.  The  female  having  laid  five  or  six  j^ale  greenish-olive  eggs, 
in  a  nest  thickly  lined  with  her  beautiful  down,  the  collectors,  after  carefully  re- 
moving the  bird,  rob  the  nest  of  its  contents,  after  which  they  replace  her.  She 
then  begins  to  lay  afresh,  though  this  time  only  three  or  four  eggs,  and  agam 
has  recourse  to  the  doAvn  on  her  body.  But  her  greedy  persecutors  once  more 
rifle  her  nest,  and  obhge  her  to  line  it  for  the  third  time.  Now,  however,  her 
own  stock  of  down  is  exhausted,  and  with  a  plaintive  voice  she  calls  her  mate  to 
her  assistance,  who  willingly  plucks  the  soft  feathers  from  his  breast  to  supply 
the  deficiency.  If  the  cruel  robbery  be  again  repeated,  Avhich  in  former  times 
was  frequently  the  case,  the  poor  eider-duck  abandons  the  spot,  never  to  return, 
and  seeks  for  a  new  home  where  she  may  indulge  her  maternal  instinct  undis- 
turbed. 

Mr.  Shepherd  thus  describes  his  visit  to  Vigr,  in  the  Isafjardardjup,  one  of 
the  head-quarters  of  the  eider-duck  in  the  north  of  Iceland  :  "  As  the  island 
was  approached,  we  could  see  flocks  upon  flocks  of  the  sacred  birds,  and  could 
hear  their  cooings  at  a  great  distance.  We  landed  on  a  rocky  wave-worn  shore, 
against  which  the  waters  scarcely  rippled,  and  set  off  to  investigate  the  island. 
The  shore  was  the  most  wonderful  ornithological  sight  conceivable.  The  ducks 
and  their  nests  were  everywhere  in  a  manner  that  was  quite  alarming.  Great 
brown  ducks  sat  upon  their  nests  in  masses,  and  at  every  step  started  up  from 
under  our  feet.  It  was  Avith  difiiculty  that  we  avoided  treading  on  some  of 
the  nests.  The  island  being  but  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  width,  the  oppo- 
site shore  was  soon  reached.  On  the  coast  was  a  wall  built  of  large  stones, 
just  above  the  high-water  level,  about  three  feet  in  height,  and  of  considerable 
thickness.  At  the  bottom,  on  both  sides  of  it,  alternate  stones  had  been  left 
out,  so  as  to  form  a  series  of  square  compartments  for  the  ducks  to  make  their 
nests  in.  Almost  every  compartment  was  occupied  ;  and,  as  we  walked  along 
the  shore,  a  long  line  of  ducks  flew  out  one  after  another.  The  surface  of  the 
water  also  was  perfectly  Avhite  with  drakes,  who  welcomed  their  brown  wives 
with  loud  and  clamorous  cooin<r.     When  we  arrived  at  the  farmhouse  we  were 


84  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

cordially  welcomed  by  its  mistress.  The  house  itself  was  a  great  marvel. 
The  earthern  wall  that  surrouuded  it  and  the  window  embrasures  were  occu- 
pied by  ducks.  On  the  ground,  the  house  was  fringed  with  ducks.  On  the 
turf-slopes  of  the  roof  we  could  see  ducks  ;  and  a  duck  sat  in  the  scraper. 

"  A  grassy  bank  close  by  had  been  cut  into  square  patches  like  a  chess- 
board (a  square  of  turf  of  about  eighteen  inches  being  removed,  and  a  hollow 
made),  and  all  were  filled  with  ducks.  A  windmill  was  infested,  and  so  were 
all  the  outhouses,  mounds,  rocks,  and  crevices.  The  ducks  were  everywhere. 
Many  of  them  were  so  tame  that  we  could  stroke  them  on  their  nests  ;  and  the 
good  lady  told  us  that  there  was  scarcely  a  duck  on  the  island  which  would 
not  allow  her  to  take  its  eggs  without  flight  or  fear.  When  she  first  became 
possessor  of  the  island,  the  produce  of  down  from  the  ducks  was  not  more 
than  fifteen  pounds'  weight  in  the  year,  but,  under  her  careful  nurture  of  twenty 
years,  it  had  risen  to  nearly  one  hundred  pounds  annually.  It  requires  about 
one  pound  and  a  half  to  make  a  coverlet  for  a  single  bed,  and  the  down  is 
worth  from  twelve  to  fifteen  shillings  per  pound.  Most  of  the  eggs  are  taken 
and  pickled  for  winter  consumption,  one  or  two  only  being  left  to  hatch." 

Though  not  so  important  as  the  eider,  the  other  members  of  the  duck 
family  which  during  the  summer  season  enliven  the  lakes  and  swamps  of  Ice- 
land are  very  serviceable.  On  the  Myvatn,  or  Gnat  Lake,  one  of  their  chief 
places  of  resort,  the  eggs  of  the  long-tailed  duck,  the  wild  duck,  the  scoter,  the 
common  goosander,  the  red-breasted  merganser,  the  scaup-duck,  etc.,  and  other 
anserines  are  carefully  gathered  and  preserved  in  enormous  quantities  for  the 
winter,  closely  packed  in  a  fine  gray  volcanic  sand. 

The  wild  swan  is  frequently  shot  or  caught  for  his  feathers,  which  bring  in 
many  a  dollar  to  the  fortunate  huntsman.  This  noble  bird  frequents  both  the 
salt  and  brackish  waters  along  the  coast  and  the  inland  lakes  and  rivers,  where 
it  is  seen  either  in  single  pairs  or  congregated  in  large  flocks.  To  build  its 
nest,  which  is  said  to  resemble  closely  that  of  the  flamingo,  being  a  large 
mound,  composed  of  mud,  rushes,  grass,  and  stones,  with  a  cavity  at  top  lined 
with  soft  down,  it  retires  to  some  solitary,  uninhabited  spot.  Much  has  been 
said  in  ancient  times  of  the  singing  of  the  swan,  and  the  beauty  of  its  dying 
notes  ;  but,  in  truth,  the  voice  of  the  swan  is  very  loud,  shrill,  and  harsh,  though 
when  high  in  the  air,  and  modulated  by  the  winds,  the  note  or  jvhoop  of  an 
assemblage  of  them  is  not  unpleasant  to  the  ear.  It  has  a  peculiar  charm  in 
the  unfrequented  wastes  of  Iceland,  where  it  agreeably  interrupts  the  profound 
silence  that  reigns  around. 

The  raven,  one  of  the  commonest  land-birds  in  Iceland,  is  an  object  of  aver- 
sion to  the  islanders,  as  it  not  only  seizes  on  their  young  lambs  and  eider-ducks, 
but  also  commits  great  depredations  among  the  fishes  laid  out  to  dry  upon  the 
shore.  Poles  to  which  dead  ravens  are  attached,  to  serve  as  a  warning  to  the 
living,  are  frequently  seen  in  the  meadows  ;  and  the  Icelander  is  never  so  hap- 
py as  when  he  has  succeeded  in  shooting  a  raven.  This,  however,  is  no  easy 
task,  as  no  bird  is  more  cautious,  and  its  eyes  are  as  sharp  as  those  of  the  eagle. 
Of  all  Icelandic  birds,  the  raven  breeds  the  earliest,  laying  about  the  middle  of 
March  its  five  or  six  pale-green  eggs,  spotted  with  brown,  in  the  inaccessible 


ICELAND. 


85 


crevices  of  rocks.     Towards  the  end  of  June,  Preycr  saw  many  young  ravens 
grown  to  a  good  size,  and  but  little  inferior  to  the  old  ones  in  cunning. 

In  the  gloomy  Scandinavian  mythology  the  raven  occupies  a  rank  equal  to 
that  of  the  eagle  in  the  more  cheerful  fables  of  ancient  Greece.  It  was  dedi- 
cated to  Odin,  who,  as  the  traditional  history  of  Iceland  informs  us,  had  two 
ravens,  which  were  let  loose  every  morning  to  gather  tidings  of  what  was  go- 
ing on  in  the  world,  and  which  on  returning  in  the  evening  perched  upon  Odin's 
shoulders  to  whisper  the  news  in  his  ear ;  the  name  of  one  was  Ilugin,  or 
spirit ;  of  the  other,  Mumin,  or  memory.  Even  now  many  superstitions  no- 
tions remain  attached  to  the  raven ;  for  the  Icelanders  believe  this  bird  to  be 
not  only  acquainted  with  what  is  going  on  at  a  distance,  but  also  with  what  is 
to  happen  in  future,  and  are  convinced  that  it  foretells  when  any  of  the  family 
is  aboijt  to  die,  by  perching  on  the  roof  of  the  house,  or  wheeling  round  in  the 
air  with  a  continual  cry,  varying  its  voice  in  a  singular  and  melodious  manner. 
The  white-tailed  sea-eagle  is  not  uncommon  in  Iceland,  where  he  stands  in 
evil  repute  as  a  kidnapper  of  lambs  and  eider-ducks.  He  is  sometimes  found 
dead  in  the  nets  of  the  fishermen ;  for,  pouncing  upon  a  haddock  or  salmon,  he 
gets  entangled  in  the  meshes,  and  is  unable  to  extricate  himself.  The  skins  of 
the  bird,  which  seems  to  attain  a  larger  size  than  in  Great  Britain,  most  likely 
from  being  less  disturbed  by  man,  are  sold  at  Reykjavik  and  Akureyre  for  from 
three  to  six  rix-doUars. 

The  jyrfalcon  {Falco  gyrfalco),  generaWj 
considered  as  the  boldest  and  most  beauti- 
ful of  the  falcon  tribe,  has  its  head-quarters 
in  Iceland.  As  long  as  the  noble  sport  of 
falconry  was  in  fashion,  for  which  it  was 
highly  esteemed,  the  trade  in  falcons  was 
worth  from  2000  to  3000  rix-dollars  annually 
to  the  islanders,  and  even  now  high  prices 
are  paid  for  it  by  English  amateurs. 

The  rarest  bird  of  Iceland,  if  not  entirely 
extinct,  is  the  Giant-auk,  or  Geirfugl.  The 
last  pair  was  caught  about  seventeen  years 
ago  near  the  Geirfuglaskers,  a  group  of  sol- 
itary rocks  to  the  south  of  the  Wcstman 
Isles,  its  only  known  habitat  besides  some 
similar  cliffs  on  the  north-eastern  coast. 
Since  that  time  it  is  said  to  have  been  seen 
by  some  fishermen  ;  but  this  testimony  is  extremely  doubtful,  and  the  question 
of  its  existence  can  only  be  solved  by  a  visit  to  the  Geirfuglaskers  themselves 
— an  undertaking  which,  if  practicable  at  all,  is  attended  with  extreme  difficulty 
and  danger,  as  these  rocks  are  completely  isolated  in  the  sea,  which  even  in 
calm  weather  breaks  with  such  violence  against  their  abrupt  declivities  that 
for  years  it  must  be  absolutely  impossible  to  approach  them. 

In  1858  two  English  naturalists  determined  at  least  to  make  the  attempt, 
and  settled  for  a  season  in  a  small  hamlet  on  the  neighboring  coast,  eager  to 


TUE   JYRFALCON. 


86  THE  POLAR   WORLD. 


THE   GIANT-ATJK. 


seize  the  first  opportunity  for  storming  the  Geirfugl's.  stronghold.  They  wait- 
ed for  several  months,  but  in  vain,  the  stormy  summer  being  more  than  usually 
unfavorable  for  their  undertaking ;  and  they  M^ere  equally  unsuccessful  in  the 
north,  whither  they  had  sent  an  Icelandic  student  specially  instructed  for  the 
purpose.  The  giant-auk  is  three  feet  high,  and  has  a  black  bill  four  inches  and 
a  quarter  long,  both  mandibles  being  crossed  obliquely  with  several  ridges  and 
furrows.  Its  wings  are  mere  stumps,  like  those  of  the  Antarctic  penguins. 
Thirty  pounds  have  been  paid  for  its  egg,  which  is  larger  than  that  of  any 
other  European  bird ;  and  there  is  no  knowing  the  price  the  Zoological  Society 
would  pay  for  a  live  bird,  if  this  truly  "  rara  avis  "  could  still  be  found. 

The  Avaters  of  Iceland  abound  with  excellent  fish,  which  not  only  supply  the 
islanders  with  a  great  part  of  their  food  and  furnish  them  with  one  of  their 
chief  articles  of  exportation,  but  also  attract  a  number  of  foreign  seamen. 
Thus  about  300  French,  Dutch,  and  Belgian  fishing-sloops,  manned  with  crews 
amounting  in  all  to  TOOO  men,  annually  make  their  appearance  on  the  southern 
and  western  coasts  of  Iceland,  particularly  those  of  the  Guldbringe  Syssel,  or 
gold-bringing  country :  thus  named,  not  from  any  evidence  of  the  precious 
metal,  but  from  the  golden  cod-harvests  reaped  on  its  shores.  Between  thirty 
and  forty  English  fishing-smacks  yearly  visit  the  northern  coast.  When  they 
have  obtained  a  good  cargo  they  run  to  Shetland  to  discharge  it,  and  return 
again  for  more. 

The  Icelandic  fishing-season,  which  begins  in  February  and  ends  in  June, 
occupies  one-half  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  the  island,  who  come  flocking  to 
the  west,  even'from  the  remotest  districts  of  the  noi'th  and  east,  to  partake  of 
the  rich  harvest  of  the  seas.  Many  thus  travel  for  more  than  200  miles  in  the 
midst  of  winter,  while  the  storm  howls  over  the  naked  waste,  and  the  pale  sun 
scarcely  dispels  for  a  few  hours  the  darkness  of  the  night.  In  every  hut  where 
they  tarry  on  the  road  they  are  welcome,  and  have  but  rarely  to  pay  for  their 


ICELAND.  87 

entertainment,  for  hospitality  is  still  reckoned  a  duty  in  Iceland,  On  reaching 
the  fishing-station,  an  agreement  is  soon  made  with  the  proprietor  of  a  boat. 
They  usually  engage  to  assist  in  fishing  from  February  12  to  May  12,  and  re- 
ceive in  return  a  share  of  the  fish  which  they  help  to  catch,  besides  forty 
pounds  of  flour  and  a  daily  allowance  of  sour  curds,  or  "  skier," 

All  the  men  belonging  to  a  boat  generally  live  in  the  same  damp  and  nar- 
row hut.  At  daybreak  they  launch  forthj  to  brave  for  many  hours  the  inclem- 
encies of  the  weath«:  and  the  sea,  and  while  engaged  in  their  hard  day's  work 
their  sole  refreshment  is  the  chewing  of  tobacco  or  a  mouthful  of  skier.  On 
returning  to  their  comfortless  hut,  their  supper  consists  of  the  fishes  of  inferior 
quality  they  may  have  caught,  or  of  the  heads  of  the  cod  or  ling,  Avhich  are  too 
valuable  for  their  own  consumption.  These  are  split  open  and  hung  upon  lines, 
or  exposed  on  the  shore  to  the  cold  wind  and  the  hot  sun ;  this  renders  them 
perfectly  hard,  and  they  keep  good  for  years.  In  this  dried  state  the  cod  is 
called  stockfish.  About  the  middle  of  May  the  migratory  fishermen  return  to 
their  homes,  leaving  their  fish  which  are  not  yet  quite  dry  to  the  care  of  the 
fishermen  dwelling  on  the  spot.  Towards  the  middle  of  June,  when  the  horses 
have  so  far  recovered  from  their  long  winter's  fast  as  to  be  able  to  bear  a  load, 
they  come  back  to  fetch  their  stockfish,  which  they  convey  either  to  their  own 
homes  for  the  consumption  of  their  own  families,  or  to  the  nearest  port  for  the 
purpose  of  bartering  it  against  other  articles.  Haddocks,  flatfish,  and  herrings 
are  also  very  abundant  in  the  Icelandic  seas  ;  and  along  the  northern  and  north- 
western coasts  the  basking  shark  is  largely  fished  for  all  the  summer.  Strong 
hooks  baited  with  mussels  or  pieces  of  fish,  and  attached  to  chains  anchored  at 
a  short  distance  from  the  shore,  serve  for  the  capture  of  this  monster,  which  is 
scarcely,  if  at  all,  inferior  in  size  to  the  white  shark,  though  not  nearly  so  for-* 
midable,  as  it  rarely  attacks  man.  The  skin  serves  for  making  sandals ;  the 
coarse  flesh  is  eaten  by  the  islanders,  whom  necessity  has  taught  not  to  be  over- 
nice  in  their  food ;  and  the  liver,  the  most  valuable  part,  is  stewed  for  the  sake 
of  its  oil. 

"  We  had  observed,"  says  Mr.  Shepherd,  "  that  the  horrible  smell  which  in- 
fested Jsa-fjordr  varied  in  intensity  as  we  approached  or  receded  from  a  cer- 
tain black-looking  building  at  the  northern  end  of  the  town.  On  investigating 
this  building,  we  discovered  that  the  seat  of  the  smell  was  to  be  found  in  a 
mass  of  putrid  sharks'  livers,  part  of  which  were  undergoing  a  process  of  stew- 
ing in  a  hu^e  copper.  It  was  a  noisome  green  mass,  fearful  to  contemplate. 
The  place  was  endurable  only  for  a  few  seconds ;  yet  dirty-looking  men  stirred 
up  the  mass  with  long  poles,  and  seemed  to  enjoy  the  reeking  vapors." 

The  salmon  of  Iceland,  which  formerly  remained  undisturbed  by  the  phleg- 
matic inhabitants,  are  now  caught  in  large  numbers  for  the  British  market.  A 
small  river  bearing  the  significant  name  of  Laxaa,  or  Salmon  River,  has  been 
rented  for  the  trifling  sum  of  £100  a  year  by  an  English  company,  which  sends 
every  spring  its  agents  to  the  spot  well  provided  with  the  best  fishing  appara- 
tus. The  captured  fish  are  immediately  boiled,  and  hermetically  packed  in  tin 
boxes,  so  that  they  can  be  eaten  in  London  almost  as  fresh  as  if  they  had  just 
been  caucrht. 


88  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

The  mineral  kingdom  contributes  but  little  to  the  prosperity  of  Iceland.  It 
affords  neither  metals,  nor  precious  stones,  nor  rock-salt,  nor  coal ;  for  the  seams 
of  "  surturbrand,"  or  "  lignite,"  found  here  and  there,  are  too  unimportant  to 
be  worked.  The  solfataras  of  Krisuvik  and  Husavik,  though  extremely  inter- 
esting to  the  geologist,  likewise  furnish  sulphur  in  too  impure  a  condition  or 
too  thinly  scattered  to  afford  any  prospect  of  being  worked  with  success,  not 
to  mention  the  vast  expense  of  transport  over  the  almost  impassable  lava-tracks 
that  separate  them  from  the  nearest  ports.  In  1839-40,  T)|hen,in  consequence 
of  the  monopoly  granted  by  the  Neapolitan  Government  to  a  French  company, 
sulphur  had  risen  to  more  than  three  times  its  usual  price,  Mr.  Knudsen,  an  en- 
terprising Danish  merchant,  undertook  to  work  the  mines  of  Krisuvik,  but  even 
then  it  would  not  answer. 

In  1859,  a  London  company,  founded  by  Mr.  Bushby, — who  having  explored 
the  suli^hur  districts,  had  raised  great  expectations  on  what  he  considered  their 
dormant  wealth, — renewed  the  attempt,  but  after  a  year's  trial  it  was  aban- 
doned as  perfectly  hopeless.  The  "  solfataras  of  Iceland,"  says  Professor  Sar- 
torius  of  Waltershausen,  "  can  not  compete  with  those  of  Sicily,  where  more 
sulphur  is  wantonly  wasted  and  trodden  under  foot  than  all  Iceland  possesses. 
While  the  "  Namars"  of  the  north,  which  are  far  richer  than  those  of  Krisuvik, 
annually  furnish  scarcely  more  than  ten  tons,  the  sulphur  mines  of  Sicily  pro- 
duce at  least  50,000,  and,  if  necessary,  could  easily  export  double  the. quantity." 

As  coal  is  too  expensive  a  fuel  for  any  but  the  rich  in  the  small  sea-port 
towns,  and  peat,  though  no  doubt  abundantly  scattered  over  the  island,  is  dug 
only  in  a  few  places,  the  majority  of  the  people  make  use  of  singular  substi- 
tutes. The  commonest  is  dried  cow's  and  sheep's  dung;  but  many  a  poor 
fisherman  lacks  even  this  "  spicy "  material,  and  is  fain  to  use  the  bones  of 
animals,  the  skeletons  of  fishes  or  dried  sea-birds,  which,  with  a  stoical  con- 
tempt for  his  olfactory  organs,  he  burns,  feathers  and  all.  There  is,  however, 
no  want  of  fuel  in  those  privileged  spots  where  diift-wood  is  found,  and  here 
the  lava  hearth  of  the  islander  cheerfully  blazes  either  with  the  pine  conveyed 
to  him  by  the  kindly  Polar  currents  from  the  Siberian  forests,  or  with  some 
tropical  trunk,  w\af ted  by  the  Gulf  Stream  over  the  Atlantic  to  his  northern 
home. 


HISTORY   OF  ICELAND. 


89 


CATHEDRAL  AT   REYKJAVIK. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

HISTORY  OF  ICELAND. 

Discovery  of  the  Island  by  Naddodr  in  861. — Gardar. — Floki  of  the  Eavens.— Ingolfr  and  Leif.— Ulfliot 
the  Lawgiver. — The  Althing. — Thingvalla. — Introduction  of  Christianitj*  into  the  Island. — Frederick 
the  Saxon  and  Thorwold  the  Traveller. — Thangbrand. — Golden  Ago  of  Icelandic  Literature. — Snorri 
Sturleson. — The  Island  submits  to  Hakon,  King  of  Norway,  in  1254. — Long  Series  of  Calamities. — 
Great  Eruption  of  the  Skapta  Jokul  in  1783.— Commercial  Monopoly.— Better  Times  in  Frospect. 

T^HE  Norse  vikings  wei'e,  as  is  well  known,  the  boldest  of  navigators.  They 
-*-  possessed  neither  the  sextant  nor  the  compass ;  they  had  neither  charts 
nor  chronometers  to  guide  them ;  but  trusting  solely  to  fortune,  and  to  their 
own  indomitable  courage,  they  fearlessly  launched  forth  into  the  vast  ocean. 
Many  of  these  intrepid  corsairs  were  no  doubt  lost  on  their  adventurous  expe- 
ditions, but  frequently  a  favorable  chance  rewarded  their  temerity,  either  Avith 
some  rich  booty  or  some  more  glorious  discovery. 

Thus  in  the  year  861,  Naddodr,  a  Norwegian  pirate,  while  sailing  from  his 
native  coast  to  the  Faeroe  Islands,  was  drifted  by  contrary  winds  far  to  the 


90  THE   POLAR  WOELD. 

north.  For  several  days  no  land  was  visible — nothing  but  an  interminable 
waste  of  waters ;  when  suddenly  the  snoAV-clad  mountains  of  Iceland  were  seen 
to  rise  above  the  mists  of  the  ocean.  Soon  after  Naddodr  landed  with  jiart  of 
his  crew,  but  discovered  no  traces  of  man  in  the  desert  country.  The  viking 
tarried  but  a  short  time  on  this  unpromising  coast,  on  which  he  bestowed  the 
appropriate  name  of  Snowland. 

Three  years  later,  Gardar,  another  northern  freebooter,  while  sailing  to  the 
Hebrides,  was  likewise  driven  by  stormy  weather  to  Iceland.  He  was  the  first 
circumnavigator  of  the  island,  which  he  called,  after  himself,  Gardar's  holm,  or 
the  island  of  Gardar.  On  his  return  to  his  native  port,  he  gave  his  countrymen 
so  flattering  an  account  of  the  newly-discovered  land,  that  Floki,  a  famous  vi- 
king, resolved  to  settle  there.  Trusting  to  the  augury  of  birds,  Floki  took  with 
liim  three  ravens  to  direct  him  on  his  way.  Having  sailed  a  certain  distance 
beyond  the  Faeroe  Islands,  he  gave  liberty  to  one  of  them,  which  immediately 
returned  to  the  land.  Proceeding  onward,  he  loosed  the  second,  Avhich,  after 
circling  for  a  few  minutes  round  the  ship,  again  settled  on  its  cage,  as  if  terri- 
fied by  the  boundless  expanse  of  the  sea.  The  third  bird,  on  obtaining  his  lib- 
erty a  few  days  later,  proved  at  length  a  faithful  pilot,  and  flying  direct  to  the 
north,  conducted  Floki  to  Iceland.  As  the  sea-king  entered  the  broad  bay 
which  is  bounded  on  the  left  by  the  huge  Snafells  Jokul,  and  on  the  right  by 
the  bold  promontory  of  the  Guldbringe  Syssel,  Faxa,  one  of  his  companions,  re- 
marked that  a  land  with  such  noble  features  must  needs  be  of  considerable  ex- 
tent. To  reward  him  for  this  remark,  which  flattered  the  vanity  or  the  ambi- 
tion of  his  leader,  the  bay  was  immediately  named  Faxa  Fiord,  as  it  is  still  call- 
ed to  the  present  day.  The  new  colonists,  attracted  by  the  abundance  of  fish 
they  found  in  tlie  bay,  built  their  huts  on  the  borders  of  a  small  outlet,  still 
bearing  the  name  of  Rafna  Fiord,  or  the  Raven's  Frith ;  but  as  they  neglected 
to  make  hay  for  the  winter,  the  horses  and  cattle  they  had  brought  with  them 
died  of  want.  Disappointed  in  his  expectations,  Floki  returned  home  in  the  sec- 
ond year,  and,  as  might  naturally  have  been  expected  from  an  unsuccessful  settler, 
gave  his  countrymen  but  a  dismal  account  of  Iceland,  as  he  definitely  named  it. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  his  forbidding  description,  the  political  disturbances  wliich 
took  place  about  this  time  in  Norway  led  to  the  final  colonization  of  the  island. 
Harold  Haai-fager,  or  the  P'air-haired,  a  Scandinavian  yarl,  having  by  violence 
and  a  successful  policy  reduced  all  his  brother-yarls  to  subjection,  first  consoli- 
dated their  independent  domains  into  one  realm,  and  made  himself  absolute  mas- 
ter of  the  whole  country.  Many  of  his  former  equals  submitted  to  his  yoke ; 
but  others,  animated  by  that  unconquerable  love  of  liberty  innate  in  men  who 
for  many  generations  have  known  no  superior,  preferred  seeking  a  new  home 
across  the  ocean  to  an  ignominious  vassalage  under  the  detested  Harold.  In- 
golfr  and  his  cousin  Leif  were  the  first  of  these  high-minded  nobles  that  emi- 
grated (869-870)  to  Iceland. 

On  approaching  the  southern  coast,  Ingolfr  cast  the  sacred  pillars  belonging 
to  his  former  dwelling  into  the  water,  and  vowed  to  establish  liimself  on  the 
spot  to  which  they  should  be  wafted  by  the  waves.  His  pious  intentions  were 
for  the  time  frustrated,  as  a  sudden  squall  separated  him  from  liis  penates,  and 


HISTORY    OF    ICELAND.  91 

forced  him  to  locate  liimself  on  a  neighboring  promontory,  whicli  to  tins  day 
bears  the  name  of  Ingolfrsliofde.  Here  he  sojourned  three  years,  until  the  fol- 
lowers he  had  sent  out  in  quest  of  the  missing  pillars  at  length  brought  him  the 
joyful  news  that  they  had  been  found  on  the  beach  of  the  present  site  of  Reyk- 
javik, whither,  in  obedience  to  what  he  supposed  to  be  the  divine  summons,  he 
instantly  removed.  Ingolfr's  friend  and  relative  Leif  was  shortly  after  assas- 
sinated by  some  Irish  slaves  whom  he  had  captured  in  a  predatory  descent  on 
the  Hibernian  coast.  The  surviving  chieftain  deplored  the  loss  of  his  kinsman, 
lamenting  "  that  so  valiant  a  man  should  fall  by  such  villains,"  but  found  conso- 
lation by  killing  the  murderers  and  annexing  the  lands  of  their  victim.  When, 
in  course  of  time,  he  himself  felt  his  end  approaching,  he  requested  to  be  bur- 
ied on  a  hill  overlooking  the  fiord,  that  from  that  elevated  site  his  spirit  might 
have  a  better  view  of  the  land  of  which  he  was  the  first  inhabitant. 

Such  are  the  chronicles  related  in  the  "  Landnama  Bok,"  or  "  Book  of  Occu- 
pation," one  of  the  earliest  records  of  Icelandic  history. 

'Ingolfr  and  his  companions  were  soon  followed  by  other  emigrants  desirous 
of  escaping  from  the  tyranny  of  Harold  Haarfager,  who  at  first  favored  a  move- 
ment that  removed  far  beyond  the  sea  so  many  of  his  turbulent  opponents,  but 
subsequently,  alarmed  at  the  drain  of  population,  or  desirous  of  profiting  by  the 
exodus,  levied  a  fine  of  four  ounces  of  silver  on  all  who  left  his  dominions  to 
settle  in  Iceland.  Yet  such  were  the  attractions  which  the  island  at  that  time 
presented,  that,  in  spite  of  all  obstacles,  not  half  a  century  elapsed  before  all  its 
inhabitable  parts  were  occupied,  not  only  by  Norwegians,  but  also  by  settlers 
from  Denmark  and  Sweden,  Scotland  and  Ireland. 

The  Norwegians  brought  with  them  their  language  and  idolatry,  their  cus- 
toms and  historical  records,  which  the  other  colonists,  but  few  in  numbers,  were 
compelled  to  adopt.  At  first  the  udal,  or  free  land-hold  system  of  their  own 
country,  was  in  vigor,  but  every  leader  of  a  band  of  emigrants  being  chosen,  by 
force  of  circumstances,  as  the  acknowledged  chief  of  the  district  occupied  by 
himself  and  companions,  speedily  paved  the  way  for  a  demi-feudal  system  of 
vassalage  and  subservience.  As  the  arrival  of  new  settlers  rendered  the  pos- 
session of  the  land  more  valuable,  endless  contests  between  these  petty  chiefs 
arose  for  the  better  pastures  and  fisheries.  To  put  an  end  to  this  state  of  an- 
archy, so  injurious  to  the  common  weal,  Ulfliot  the  Wise  was  commissioned  to 
frame  a  code  of  laws,  which  the  Icelanders,  by  a  single  simultaneous  and  peace- 
ful effort,  accepted  as  their  future  constitution. 

The  island  Avas  now  divided  into  four  provinces  and  twelve  districts.  Each 
district  had  its  own  judge,  and  its  own  popular  "  Thing,"  or  assembly;  but  the 
national  will  was  embodied  and  represented  by  the  "Althing,"  or  supreme 
parliament  of  Iceland,  which  annually  met  at  Thingvalla,  under  an  elective  pres- 
ident, or  "  Logmathurman,"  the  chief  magistrate  of  this  northern  republic. 

On  the  banks  of  the  river  Oxeraa,  where  the  rapid  stream,  after  forming  a 
magnificent  cascade,'  rushes  into  the  lake  of  Thingvalla,  lies  the  spot  where,  for 
many  a  century,  freemen  met  to  debate,  while  despotic  barbarians  still  reigned 
over  the  milder  regions  of  Europe.  Isolated  on  all  sides  by  deep  volcanic 
chasms,  Avhich  some  great  revolution  of  nature  has  rent  in  tlie  vast  lava-field 


THE    POLAR   WORLD. 


'»        * 


'lUl^CrNALLA,  LuoJjLIid,  AND  AI.MANNAUJA. 


around,  and  embosomed  in  a  wide  circle  of  black  i^recipitous  hills,  the  situation 
of  Thingvalla  is  extremely  romantic,  but  the  naked  dark-colored  rocks,  and  the 
traces  of  subterranean  fire  visible  on  every  side,  imjDart  a  stern  melancholy  to 
the  scene.  The  lake,  the  largest  sheet  of  water  in  the  island,  is  about  thirty 
miles  in  circumference ;  its  boundaries  have  undergone  many  changes,  esjjecial- 
ly  during  the  earthquakes  of  the  past  century,  when  its  northern  margin  col- 
lapsed, while  the  opposite  one  was  raised.  Tlie  depth  of  its  crystal  waters  is 
very  great,  and  in  its  centre  rise  two  small  crater-islands,  the  result  of  some  un- 
known eruption.  The  mountains  on  its  south  bank  have  a  picturesque  appear- 
ance, and  large  volumes  of  steam  issuing  from  several  hot  sources  on  their 
sides  prove  that,  though  all  be  tranquil  now,  the  volcanic  fires  are  not  extinct. 
Only  a  few  traces  of  the  ancient  Althing  are  left — three  small  mounds,  Avhere 
sat  in  state  the  chiefs  and  judges  of  the  land — for  as  the  assembly  used  to  pitch 
their  tents  on  the  borders  of  the  stream,  and  the  deliberations  were  held  in  the 
open  air,  there  are  no  imposing  ruins  to  bear  witness  to  a  glorious  past.  But 
though  all  architectural  pomp  be  absent,  the  scene  hallowed  by  the  recollections 
of  a  thousand  years  is  one  of  deep  interest  to  the  travellei'.  The  great  features 
of  natiu'e  are  the  same  as  when  the  freemen  of  Iceland  assembled  to  settle  the 
affairs  of  their  little  world  ;  but  the  raven  now  croaks  where  the  orator  appealed 
to  the  reason  or  the  passions  of  his  audience,  and  the  sheep  of  the  neighboring 
pastor  crop  undisturbed  the  grass  of  desecrated  Thingvalla. 

Mr.  Ross  Browne  thus  describes  the  scene  :  "  After  a  slight  repast  I  walked 
out  to  take  a  look  at  the  Logberg,  or  Rock  of  Laws,  which  is  situated  about 


HISTORY  OF  ICELAND.  93 

half  a  mile  from  the  church.  This  is,  perhaps,  of  all  the  objects  of  historical 
association  in  Iceland,  the  most  interestiitg.  It  was  here  the  judges  tried  crim- 
inals, jirouounced  judgnients,  and  executed  their  stern  decrees.  On  a  small  pla- 
teau of  lava,  separated  from  the  general  mass  by  a  profound  abyss  on  every 
side,  save  a  narrow  neck  barely  wide  enough  for  a  foothold,  the  famous  "  Thing  " 
assembled  once  a  year,  and,  secured  from  intrusion  in  their  deliberations  by  the 
terrible  chasm  around,  passed  laws  for  the  weal  or  woe  of  the  people.  It  was 
only  necessary  to  guard  the  causeway  by  which  they  entered ;  all  other  sides 
were  well  protected  by  the  encircling  moat,  which  varies  from  thirty  to  forty 
feet  in  width,  and  is  half  filled  with  water.  The  total  depth  to  the  bottom, 
which  is  distinctly  visible  through  the  crystal  pool,  must  be  sixty  or  seventy 
feet.  Into  this  yawning  abyss  the  unhappy  criminals  were  cast,  with  stones 
around  their  necks,  and  many  a  long  day  did  they  lie  beneath  the  water,  a 
ghastly  spectacle  for  the  crowd  that  j^eered  at  them  over  the  precipice. 
All  was  now  as  silent  as  the  grave.  Eight  centuries  had  passed,  and  yet 
the  strange  scenes  that  had  taken  place  here  were  vividly  before  me.  I 
could  imagine  the  gathering  crowds,  the  rising  hum  of  voices ;  the  pause, 
the  shriek,  and  plunge  ,•  the  low  murmur  of  horroi*,  and  then  the  stern  warn- 
ing of  the  lawgivers  and  the  gradual  dispersing  of  the  multitude.  The  di- 
mensions of  the  plateau  are  four  or  five  hundred  feet  in  length  by  an  aver- 
age of  sixty  or  eighty  in  width.  The  surface  is  now  covered  with  a  fine 
coating  of  sod  and  grass^  and  furnishes  good  pasturage  for  the  sheep  belong- 
ing to  the  pastor." 

Christianity  was  first  preached  in  Iceland  about  the  year  981,  by  Friedrich,  a 
Saxon  bishop,  to  whom  Thorwald  the  traveller,  an  Icelander,  acted  as  inter- 
preter. Thorwald  having  been  treated  with  great  severity  by  his  father,  Ko- 
dran,  had  fled  to  Denmark,  where  he  had  been  converted  by  Friedrich.  He 
returned  with  the  pious  bishop  to  his  paternal  home,  where  the  solemn  service 
of  the  Christians  made  some  impression  on  Kodran,  but  still  the  obstinate  pa- 
gan could  not  be  prevailed  upon  to  renounce  his  ancient  gods.  "  He  must  be- 
lieve," said  he, "  the  word  of  his  own  priest,  who  was  wont  to  give  him  excel- 
lent advice."  "  Well,  then,"  replied  Thorwald,  "  this  venerable  man  whom  I 
have  brought  to  thy  dwelling  is  weak  and  infirm,  while  thy  well-fed  priest  is 
full  of  vigor.  Wilt  thou  believe  in  the  power  of  our  God  if  the  bishop  drives 
him  hence  ?"  Friedrich  now  cast  a  few  drops  of  holy  water  on  the  priest,  which 
immediately  burnt  deep  holes  into  his  skin,  so  that  he  fled,  uttering  dreadful 
curses.  After  this  convincing  proof,  Kodran  adopted  the  Christian  faith.  But 
persuasion  and  miracles  acted  too  slowly  for  the  fiery  Thorwald,  Avho  would 
wiUingly  have  converted  all  Iceland  at  once  with  fire  and  sword.  His  sermons 
were  imprecations,  and  the  least  contradiction  roused  him  to  fury.  Unable  to 
bear  so  irascible  an  associate,  the  good  bishop  Friedrich,  giving  up  his  mission- 
ary labors,  returned  to  Saxony.  As  to  Thorwald,  his  restless  disposition  led 
him  to  far-distant  lands.  He  visited  Greece  and  Syria,  Jerusalem  and  Constan- 
tinople, and  ultimately  founded  a  convent  in  Russia,  where  he  died  in  the  odor 
of  sanctity. 

Soon  after  Thangbrand  was  sent  by  the  Norwegian  king,  Olaf  Truggeson,  as 


94  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

missionary  to  Iceland.  His  method  of  conversion  appears  to  have  been  very 
Hke  that  of  his  erratic  predecessor ;  for  while  he  held  the  cross  in  one  hand,  he 
grasped  the  sword  with  the  other.  "  Thaugbrand,"  sa5's  an  ancient  chronicler, 
"  was  a  passionate,  vingovernable  person,  and  a  great  manslayer,  but  a  good 
scholar  and  clever.  He  was  two  years  in  Iceland,  and  was  the  death  of  three 
men  before  he  left  it." 

Other  missionaries  of  a  more  evangelical  character  took  his  place,  and  proved 
by  their  success  that  mild  reasoning  is  frequently  a  far  more  effectual  means  of 
persuasion  than  brutal  violence.  They  made  a  great  number  of  proselytes,  and 
the  whole  island  was  now  divided  into  two  factions  ready  to  appeal  to  the 
sword  for  the  triumph  of  Christ  or  of  Odin.  But  before  coming  to  this  dread- 
ful extremity,  the  voice  of  I'eason  was  heard,  and  the  contending  parties  agreed 
to  submit  the  question  to  the  decision  of  the  Althing. 

The  assembly  met,  and  the  momentous  debate  was  proceeding,  w^hen  sud- 
denly a  loud  crash  of  subterranean  thunder  was  heard,  and  the  earth  shook  un- 
der their  feet,  "  Listen  !"  exclaimed  a  follower  of  Odin, "  and  beware  of  the 
anger  of  our  gods :  they  will  consume  us  Avith  their  fires,  if  we  venture  to  ques- 
tion their  authority."  The  Christian  party  hesitated  ;  but  their  confidence  was 
soon  restored  by  the  presence  of  mind  of  their  chief  orator,  Thorgeir,  who, 
pointing  to  the  lava-fields  around,  asked  with  whom  the  gods  were  angry  when 
these  rocks  were  melted  :  a  burst  of  eloquence  which  at  once  decided  the  ques- 
tion in  favor  of  the  Cross. 

The  new  faith  brought  w^ith  it  a  new  spirit  of  intellectual  development,  which 
attained  its  highest  splendor  in  the  twelfth  century.  Classical  studies  were 
pursued  with  the  utmost  zeal,  and  learned  Icelanders  travelled  to  Germany  and 
France  to  extend  their  knowledge  in  the  schools  of  Paris  or  Cologne.  The 
Icelandic  bards,  or  scalds,  were  renowned  throughout  all  Scandinavia ;  they  fre- 
quented the  courts  of  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Norway,  and  were  everywhere 
received  with  the  highest  honors. 

The  historians,  or  sagamen,  of  Iceland  Avere  no  less  renowned  than  its  scalds. 
They  became  the  annalists  of  the  whole  Scandinavian  world,  and  the  simplicity 
and  truth  by  w^hich  their  works  are  distinguished  fully  justify  their  high  repu- 
tation. Among  the  many  remarkable  men  w^ho  at  that  time  graced  the  litera- 
ture of  the  Arctic  isle,  Siimund  Frode,  the  learned  author  of  the  "  Voluspa " 
(a  work  on  the  ancient  Icelandic  mythology)  and  the  "Havamal"  (a  general 
chronicle  of  events  from  the  beginning  of  the  world) ;  Are  Thorgilson,  whose 
"  Landnama  Bok "  relates  with  the  utmost  accuracy  the  annals  of  his  native 
land;  and  Gissur,  who  about  the  year  1180  described  his  voyages  to  the  distant 
Orient,  deserve  to  be  particularly  mentioned  ;  but  great  above  all  in  genius  and 
fame  was  Snorri  Sturleson,  the  Herodotus  of  the  North,  whose  eventful  life  and 
tragic  end  would  well  deserve  to  be  recounted  at  greater  length. 

Gifted  with  the  rarest  talents,  and  chief  of  the  most  powerful  family  of  the 
island,  Snorri  was  elected  in  1215  to  the  high  office  of  Logmathurman  ;  but  dis- 
gusting his  sturdy  countrymen  by  his  excessive  haughtiness,  he  was  obliged  to 
retire  to  the  court  of  Hakon,  king  of  Norway.  During  this  exile  he  collected 
the  materials  for  his  justly  celebrated  "Heiraskringla,"'  or  Chronicle  of  the 


HISTORY    OF   ICELAND.  9.5 

Kings  of  Norway.  Returning  home  in  1221,  he  was  again  named  Logmathur- 
man  ;  but  as  he  endeavored  to  pave  the  way  for  the  annexation  of  liis  native 
country  to  the  Norwegian  realm,  his  foreign  intrigues  caused  a  rising  against 
his  authority,  and  he  was  once  more  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  Norway. 
Here  he  remained  several  years,  until  the  triumph  of  his  own  faction  allowed 
him  to  return  to  his  family  estate  at  Reikholt,  where  he  was  murdered  on  a 
dark  September  night  in  the  year  1241.  Thus  perished  the  most  remarkable 
man  Iceland  ever  has  produced.  The  rei:)ublic  itself  did  not  long  survive  his 
fall ;  for,  weary  of  the  interminable  feuds  of  their  chiefs,  the  people  voluntarily 
submitted  to  Hakon  in  1254,  and  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  Avas 
signalized  by  the  transfer  of  the  island  to  the  Norwegian  crown,  after  three 
hundred  and  forty  years  of  a  turbulent  but  glorious  independence. 

From  that  time  the  political  history  of  the  Icelanders  offers  but  little  inter- 
est. With  their  annexation  to  a  European  monarchy  perislied  the  vigor,  rest- 
lessness, and  activity  which  had  characterized  their  forefathers  ;  and  though 
the  Althing  still  met  at  Thingvalla,  the  national  spirit  had  fled.  It  was  still 
further  subdued  by  a  long  chain  of  calamities — plagues,  famines,  volcanic  erup- 
tions, and  piratical  invasions — which,  following  each  other  in  rapid  succession, 
devastated  the  land  and  decimated  its  unfortunate  inhabitants. 

In  1402  that  terrible  plague,  the  memory  of  which  is  still  preserved  under 
the  name  of  the  "  Black  Death,"  carried  off  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  whole  pop- 
ulation, and  was  followed  by  such  an  inclement  winter  that  nine-tenths  of  the 
cattle  in  the  island  died.  The  miseries  of  a  people  suffering  from  pestilence 
and  famine  were  aggravated  by  the  English  fishermen,  who,  in  spite  of  the  re- 
monstrances of  the  Danish  government,  frequented  the  defenseless  coast  in  con- 
siderable numbers,  and  were  in  fact  little  better  than  the  old  sesf-robbers  who 
first  colonized  the  island,  plundering  and  burning  on  the  main,  and  holding  the 
wealthy  inhabitants  to  ransom.  Their  predatory  incursions  were  frequently  re- 
peated during  the  seventeenth  century,  and  even  the  distant  Mediterranean  sent 
its  Algerine  pirates  to  add  to  the  calamities  of  Iceland. 

The  eighteenth  century  was  ushered  in  by  the  small-pox,  which  carried  off 
sixteen  thousand  of  the  inhabitants.  In  the  middle  of  the  century — severe  win- 
ters following  in  rapid  succession — vast  numbers  of  cattle  died,  inducing  a  fam- 
ine that  again  swept  away  ten  thousand  inhabitants. 

Since  the  first  colonization  of  Iceland,  its  numerous  volcanoes  had  frequently 
brought  ruin  upon  whole  districts — twenty-five  times  had  Ilecla,  eleven  times 
Kotlugia,  six  times  Trolladyngja,  five  times  Oraefa,  vomited  forth  their  tor- 
rents of  molten  stone,  without  counting  a  number  of  submarine  volcanic  explo- 
sions, or  where  the  plain  was  suddenly  rent  and  flames  and  ashes  burst  out  of 
the  earth;  but  the  eruption  of  Skaptar  Jokul  in  1783  was  the  most  fi-ightful 
visitation  ever  known  to  have  desolated  the  island.  The  preceding  Avinter  and 
spring  had  been  unusually  mild,  and  the  islanders  looked  forward  to  a  prosper- 
ous summer ;  but  in  the  beginning  of  June  repeated  tremblings  of  the  earth, 
increasing  in  violence  f  i-ora  day  to  day,  announced  that  the  subterranean  powers 
that  had  long  been  slumbering  under  the  icy  mantle  of  the  Skaptar  were  ready 
to  awake.     All  the  neighboring  peasants  abandoned  their  huts  and  erect«d 


96  THE  POLAR   WORLD. 

tents  in  the  open  "field,  anxiously  awaiting  the  result  of  these  terrific  warnings. 
On  the  9th,  immense  pillars  of  smoke  collected  over  the  hill  country  toward  the 
north,  and,  rolling  down  in  a  southerly  direction,  covered  the  whole  district  of 
Sitha  with  darkness.  Loud  subterranean  thunders  followed  in  rapid  succession, 
and  innumerable  fire-spouts  were  seen  leaping  and  flaring  through  the  dense 
canopy  of  smoke  and  ashes  that  enveloped  the  land.  The  heat  raging  in  the 
interior  of  the  volcano  melted  enormous  masses  of  ice  and  snow,  which  caused 
the  river  Skapta  to  rise  to  a  prodigious  height;  but  on  the  11th  torrents  of 
fire  usurped  the  place  of  water,  for  a  vast  lava-stream  breaking  forth  from  the 
mountains,  flowed  down  in  a  southerly  direction,  until  reaching  the  river,  a  tre- 
mendous conflict  arose  between  the  two  hostile  elements.  Though  the  channel 
was  six  hundred  feet  deep  and  two  hundred  feet  wide,  the  lava-flood  pouring 
down  one  fiery  wave  after  another  into  the  yawning  abyss,  ultimately  gained 
the  victory,  and,  blocking  up  the  stream,  overflowed  its  banks.  Crossing  the 
low  country  of  Medalland,  it  poured  into  a  great  lake,  which  after  a  few  days 
was  likewise  completely  filled  up,  and  having  divided  into  two  streams,  the  un- 
exhausted torrent  again  poured  on,  overflowing  in  one  direction  some  ancient 
lava-fields,  and  in  another  re-entering  the  channel  of  the  Skapta  and  leaping 
down  the  lofty  cataract  of  Stapafoss.  But  this  was  not  all,  for  Avhile  one  lava- 
flood  had  chosen  the  Skapta  for  its  bed,  another,  descending  in  a  different  direc- 
tion, was  working  similar  ruin  ^long  the  banks  of  the  Hverfisfliot.  Whether 
the  same  crater  gave  birth  to  both,  it  is  impossible  to  say,  as  even  the  extent 
of  the  lava-flow  can  only  be  measured  from  the  spot  where  it  entered  the  in- 
habited districts.  The  stream  which  followed  the  direction  of  Skapta  is  calcu- 
lated to  have  been  about  fifty  miles  in  length  by  twelve  or  fifteen  at  its  great- 
est breadth ;  that  which  rolled  down  the  Hverfisfliot,  at  forty  miles  in  length 
by  seven  in  breadth. 

Where  it  was  inclosed  between  the  precipitous  banks  of  the  Skapta,  the 
lava  is  five  or  six  hundred  feet  thick,  but  as  soon  as  it  spread  out  into  the  plain 
its  depth  never  exceeded  one  hundi'ed  feet.  The  eruption  of  sand,  ashes, 
pumice,  and  lava  continued  till  the  end  of  August,  when  at  length  the  vast  sub- 
terranean tumult  subsided. 

But  its  direful  effects  wei'e  felt  for  a  long  time  aftei',  not  only  in  its  imme- 
diate vicinity,  but  over  the  whole  of  Iceland,  and  added  many  a  mournful  page 
to  her  long  annals  of  sorrow.  For  a  whole  year  a  dun  canopy  of  cinder-laden 
clouds  hung  over  the  unhappy  island.  Sand  and  ashes,  carried  to  an  enormous 
height  into  the  atmosphere,  spread  far  and.  wide,  and  overwhelmed  thousands 
of  acres  of  fertile  pasturage.  The  Faeroes,  the  Shetlands,  and  the  Orkneys 
w^ere  deluged  with  volcanic  dust  which  perceptibly  contaminated  even  the  skies 
of  England  and  Holland.  Mephitic  vapors  obscured  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and 
the  sulphurous  exhalations  tainted  both  the  grass  of  the  field  and  the  waters 
of  the  lake,  the  river,  and  the  sea,  so  that  not  only  the  cattle  died  by  thousands, 
but  the  fish  also  perished  in  their  poisoned  element.  The  unhealthy  air,  and 
the  want  of  food — ^for  hunger  at  last  drove  them  to  have  recourse  to  untanned 
hides  and  old  leather — gave  rise  to  a  disease  resembling  scurvy  among  the  un- 
foi'tunate  Icelanders.     The  head  and  limbs  began  to  swell,  the  bones  seemed 


HISTORY    OF    ICELAND.  97 

to  be  distending.  Dreadful  cramps  forced  tlie  patient  to  strange  contortions. 
The  gums  loosened,  the  decomposed  blood  oozed  from  the  mouth  and  the  ulcer- 
ous skin,  and  a  few  days  of  torment  and  prostration  were  followed  by  death. 

In  many  a  secluded  vale  whole  families  were  swept  away,  and  those  that  es- 
caped the  scourge  had  hardly  strength  sufficient  to  bury  the  dead. 

So  great  was  the  ruin  caused  by  this  one  eruption  that  in  the  short  space  of 
two  years  no  less  than  9336  men,  28,000  horses,  11,461  cattle,  and  190,000 
sheep — a  large  proportion  of  the  wealth  and  population  of  the  island — were 
swept  away. 

After  this  dreadful  catastrophe  followed  a  long  period  of  volcanic  rest,  for 
the  next  eruption  of  the  Eyjafialla  did  not  take  place  before  1821.  A  twelfth 
eruption  of  Kotlugja  occurred  in  1823,  the  twenty-sixth  of  Hecla  in  1845-46  ; 
and  ultimately  the  thirteenth  of  Kotlugja. in  1860.  Since  then  there  has  been 
repose ;  but  who  knows  what  future  disasters  may  be  preparing  beneath  those 
icy  ridges  and  fields  of  snow  of  Skapta  and  his  fi-owning  compeers,  where  no 
human  foot  has  ever  wandered,  or  how  soon  they  may  awaken  their  dormant 
thunders  ? 

Besides  the  sufferings  caused  by  the  elements,  the  curse  of  monopoly 
weighed  for  many  a  long  year  upon  the  miserable  Icelanders.  The  Danish 
kings,  to  whom  on  the  amalgamation  of  the  three  Scandinavian  monarchies  the 
allegiance  of  the  people  of  Iceland  was  passively  transferred,  considered  their 
poor  dependency  as  a  private  domain,  to  be  farmed  out  to  the  highest  bidder. 
In  the  16th  century  the  Hanseatic  Towns  purchased  the  exclusive  privilege  of 
trading  with  Iceland;  and  in  1594  a  Danish  company  was  favored  with  the 
monopoly,  for  which  it  had  to  pSy  the  paltry  sum  of  16  rix-dollars  for  each  of 
the  ports  of  the  island. 

In  the  year  1862  a  new  company  paid  4000  dollars  for  the  Icelandic  mo- 
nopoly ;  but  at  the  expiration  of  the  contract,  each  of  the  ports  were  farmed  out 
to  the  highest  bidder — a  financial  improvement  which  raised  the  revenue  to 
16,000  dollars  a  year,  and  ultimately  to  22,000".  The  incalculable  misery  pro- 
duced by  the  eruption  of  the  Skapta  had  at  least  the  beneficial  consequence 
that  it  somewhat  loosened  the  bonds  of  monopoly,  as  it  now  became  free  to 
every  Danish  merchant  to  trade  with  the  island;  but  it  is  only  since  April,  1855, 
that  the  last  restrictions  have  fallen  and  the  ports  of  Iceland  been  opened  to 
the  merchants  of  all  nations.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  beneficial  effects  of 
free  trade  will  gradually  heal  the  wounds  caused  by  centuries  of  neglect  and 
misfortune ;  but  great  progress  must  be  made  before  Iceland  can  attain  the  de- 
gree of  prosperity  which  she  enjoyed  in  the  times  of  her  independence. 

Then  she  had  above  a  hundred  thousand  inhabitants,  now  she  has  scarcely 
half  that  number ;  then  she  had  many  rich  and  powerful  families,  now  medioc- 
rity or  poverty  is  the  universal  lot ;  then  she  was  renowned  all  over  the  Xorth 
as  the  seat  of  learning  and  the  cradle  of  literature,  now,  were  it  not  for  her  re- 
markable physical  features,  no  traveller  n'ould  ever  think  of  landing  on  her 
rugged  shores. 

7 


THE   POLAR    WORLD. 


'# 


=^tM^&S-^'^s^' 


?»A'^ 


.LlXJAMJv,  TUE 


CHAPTER  VIT 

THE    ICEL'ANDrRS 

M.  illidt  — He\k]-i\ik— The  Fair  —The  Peasant 
iiul  the  Meichant — V  ClerEjMmn  in  his  Cup'- 
— H'l^  mikinj; — The  Icelander  s  Hut — Chiircli- 
65 — Po\ertv  of  the  Clelg^  — Jon  Thorliksen 
— The  Scnllmr^  of  Kca  kjn  ik  —  Benehci  il  Influ- 
ence of  the  C  lerg^  — Home  I  due  ition  — I  he  In. 
lander's  Winter's  Evening. — Taste  for  Literature. 
»  — The  Language. — The  Public  Library  at  Eeyk- 

javik.— The  Icelandic  Literary  Society. — Icelandic  Newspapers.— Longevity. — Leprosy. — Travelling 
in  Iceland. — Fording  the  Eivers. — Crossing  of  the  Skeidara  by  Mr.  Holland.— A  Night's  Bivouac. 

I^EXT  to  Thingvalla,  there  is  no^place  in  Iceland  so  replete  with  historical 
-^  ^  interest  as  Skalholt,  its  ancient  capital.  Here  in  the  eleventh  century  was 
founded  the  first  school  in  the  island  ;  here  was  the  seat  of  its  first  bishops  ; 
here  flourished  a  succession  of  great  orators,  historians,  and  poets ;  Isleif,  the 
oldest  chronicler  of  the  North ;  Gissur,  who  in  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century  had  visited  all  the  countries  of  Europe  and  spoke  all  their  languages; 
the  philologian  Thorlak,  and  Finnur  Johnson,  the  learned  author  of  the  "  Ec- 
«;lesiastical  History  of  Iceland."  The  Cathedral  of  Skalholt  was  renowned  far 
and  wide  for  its  size,  and  in  the  year  1100,  Latin,  poetry,  music,  and  rhetoric, ' 
the  four  liberal  arts,  were  taught  in  its  school,  more  than  they  were  at  that  time 


THE   ICELANDERS.  99 

in  many  of  tlie  large  European  cities.  As  a  proof  how  early  the  «tu(ly  of  llie 
ancients  flourished  in  Skalholt,  we  find  it  recorded  that  in  the  twelfth  century 
a  bishop  once  caught  a  scholar  reading  Ovid's  "  Art  of  Love;"  and  as  the  story 
relates  that  the  venerable  pastor  flew  into  a  violent  passion  at  the  sight  of  the 
unholy  book,  we  may  without  injustice  conclude  that  he  must  have  read  it  him- 
self in  some  of  his  leisure  hours,  to  know  its  character  so  well. 

Of  all  its  past  glories,  Skalholt  has  retained  nothing  but  its  name.  The 
school  and  the  bishopric  have  been  removed,  the  old  church  has  disai)peared, 
and  been  replaced  by  a  small  wooden  building,  in  which  divine  service  is  held 
once  a  month  ;  three  cottages  contain  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  once  celebrated 
city,  and  the  extensive  churchyard  is  the  only  memorial  of  its  former  impor- 
tance. Close  by  are  the  ruins  of  the  old  school-house,  and  on  the  spjJt  where  the 
bishop  resided  a  peasant  has  erected  his  miserable  hovel. 

But  the  ever-changing  ti<le  of  human  affairs  has  not  bereft  the  now  lonely 
place  of  its  natural  charms,  for  the  meadow-lands  of  Skalholt  are  beautifully  im- 
bedded in  an  undulating  range  of  hills,  overlooking  tlie  junction  of  the  Bruara 
and  Huita,  and  backed  by  a  magnificent  theatre  of  mountains,  among  which 
Hecla  and  the  Eyjafialla  are  the  most;*prominent. 


GOVERSOK  S   KESIUE.NCE,   KEVKJAVHi. 


Reykjavik,  the  present  capital  of  the  island,  has  risen  into  importance  at  the 
expense  both  of  Skalholt  and  Thingvalla.  At  the  beginning  of  the  present  cen- 
tury the  courts  of  justice  were  transferred  from  the  ancient  seat  of  legislature 
to  the  new  metropolis,  and  in  1797  the  bishoprics  of  Hoolum  and  Skalholt, 
united  into  one,  had  their  seats  likewise  transferred  to  Reykjavik.  The  ancient 
school  of   Skalholt,  after  having  first  migrated  to   Bessestadt,  has  also  been 


100  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

obliged  to  follow  the  centralizing  tendency,  so  powerful  in  our  times,  and  now 
contributes  to  the  rising  fortunes  of  the  small  sea-port  town. 

But  in  spite  of  all  these  accessions,  the  first  aspect  of  Reykjavik  by  no  means 
corresponds  to  our  ideas  of  a  capital.  "  Thie  town,"  says  Lord  Dufferin,  "  con- 
sists of  a  collection  of  wooden  sheds,  one  story  high — rising  here  and  there  into 
a  gable  end  of  greater  pretensions — built  along  the  lava-track,  and  flanked  at 
either  end  by  a  suburb  of  turf  huts.  On  every  side  of  it  extends  a  desolate 
plain  of  lava  that  once  must  have  boiled  up  red-hot  fromsome  distant  gateway 
of  hell,  and  fallen  hissing  into  the  sea.  No  tree  or  bush  reheves  the  dreariness 
of  the  landscape,  and  the  mountains  are  too  distant  to  serve  as  a  background  to 
the  buildings;  but  before  the  door  of  each  merchant's  house  facing  the  sea 
there  flies  a*  gay  little  pennon ;  and  as  you  walk  along  the  silent  streets,  whose 
dust  no  carriage-wheel  has  ever  desecrated,  the  rows  of  flower-pots  that  peep  out 
of  the  Avindows,  between  curtains  of  white  muslin,  at  once  convince  you  that, 
notwithstanding  their  unpretending  appearance,  within  each  dwelling  reign  the 
elegance  and  comfort  of  a  woman-tended  home." 

Twenty  years  since,  Reykjavik  was  no  better  than  a  wretched  fishing-village, 
now  it  already  numbers  1400  inhabitants,  and  free-trade  promises  it  a  still 
greater  increase  for  the  future.  It  owes  its  prosperity  chiefly  to  its  excellent 
port,  and  to  the  abundance  of  fish-banks  in  its  neighborhood,  which  have  induced 
the  Danish  merchants  to  make  it  their  principal  settlement.  Most  of  them,  how- 
ever, merely  visit  it  in  summer  like  birds  of  passage,  arriving  in  May  with  small 
cargoes  of  foreign  goods,  and  leaving  it  again  in  August,  after  having  disposed 
of  their  wares.  Thus  Reykjavik  must  be  lonely  and  dreary  enough  in  winter, 
when  no  trade  animates  its  port,  and  no  traveller  stays  at  its  solitary  inn ;  but 
the  joy  of  the  inhabitants  is  all  the  greater  when  the  return  of  spring  re-opens 
their  intercourse  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  the  delight  may  be  imagined 
with  Avhich  they  hail  the  first  ship  that  brings  them  the  long-expected  news  from 
Europe,  and  perhaps  some  wealthy  tourist,  eager  to  admire  the  wonders  of  the 
Geysirs. 

The  most  busy  time  of  the  town  is,  however,  the  beginning  ci  July,  when  the 
annual  fair  attracts  a  great  number  of  fishermen  and  peasants  within  its  walls. 
From  a  distance  of  forty  and  fifty  leagues  around,  they  come  with  long  trains 
of  pack-horses ;  their  stock-fish  slung  freely  across  the  animals'  backs,  their 
mqre  damageable  articles  close  pressed  and  packed  in  boxes  or  skin  bags. 

The  greater  part  of  the  trade  in  this  and  other  small  sea-ports — such  as 
Akreyri,  Hafnafjord,Eyrarbacki,  Berufjord,  Vapnafjord,  Isaf jord,  Grafaros,Bu- 
d en stadt,  which,  taken  all  together,  do  not  equal  Reykjavik  in  traffic  and  pop- 
ulation— is  carried  on  by  barter.* 

Sometimes  the  Icelander  desires  to  be  paid  in  specie  for  part  of  his  produce, 
but  then  he  is  obliged  to  bargain  for  a  long  time  with  the  merchant,  who  of 
course  derives  a  double  profit  by  an  exchange  of  goods,  and  is  loth  to  part  with 

*  In  1855,  Iceland  imported,  among  others,  65,712  pieces  of  timber,  148,038  lbs.  of  iron,  37,700  lbs. 
hemp,  15,179  fishing-lines,  20,342  lbs.  salt,  6539  tons  of  coal. 

Tiie  chief  exportations  of  the  same  year  were,  tallow,  932,906  lbs.,  wool,  1,569,.323  lbs.,  69,305  pairs  of 
stockings,  27,109  pairs  of  gloves,  12,712  salted  sheepskins,  4116  lbs.  eider-downs,  25,000  lbs.  other  feath- 
ers, 244  horses,  and  24,079  ship's  pounds  (the  ship's  pi)und  =  320  li)S.)  salt  fish. 


THE   ICELANDERS.  101 

]iis  hard  cash.  The  dollai-s  thus  acquired  are  either  melted  down,  an<l  worked 
iuto  silver  massive  girdles,  which  iu  point  of  execution  as  well  as  design  are  said, 
on  good  authority,*  to  be  equal  to  any  thing  of  the  kind  fashioned  by  English 
jev^ellers,  or  else  deposited  in  a  strong-box,  as  taxes  and  wages  are  all  paid  in 
produce,  and  no  Icelander  ever  thinks  of  investing  his  money  in  stocks,  shares, 
or  debentures. 

He  is,  however,  by  no  means  so  ignorant  of  mercantile  affairs  as  to  strike  at 
once  a  bargain  with  the  Danish  traders.  Pitching  his  tent  before  the  town,  he 
first  pays  a  visit  to  all  the  merchants  of  the  place.  After  carefully  noting  their 
several  offers  (for  as  each  of  them  invariably  treats  him  to  a  dram,  he  witJi 
some  justice  mistrusts  his  memory),  he  returns  to  his  caravan  and  makes  his 
calculations  as  well  as  his  somewhat  confused  brain  allows  him.  If  he  is  ac- 
companied by  his  wife,  her  opinion  of  course  is  decisive,  and  the  following 
morning  he  repairs  with  all  his  goods  to  the  merchant  who  has  succeeded  in 
gaining  his  confidence. 

After  the  business  has  been  concluded,  the  peasant  empties  one  glass  to  the 
merchant's  health,  another  to  a  happy  meeting  next  year,  a  third  to  the  king,  a 
fourth  because  three  have  been  drunk  already.  At  length,  after  many  embraces 
and  protestations  of  eternal  friendship,  he  takes  his  leave  of  the  merchant.  For- 
tunately there  is  no  thief  to  be  found  in  all  Iceland  ;  but  in  consequence  of  these 
repeated  libations,  one  parcel  has  not  been  well  packed,  another  negligently  at- 
tached to  the  horse,  and  thus  it  happens  that  the  poor  peasant's  track  is  not  un- 
frequently  marked  with  sugar,  coffee-beans,  salt,  or  flour,  and  that  when  he 
reaches  home,  he  finds  some  valuable  article  or  other  missing. 

It  would,  however,  be  doing  the  Icelanders  an  injustice  to  regard  them  as 
generally  intemperate ;  f(jr  though  within  the  last  twelve  years  the  population 
has  increased  only  ten  per  cent,,  and  the  importation  of  brandy  thirty,  yet  the 
whole  quantity  of  spirits  consumed  in  the  island  amounts  to  less  than  three  bot- 
tles per  annum  for  each  individual,  and,  of  this  allowance,  the  people  of  Reykja- 
vik and  of  the  other  small  sea-ports  have  more  than  their  share,  while  many  of 
the  clergy  and  peasantry  in  the  remoter  districts  hardly  ever  taste  spirituous 
liquors.  Dr.  Hooker  mentions  the  extraordinary  effect  which  a  small  portion 
of  rum  produced  on  the  good  old  incumbent  of  Middalr,  whose  stomach  had 
feeeu  accustomed  only  to  a  milk-diet  and  a  little  coffee,  "  He  begged  me," 
says  the  doctor,f  "  to  give  him  some  rum  to  bathe  his  Avife's  breast ;  but  hav- 
ing applied  a  portion  of  it  to  that  purpose,  he  drank  the  rest  without  being  at 
all  aware  of  its  strength,  which,  however,  had  no  other  effect  than  in  causing 
this  clerical  blacksmith,^  Avith  his  lame  hip,  to  dance  in  the  most  ridiculous  man- 
ner in  front  of  the  house.  The  scene  afforded  a  great  source  of  uTerriment  to 
all  his  family  except  his  old  wife,  who  was  very  desirous  of  getting  liim  to  bed, 
while  he  was  no  less  anxious  that  she  should  join  him  in  the  dance." 

Dr.  Hooker  justly  remarks  that  this  very  circumstance  is  a  convincing  proof 
how  unaccustomed  this  priest  was  to  spirituous  liquors,  as  the  quantity  taken 
could  not  have  exceeded  a  wine-glass  full, 

*  Barrow,  "Visit  to  Iceland,"  1834.  t  "  Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Iceland,"  p.  110, 

I  All  the  clergymen  are  blacksmiths,  for  a  reason  that  will  bo  stat'.-d  lieroaftrr. 


102  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

After  lus  visit  to  the  fair,  the  peasant  sets  about  hay-making,  which  is  to  him 
the  great  business  of  the  year,  for  he  is  most  anxious  to  secure  winter  fodder  for 
his  cattle,  on  which  his  whole  prosperity  depends.  The  few  potatoes  and  tur- 
nips about  the  size  of  marbles,  or  the  cabbage  and  parsley,  which  he  may  chance 
to  cultivate,  are  not  worth  mentioning  ;  grass  is  the  chief,  nay,  the  only  produce 
of  hie  farm,  and  that  Heaven  may  grant  clear  sunshiny  days  for  hay-making  is 
now  his  daily  prayer. 

Every  person  capable  of  wielding  a  scythe  or  rake  is  pressed  into  the  work. 
The  best  hay  is  cut  from  the  "  tun,"  a  sort  of  paddock  comprising  the  lands  ad- 
joining the  farm-house,  and  the  only  part  of  his  grounds  on  which  the  peasant 
bestows  any  attention,  for,  in  spite  of  the  paramount  importance  of  his  pasture- 
land,  he  does  but  little  for  its  improvement,  and  a  meadow  is  rarely  seen,  where 
the  useless  or  less  nutritious  herbs  are  not  at  least  as  abundant  as  those  of  a 
better  quality.  The  "  tun  "  is  encircled  by  a  turf  or  stone  wall,  and  is  seldom 
more  than  ten  acres  in  extent,  and  generally  not  more  than  two  or  three.  Its 
surface  is  usually  a  series  of  closely-packed  mounds,  like  graves,  most  unpleasant 
to  walk  over,  the  gutter,  in  some  places,  being  two  feet  in  depth  between  the 
mounds.  After  having  finished  with'  the  "  tun,"  the  farmer  subjects  to  a  proc- 
ess of  cutting  all  the  broken  hillsides  and  boggy  imdrained  swamps  that  lie 
near  his  dwelling.  The  blades  of  the  scythes  are  very  short.  It  would  be  im- 
possible to  use  a  long-bladed  scythe,  owing  to  the  unevenness  of  the  ground. 

The  cutting  and  making  of  hay  is  carried  on,  when  the  weather  will  permit, 
through  all  the  twenty-four  hours  of  the  day.  When  the  hay  is  made  it  is  tied 
in  bundles  by  cords  and  thongs,  and  carried  away  by  ponies  to  the  earthen 
houses  prepared  for  it,  which  are  similar  to  and  adjoin  those  in  which  the  cattle 
are  stalled.  "  It  is  a  very  curious  sight,"  says  Mr.  SJ|epherd,  "  to  see  a  string 
of  hay-laden  ponies  returning  home.  Each  pony's  halter  is  made  fast  to  the 
tail  of  the  preceding  one,  and  the  little  animals  are  so  enveloped  in  their  bur- 
dens that  nothing  but  their  hoofs  and  the  connecting  ropes  are  visible,  and  they 
look  as  though  a  dozen  huge  haycocks,  feehng  themselves  sufficiently  made, 
were  crawling  off  to  their  resting-places." 

When  the  harvest  is  finished  the  farmer  treats  his  family  and  laborers  to  a 
substantial  supper,  consisting  of  mutton,  and  a  soup  of  milk  and  flour ;  and 
although  the  serious  and  taciturn  Icelander  has  perhaps  of  all  men  the  least 
taste  for  music  and  dancing,  yet  these  simple  feasts  are  distinguished  by  a  plac- 
id serenity,  no  less  pleasing  than  the  more  boisterous  mirth  displayed  at  a 
Fouthern  vintage. 

Almost  all  labor  out-of-doors  now  ceases  for  the  rest  of  the  year,  A  thick 
niantle  of  snow  soon  covers  mountain  and  vale,  meadow^  and  moor ;  with  every 
returmng  day,  the  sun  pays  the  cold  earth  a  decreasing  visit,  until,  finally,  he 
hardly  appears  above  the  horizon  at  noon;  the  wdntry  storm  howls  over  the 
waste,  and  for  months  the  life  of  the  Icelander  is  confined  to  his  hut,  which 
frequently  is  but  a  few  degrees  better  than  that  of  the  filthy  Lap. 

Its  lower  part  is  built  of  rude  stones  to  about  the  height  of  four  feet,  and 
between  each  row  layers  of  turf  are  placed  with  great  regularity,  to  serve  in- 
stead of  mortar,  and  keep  out  the  wind.      A  roof  of  such  wood  as  can  be  pro- 


THE   ICELANDERS. 


103 


ICELANDIC   HOUSES. 


cured  rests  upon  these  walls,  and  is  covered  Avith  turf  and  sods.  On  one  side 
(generally  facing  the  south)  are  several  gable  ends  and  doors,  each  surmounted 
with  a  weather-cock.  These  are  the  entrances  to  the  dwelling-house  proper,  to 
the  smithy,  store-room,  cow-shed,  etc.  A  long  harrow  passage,  4ark  as  pitch, 
and  redolent  of  unsavory  odors,  leads  to  the  several  apartments,  which  are  sep- 
arated from  each  other  by  thick  walls  of  turf,  each  having  also  its  own  roof,  so 
that  the  peasant's  dwelling  is  in  fact  a  conglomeration  of  low  huts,  which  some- 
times receive  their  light  through  small  windows  in  the  front,  but  more  frequent- 
ly through  holes  in  the  roof,  covered  with  a  piece  of  glass  or  skin.  The  floors 
are  of  stamped  earth  ;  the  hearth  is  made  of  a  few  stones  clumsily  piled  togeth- 
er ;  a  cask  or  barrel,  with  the  two  ends  knocked  out,  answers  the  purpose  of  a 
chimney,  or  else  the  smoke  is  allowed  to  escape  through  a  mere  hole  in  the  roof. 

The  thick  turf  walls,  the  dirty  floor,  the  personal  uncleanliness  of  the  inhab- 
itants, all  contribute  to  the  pollution  of  the  atmosphere.  No  piece  of  furniture 
seems  ever  to  have  been  cleaned  since  it  was  first  put  into  use ;  all  is  disorder 
and  confusion.  Ventilation  is  utterly  impossible,  and  the  whole  family,  fre- 
quently consisting  of  twenty  persons  or  more,  sleep  in  the  same  dormitory,  as 
well  as  any  strangers  who  may  happen  to  drop  in.  On  either  side  of  this 
apartment  are  bunks  three  or  four  feet  in  width,  on  which  the  sleepers  range 
themselves. 

Such  are  in  general  the  dwellings  of  the  farmers  and  clergy,  for  but  very 
few  of  the  more  wealthy  inhabitants  live  in  any  way  according  to  our  notions  of 
comfort,  while  the  cots  of  the  poor  fisherman  are  so  wretched  that  one  can 
hardly  believe  them  to  be  tenanted  by  human  beings. 


104  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

The  farm-houses  are  frequently  isolated,  and,  on  account  of  their  grass-cover- 
ed roofs  and  their  low  construction,  are  not  easily  distinguished  from  the  neigh- 
boring pasture-grounds  ;  where  four  or  five  of  them  are  congregated  in  a  grassy 
jjlain,  they  are  dignified  with  the  name  of  a  village,  and  become  the  residence 
of  a  Ilrepstior,  or  parish  constable. 

Then  also  a  church  is  seldom  wanting,  which  however  is  distinguished  from 
the  low  huts  around  merely  by  the  cross  planted  on  its  roof.  An  Icelandic 
house  of  prayer  is  generally  from  eight  to  ten  feet  wide,  and  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-four  long ;  but  of  this  about  eight  feet  are  devoted  to  the  altar,  Avhich  is 
divided  off  by  a  partition  stretching  across  the  church,  and  against  which  stands 
the  pulpit.  A  small  wooden  chest  or  cupboard,  placed  at  the  end  of  the  build- 
ing, between  two  very  small  square  windows  not  larger  than  a  common-sized 
pane  of  glass,  constitutes  the  communion-table,  over  which  is  generally  a  miser- 
able representation  of  the  Lord's  Supper  painted  on  wood.  The  height  of  the  • 
Myalls,  which  are  wainscoted,  is  about  six  feet,  and  from  them  large  wooden 
beams  stretch  across  from  side  to  side.  On  these  beams  are  placed  in  great 
disorder  a  quantity  of  old  Bibles,  psalters,  and  fragments  of  dirty  manuscripts. 
The  interior  of  the  roof,  the  rafters  of  which  rest  on  the  walls,  is  also  lined  with 
wood.  On  the  right  of  the  door,  undei'  which  one  is  obliged  to  stoop  consider- 
ably on  entering,  is  suspended  a  bell,  large  enough  to  make  an  intolerable  noise 
in  so  small  a  space.  A  few  benches  on  each  side  the  aisle,  so  crowded  together 
as  almost  to  touch  one  another,  and  affording  accommodation  to  thirty  or  forty 
persons  when  squeezed  very  tight,  leave  room  for  a  narrow  passage. 

These  churches,  besides  their  proper  use,  are  also  made  to  answer  the  pur- 
pose of  the  caravanseras  of  the  East,  by  affording  a  night's  lodging  to  foreign 
tourists.  They  are  indeed  neither  free  from  dirt,  nor  from  bad  smells ;  but 
the  stranger  is  still  far  better  off  tlian  in  the  intolerable  atmosphere  of  a  peas- 
ant's hut. 

Mr.  Ross  Browne  thus  describes  the  church  and  parsonage  at  Thingvalla ; 
"  The  church  is  of  modern  construction,  and,  like  all  I  saAV  in  the  interior,  is 
made  of  wood,  painted  a  dark  color,  and  roofed  with  boards  covered  with  sheets 
of  tarred  canvas.  It  is  a  very  primitive  little  affair,  only  one  story  high,  and 
not  more  than  fifteen  by  twenty  feet  in  dimensions.  From  the  date  on  the 
weather-cock  it  appears  to  have  been  built  in  1858.  The  congregation  is  sup- 
plied by  the  tew  sheep-ranches  in  the  neighborhood,  consisting  at  most  of  half 
a  dozen  families.  These  unpretending  little  churches  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
vicinity  of  every  settlement  throughout  the  whole  island.  Simj)le  and'  homely 
as  they  are,  they  speak  well,  for  the  pious  character  of  the  people. 

"  The  pastor  of  Thingvalla  and  his  family  reside  in  a  group  of  sod-covered 
Imts  close  by  the  church.  These  cheerless  little  hovels  are  really  a  curiosity, 
none  of  tliem  being  over  ten  or  fifteen  feet  high,  and  all  huddled  together  with- 
out the  slightest  regard  to  latitude  or  longitude,  like  a  parcel  of  sheep  in  a 
storm.  Some  have  windows  in  the  roof,  and  some  have  chimneys ;  grass  and. 
weeds  grow  all  over  them,  and  crooked  by-ways  and  dark  alleys  run  among 
them  and  through  them.  At  the  base  they  are  walled  up  with  big  lumps  of 
lava,  and  two  of  them  have  board  fronts,  painted  black,  while  the  remainder  are 


THE  ICELANDERS. 


CHURCH  AT  THINGVALLA. 


patched  up  with  turf  and  rubbish  of  all  sorts,  very  much  in  the  style  of  a  stork's 
nest.  A  low  stone  wall  encircles  the  premises,  but  seems  to  be  of  little  use  as  a 
barrier  against  the  encroachments  of  live-stock,  being  broken  up  in  gaps  every 
few  yards.  In  front  of  the  group  some  attempt  has  been  made  at  a  pavement, 
which,  however,  must  have  been  abandoned  soon  after  the  work  was  com- 
menced. It  is  now  .littered  all  over  with  old  tubs,  pots,  dish-cloths,  and  other 
articles  of  domestic  use. 

"The  interior  of  this  strange  abode  is  even  more  complicated  than  one 
would  be  led  to  expect  from  the  exterior.  Passing  through  a  dilapidated  door- 
way in  one  of  the  smaller  <?abins,  which  you  would  hardly  suppose  to  be  the 
main  entrance,  you  find  yourself  in  a  long  dark  passage-way,  built  of  rough 
stone,  and  roofed  with  wooden  rafters  and  brushwood  covered  with  sod.  The 
sides  are  ornamented  with  pegs  stuck  in  the  crevices  between  the  stones,  upon 
which  hang  saddles,  bridles,  horse-shoes,  bunches  of  herbs,  dried  fish,  and  various 
articles  of  cast-off  clothing,  including  old  shoes  and  sheepskins.  Wide  or  nar- 
row, straight  or  crooked,  to  suit  the  sinuosities  of  the  different  cabins  into 
which  it  forms  the  entrance,  it  seems  to  have  been  originally  located  upon  the 
track  of  a  blind  boa-constrictor.  The  best  room,  or  rather  house — for  every 
room  is  a  house — is  set  apart  for  the  accommodation  of  travellers.  Another 
cabin  is  occupied  by  some  members  of  the  pastor's  family,  who  bundle  about 
like  a  lot  of  rabbits.  The  kitchen  is  also  the  dog-kennel,  and  occasionally  the 
sheep-house.  A  pile  of  stones  in  one  corner  of  it,  upon  which  a  few  twigs  or 
scraps  of  sheep-manure  serve  to  make  the  fire,  constitute  the  cooking  apartment. 
The  floor  consists  of  the  original  lava-bed,  and  artificial  puddles  composed  of 


;106  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

slops  and  offal  of  diverse  unctuous  kinds.  Smoke  fills  all  the  cavities  in  tlie  air 
not  already  occupied  by  foul  odors,  and  the  beams,  and  posts,  and  rickety  old 
bits  of  furniture  are  dyed  to  the  core  with  the  dense  and  variegated  atmosphere 
around  them.  This  is  a  fair  .specimen  of  the  whole  establishment,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  travellers'  room.  The  beds  in  these  cabins  are  the  chief  arti- 
cles of  luxury." 

The  poverty  of  the  clergy  corresponds  with  the  meanness  of  their  churches. 
The  best  living  in  the  island  is  that  of  Breide'-Bolstadr,  where  the  nominal 
stipend  amounts  to  180  specie  dollars,  or  about  £40  a  year;  and  Mr.  Hol- 
land states  that  the  average  livings  do  not  amount  to  more  than  £10  for  each 
parish  in  the  island.  The  clergymen  must  therefore  depend  almost  entirely 
for  subsistence  on  their  glebe  land,  and  a  small  pittance  to  which  they  are 
entitled  for  the  few  baptisms,  marriages,  and  funerals  that  occur  among  their  ' 
parishioners.  The  bishop  himself  has  only  2000  rix-dollars,  or  £200,  a  year, 
a  miserable  pittance  to  make  a  decent  appearance,  and  to  exercise  hospitality 
to  the  clergy  who  visit  Reykjavik  from  distant  parts. 

It  can  not  be  wondered  at  that  pastors  thus  miserably  paid  are  generally 
obho-ed  to  perform  the  hardest  work  of  day  laborers  to  preserve  their  families 
from  starving,  and  that  their  external  appearance  corresponds  less  with  the  dig- 
nity of  their  office  than  with  their  penury.  Besides  hay-making  and  tending  the 
cattle,  they  may  be  frequently  seen  leading  a  train  of  pack-horses  from  a  fishing- 
station  to  their  distant  hut.  They  are  all  blacksmiths  also  from  necessity,  and 
the  best  shoers  of  horses  on  the  island.  The  feet  of  an  Iceland  horse  would  be 
cut  to  pieces  over  the  sharp  rock  and  lava,  if  not  well  shod.  The  great  resort 
of  the  peasantry  is  the  church  ;  and  should  any  of  the  numerous  horses  have  lost 
a  shoe,  or  be  likely  to  do  so,  the  priest  puts  on  his  apron,  lights  his  little  char- 
coal fire  in  his  smithy  (one  of  which  is  always  attached  to  every  parsonage), 
and  sets  the  animal  on  his  legs  again.     The  task  of  getting  the  necessary  char- 


THE    PASTOR  S    HOUSE,  TUINGVALLA 


THE   ICELANDERS. 


107 


coal  is  not  the  least  of  liis  labors,  for 
wliatever  the  distance  may  be  to  the 
nearest  thicket  of  dwarf-birc^h,  he  must 
<:;o  thither  to  burn  the  wood,  and  to 
bring  it  home  when  charred  across  his 
horse's  back.  His  hut  is  scarcely  bet- 
ter than  that  of  the  meanest  fisherman  ; 
a  bed,  a  rickety  table,  a  few  chairs,  and 
a  chest  or  two,  are  all  his  furniture. 
This  is,  as  long  as  he-  lives,  the  condi- 
tion of  the  Icelandic  clergyman,  and 
learning,  virtue,  and  even  genius  are 
but  too  frequently  buried  under  this 
squalid  poverty. 

But  few  of  my  readers  have  proba- 
bly ever  heard  of  the  poet  Jon  Thor- 
lakson,  but  who  can  withhold  the  trib- 
ute of  his  admiration  from  the  poor 
l)riest  of  Backa,  who  with  a  fixed  in- 
come of  less  than  £6  a  year,  and  con- 
demned to  all  the  drudgery  which  I 
have  described,  finished  at  seventy 
years  of  age  a  translation  of  Milton's 
"  Paradise  Lost,"  having  j^reviously 
translated  Pope's  "  Essay  on  Man." 

Three  of  the  first  books  only  of  the 
Icelandic  Literary  Society,  when  it  was  dissolved  in  1796,  and  to  print  the  rest 
at  his  own  expense  was  of  course  impossible.  In  a  few  Icelandic  verses,  Thor- 
lakson  touchingly  alludes  to  his  penury  : — "  Ever  since  I  came  into  this  world 
I  have  been  wedded  to  Poverty,  who  has  now  hugged  me  to  her  bosom  these 
seventy  winters,  all  but  two  ;  and  whether  we  shall  ever  be  separated  here  below 
is  only  known  to  Him' who  joined  us  together." 

As  if  Providence  had  intended  to  teach  the  old  man  that  we  must  hope  to 
the  last,  he  soon  after  received  the  unexpected  visit  of  Mr.  Henderson,  an  agent 
of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  who  thus  relates  his  interview  : 

"  Like  most  of  his  brethren  at  this  season  of  the  year,  we  found  him  in  the 
meadow  assisting  his  people  in  hay-making.  On  hearing  of  our  arrival,  he 
made  all  the  haste  home  which  his  age  and  infirmity  would  allow,  and  bidding 
us  welcome  to  his  lowly  abode,  ushered  us  into  the  humble  apartment  where  he 
translated  ray  countrymen  into  Icelandic.  The  door  is  not  quite  four  feet  in 
lieight,  and  the  room  may  be  about  eight  feet  in  length  by  six  in  breadth.  At 
the  inner  end  is  the  poet's  bed,  and  close  to  the  door,  over  against  a  small  win- 
dow,  not  exceeding  two  feet  square,  is  a  table  Avhere  he  commits  to  paper  the 
effusions  of  his  Muse.  On  my  telling  him  that  my  countrymen  Avould  not  have 
forgiven  me,  nor  could  I  have  forgiven  myself,  had  I  passed  through  this  part 
of  the  island  without  paying  him  a  visit,  he  replied  that  the  translation  of  Mil- 


THE  PASTOR  OF  THINGVALLA 

Paradise  Lost"  were  printed  by  the 


108  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

ton  had  yielded  him  many  a  pleasant  hour,  and  often  given  him  occasion  to 
think  of  England." 

This  visit  was  followed  by  agreeable  consequences  for  the  venerable  bard. 
The  Literary  P'und  soon  afterwards  sent  him  a  present  of  £30,  a  modest  sum 
according  to  our  ideas,  but  a  mine  of  wealth  in  the  eyes  of  the  poor  Icelandic 
priest.  His  life,  however,  was  now  near  its  close,  as  it  is  stated  in  a  short 
view  "  Of  the  Origin,  Progress,  and  Operations  of  the  Society,"  dated  March 
3d,  1821,  that  "the  poet  of  Iceland  is  now  in  his  grave;  but  it  is  satisfactory 
to  know  that  the  attention,  in  this  instance,  of  a  foreign  and  remote  society  to 
his  gains  and  his  fortunes  was  highly  gratifying  to  his  feelings,  and  contrib- 
uted not  immaterially  to  the  comfort  of  his  concluding  days." 

He  wrote  la  letter  in  very  elegant  Latin,  expressing  his  heartfelt  gratitude 
for  the  kindness  and  generosity  of  the  Society,  so  accordant  with  the  character 
of  the  British  nation,  and  accompanied  it  with  a  MS.  copy  of  his  translation. 
The  latter  was  first  printed  in  Iceland  in  1828,  but  his  own  original  poems  did 
not  appear  before  1842. 

The  school  where  most  of  the  Icelandic  clergymen,  so  poor  and  yet  gener- 
ally so  respectable  in  their  poverty,  are  educated,  is  that  of  Reykjavik,  as  few 
only  enjoy  stipends  which  enable  them  to  study  at  Copenhagen.  There  they 
live  several  years  under  a  milder  sky,  they  become  acquainted  with  the  splen- 
dor of  a  large  capital,  and  thus  it  might  be  supposed  that  the  idea  of  returning 
to  the  dreary  wastes  of  their  own  land  must  be  intolerable.  Yet  this  is  their 
ardent  desire,  and,  like  banished  exiles,  they  long  for  their  beloved  Iceland, 
where  privation  and  penury  await  them. 

In  no  Christian  country,  perhaps  with  the  sole  exception  of  Lapland,  are  the 
clergy  so  poor  as  in  Iceland,  but  in  none  do  they  exert  a  more  beneficial  in- 
fluence. 

Thpugh  the  island  has  but  the  one  public  school  at  Reykjavik,  yet  perhaps 
in  no  country  is  elementary  education  more  generally  diffused.  E^-ery  mother 
teaches  her  children  to  read  and  write,  and  a  peasant,  after  providing  for  the 
wants  of  his  family  by  the  labor  of  his  hands,  loses  no  opportunity,  in  his  lei- 
sure hours,  of  inculcating  a  sound  morahty.  In  these  praiseworthy  efforts  the 
parents  are  supported  by  the  pastor. 

He  who,  judging  from  the  sordid  condition  of  an  Icelandic  hut,  might  imag- 
ine its  inhabitants  to  be  no  better  than  savages,  would  soon  change  his  opin- 
ion were  he  introduced  on  a  winter  evening  into  the  low,  ill-ventilated  room 
where  the  family  of  a  peasant  or  a  small  landholder  is  assembled.  Vainly 
Avould  he  seek  a  single  idler  in  the  whole  company.  The  women  and  girls 
spin  or  knit ;  the  men  and  boys  are  all  busy  mending  their  agricultural  imple- 
ments and  household  utensils,  or  else  chiselling  or  cutting  with  admirable  skill 
ornaments  or  snuff-boxes  in  silver,  ivory,  or  wood.  By  the  dubious  light  of  a 
tallow  lamp,  just  making  obscurity  visible,  sits  one  of  the  family,  who  reads 
Avith  a  loud  voice  an  old  "  saga  "  or  chronicle,  or  maybe  the  newest  number  of 
the  "  Korthurfari,"  an  Iceland  literary  almanac,  published  during  the  last  few 
years  by  Mr.  Gisle  Brinjulfsson.  Sometimes  poems  or  whole  sagas  are  repeat- 
ed from  memory,  and  there  are  even  itinerant  story-tellers,  who,  like  thetrouba- 


THE  ICELANDERS.  109 

dours  and  trouveres  of  the  Middle  Ages,  w.inder  from  one  farm  to  another,  and 
thus  gain  a  scanty  livelihood.  In  this  manner  the  deeds  of  the  ancient  Ice- 
landers remain  fixed  in  the  memory  of  their  descendants,  and  Snorre  Sturleson, 
Samund,  Frodi,  and  Eric  Randa  are  unforgotten.  Nine  centuries  have  elapsed ; 
but  every  Icelander  still  knows  the  names  of  the  proud  yarls  who  first  peopled 
the  fiords  of  the  island ;  and  the  exploits  of  the  brave  vikings  Avho  spread  ter- 
ror and  desolation  along  all  the  coasts  of  Europe  still  fill  the  hearts  of  the 
peaceful  islanders  of  our  days  with  a  glow  of  patriotic  pride. 

Where  education  is  so  general,  one  may  naturally  expect  to  find  a  high  de- 
gree of  intellectual  cultivation  among  the  clergy,  the  public  functionaries,  and 
the  wealthier  part  of  the  population.  Their  classical  knowledge  is  one  of  the 
first  things  that  strike  the  stranger  with  astonishment.  He  sees  men  whose 
appearance  too  frequently  denotes  an  abject  poverty  conversant  with  the  great 
authors  of  antiquity,  and  keenly  alive  to  their  beauties.  Travelling  to  the  Gey- 
sirs,  he  is  not  seldom  accosted  in  Latin  by  his  guide,  and  stopping  at  a  farm, 
his  host  greets  him  in  the  same  language. 

I  have  specially  named  Jon  Thorlakson,  but  Iceland  has  produced  and  still 
produces  many  other  men  who,  without  the  hope  of  any  other  reward  but  that 
which  proceeds  from  the  pure  love  of  literature,  devote  their  days  and  nights 
to  laborious  studies,  and  live  Avith  Virgil  and  Homer  under  the  sunny  skies  of 
Italy  and  Greece.  In  the  study  of  the  modern  languages,  the  Icelanders  are 
as  far  advanced  as  can  be  expected  from  their  limited  intercourse  with  the  rest 
of  the  world. 

The  English  language,  in  which  they  find  so  many  words  of  their  own  and 
so  many  borrowed  from  the  Latin,  is  cultivated  by  many  of  the  clergy.  The 
German  they  find  still  more  easy ;  and  as  all  the  Scandinavian  languages  pro- 
ceed from  the  same  root,  they  have  no  difiiculty  in  understanding  the  Danish 
and  the  Norwegian,  tongues.  Of  all  the  modern  languages  or  dialects  which 
have  sprung  from  the  ancient  Norse,  spoken  a  thousand  years  ago  all  over 
Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  none  has  undergone  fewer  changes  than  the  Ice- 
landic. In  the  sea-ports  it  is  mixed^up  with  many  Danish  words  and  phrases, 
but  in  the  interior  of  the  island  it  is  still  spoken  as  it  was  in  the  times  of  In- 
golfr  and  Eric  the  Red,  and  in  the  whole  island  there  is  no  fisherman  or  day 
laborer  who  does  not  perfectly  understand  the  oldest  Avritings. 

It  may  easily  be  imagined  that  among  a  people  so  fond  of  literature,  books 
must  be  in  great  request.  Too  poor  to  be  constantly"  increasing  their  small  col- 
lections of  modern  publications,  or  of  old  "  sagas  "  or  chronicles,  by  ncAV  acqui- 
sitions, one  assists  the  other.  When  the  peasant  goes  on  Sundays  to  church, 
he  takes  a  few  volumes  Avith  him,  ready  to  lend  his  treasures  to  his  neighbors, 
and,  on  his  part,  selects  from  among  those  which  they  have  brought  for  the 
same  purpose.  When  he  is  particularly  pleased  with  a  work,  he  has  it  copied 
at  home,  and  it  may  be  here  remarked  that  the  Icelanders  are  frequently  most 
excellent  calligraphists. 

The  foundation  of  a  public  library  at  Reykjavik  in  1821,  at  the  instigation 
of  the  learned  Professor  Rafn  of  Copenhagen,  wfts  a  great  boon  to  the  people. 
It  is  said  to  contain  about  12,000  volumes,  which  are  kept  under  the  roof  of  the 


no  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

cathedral.  Books  are  freely  lent  for  months,  or  even  for  a  whole  yeai-,  to  the 
inhabitants  of  remote  districts.  This  liberality  is,  of  "course,  attended  with 
some  inconvenience,  but  it  has  the  inestimable  advantage  of  rendering  a  mim- 
ber  of  good  works  accessible  to  numerous  families  too  poor  to  pm-chase  them. 

Another  excellent  institution  is  the  New  Icelandic  Literary  Society,  founded 
in  1816.  It  has  two  seats,  one  in  Copenhagen,  the  other  in  Reykjavik,  and  its 
chief  object  is  the  publication  of  useful  works  in  the  language  of  the  country. 
Besides  an  annual  grant  of  100  specie  dollars  (£24)  awarded  to  it  by  the 
Danish  Government,  its  income  is  confined  to  the  yearly  contributions  of  its 
members,*  and  with  this  scanty  means  it  has  already  published  many  excellent 
works. 

Though  remote  from  the  busy  scenes  of  the  world,  Iceland  has  three  news- 
papers, the  Thyodtholfr  and  the  Islendingur,  which  appear  at  Reykjavik,  and 
the  iVbr(!/M'/,  which  is  pubhshed  at  Akreyri,  on  the  borders  of  the  Polar  Ocean. 
The  Islendingur  is  said  to  contain  many  excellent  articles,  but  it  would  sorely 
task  the  patience  of  those  who  are  accustomed  to  the  regular  enjoyment  of  the 
"  Times  "  at  breakfast ;  as  it  sometimes  appears  but  once  in  three  weeks,  and  then 
again,  as  if  to  make  up  for  lost  time,  twice  in  eight  days. 

In  spite  of  their  ill-ventilated  dwellings  and  the  hardships  entailed  upon 
them  by  the  severity  of  the  climate,  the  Icelanders  frequently  attain  a  good  old 
age.  Of  the  2019  persons  who  died  in  1858,  25  had  passed  the  age  of  ninety, 
and  of  these  20  belonged  to  the  fair  sex.  The  mortality  among  the  children  is, 
however,  very  considerable  ;  993,  or  nearly  one-half  of  the  entire  number  hav- 
ing died  before  the  age  of  five  in  the  year  above-mentioned.  Cutaneous  affec- 
tions ai'e  verj'  common  among  Icelanders,  as  may  easily  be  supposed  from  their 
sordid  woollen  apparel  and  the  uncleanliness  of  their  huts  ;  and  the  northern 
leprosy,  or  "  likthra,"  is  constantly  seeking  out  its  victims  among  them.  This 
dreadful  disease,  which  is  also  found  among  the  fishermen  iu  Norway,  in  Green- 
land, in  the  Faeroes,  in  Lapland,  and,  in  short,  wherever  the  same  mode  of  life 
exists,  begins  with  a  swelling  of  the  hands  and  feet.  The  hair  falls  off;  the 
senses  become  obtuse.  Tumors  appear  on«the  arms  and  legs,  and  on  the  face, 
which  soon  loses  the  semblance  of  humanity.  Severe  pains  shoot  through  the 
joints,  an  eruption  covers  the  whole  body,  and  finally  changes  into  open  sores, 
ending  with  death.  He  whom  the  leprosy  has  once  attacked  is  doomed,  for  it 
mocks  all  the  efforts  of  medical  art.  Fortunately  the  victims  of  this  shocking- 
complaint  are  rather  objects  of  pity  than  of  disgust,  and  as  it  is  not  supposed 
to  be  contagious,  they  are  not  so  cruelly  forsaken  by  their  relations  as  their  fel- 
low-sufferers in  the  East.  In  the  hut  of  the  priest  of  Thingvalla,  Marmier  saw 
a  leper  busy  grinding  corn.  Some  of  the  poorest  and  most  helpless  of  these 
unfortunate  ci-eatiu-es  find  a  refuge  in  four  small  hospitals,  where  they  are  pro- 
vided for  at  the  public  expense. 

Since  a  regular  steam-boat  communication  has  been  opened  between  Ice- 
land, Deimiark,  and  Scotland,  the  number  of  tourists  desirous  of  viewing  the 

*  Their  number  in  1860  was  991.  During  liis  voyage  to  Iceland  in  1850  Prince  Napoleon  was  named 
honorarj'  president,  a  distinction  he  shares  with  the  Bishop  of  Reykjavik.  Among  the  4G  honorary 
members  I  find  the  name  of  Lord  Dufferin. 


THE   ICELANDERS. 


Ill 


matchless  natural  Avonders  of  the  island  has  considerably  increased.  But  tra\-- 
elling  in  the  island  itself  is  still  attended  with  considerable  difficulties  and  no 
trifling  expense,  to  say  nothing  of  the  want  of  all  comforts ;  so  that  most  of  it? 
visitors  are  content  with  a  trip  to  Thingvalla  and  the  Geysir,  which  are  but  a 
couple  of  days'  journey  from  Reykjavik,  and  veiy  few,  like  Mr.  Holland,  make 
the  entire  circuit  of  the  island,  or,  like  Mr.  Shepherd,  plunge  into  the  terra  in- 
cognita of  its  north-western  peninsula.  The  only  mode  of  travelling  is  on 
horseback,  as  there  are  no  roads,  and  therefore  no  can-iages  in  Iceland.  The 
distances  between'  the  places  are  too  great,  the  rivers  are  too  furious,  and  the 
bogs  too  extensive  to  allow  of  a  walking  tour  being  made.  Even  the  tourist 
with  the  most  modest  pretensions  requires  at  least  two  riding  horses  for  him- 
self, two  for  his  guide,  and  two  packhorses  ;  and  when  a  larger  company  travels, 
it  always  forms  a  cavalcade  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  horses,  tied  head  to  tail, 
the  chief  guide  mounted  on  the  first  and  leading  the  string,  the  other  accelerat- 
ing its  motions  by  gesticulation,  sundry  oaths,  and  the  timely  application  of 
the  whip.  The  way,  or  the  path,  lies  either  over  beds  of  lava,  so  rugged  that 
the  horses  are  allowed  to  pick  their  way,  of  over  boggy  ground,  where  it  is 
equally  necessary  to  avoid  those  places  into  which  the  animals  might  sink  up 
to  their  belly,  but  which,  when  left  to  themselves,  they  are  remarkably  skillful 
in  detecting.  With  the  solitary  exception  of  a  few  planks  thrown  across  the 
Bi-uera,  and  a  kind  of  swing  bridge,  or  Mdfr,  contrived  for  passing  the  rapid 
Jokulsa,  there  are  no  bridges  over  the  rivers,  so  that  the  only  way  to  get  across 
is  to  ride  through  them — a  feat  which,  considei'ing  the  usual  velocity  of  their 
current,  is  not  seldom  attended  with  considerable  danger,  as  will  be  seen  by  the 
following  account  of  the  crossing  of  the  Skeidara  by  Mr.  Holland. 


113  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

"  Our  guide,"  says  this  intrepid  traveller,  "  urged  on  his  horse  through  the 
stream,  and  led  the  way  towards  the  mid-channel.  We  followed  in  his  wake, 
and  soon  were  all  stemming  the  impetuous  and  swollen  torrent.  In  the  course 
of  our  journey  we  had  before  this  crossed  a  good  many  rivers  more  or  less 
deep,  but  all  of  them  had  been  mere  child's  play  compared  to  that  which  we 
were  now  fording.  The  angry  water  rose  high  against  our  horses'  sides,  at 
times  almost  coming  over  the  tops  of  their  shoulders.  The  spray  from  their 
broken  crests  was  dashed  up  into  our  faces.  The  stream  was  so  swift  tliat  it 
was  impossible  to  follow  the  individual  waves  as  they  rushed  past  us,  and  it 
almost  made  us  dizzy  to  look  down  at  it.  Now,  if  ever,  is  the  time  for  firm 
hand  or  rein,  sure  seat,  and  steady  eye ;  not  only  is  the  stream  so  strong,  but 
the  bottom  is  full  of  large  stones,  that  the  horse  can  not  see  through  the  murky 
waters  ;  if  he  should  fall,  the  torrent  wiU  sweep  you  down  to  the  sea — its  white 
breakers  arc  plainly  visible  as  they  run  along  the  shore  at  scarcely  a  mile's  dis- 
tance, and  they  lap  the  beach  as  if  they  Avaited  for  their  prey.  Happily,  they 
will  be  disappointed.  Swimming  would  be  of  no  use,  but  an  Icelandic  water- 
horse  seldom  makes  a  blunder  or  a  false  step.  Not  the  least  of  the  risks  we 
ran  in  crossing  the  Skeidara  Avas  from  the  masses  of  ice  carried  down  by  the 
stream  from  the  Jokul,  many  of  them  being  large  enough  to  knock  a  horse 
OATr, 

"  Fortunately  we  found  much  less  ice  in  the  centre  and  SAviftest  part  of  the 
river,  where  we  were  able  to  see  and  avoid  it,  than  in  the  side  channels.  Hoav 
the  horses  were  able  to  stand  against  such  a  stream  was  marvellous ;  they 
could  not  do  so  unless  they  were  constantly  in  the  habit  of  crossing  swih 
riA'ers.  The  Icelanders  Avho  liA^e  in  this  part  of  the  island  keep  horses  known 
for  their  qualities  in  fording  difficult  rivers,  and  they  never  venture  to  cross  a 
<langerOus  stream  unless  mounted  on  a  tried  w^ater-horse.  The  action  of  the 
Icelandic  horses  Avhen  crossing  a  swift  river  is  very  peculiar.  They  lean  all 
their  Aveight  against  the  stream,  so  as  to  resist  it  as  much  as  possible,  and 
move  onward  Avith  a  peculiar  side-step.  This  motion  is  not  agreeable.  It 
feels  as  if  your  horse  Avere  marking  time  Avithout  gaining  ground,  and  the  pr|||- 
ress  made  being  really  very  sloAV,  the  shore  from  which  you  started  seems  to 
recede  from  you,  whilst  that  for  Avhich  you  are  making  appears  as  far  as  ever. 
"  When  we  reached  the  middle  of  the  stream,  the  roar  of  the  waters  was  so 
great  that  we  could  scarcely  make  our  voices  audible  to  one  another ;  they 
Avere  overpowered  by  the  crunching  sound  of  the  ice,  and  the  .bumping  of  large 
stones  against  the  bottom.  Up  to  this  point  a  diagonal  line,  rather  down 
stream,  had  been  cautiously  foUoAved ;  but  when  Ave  came  to  the  middle,  we 
turned  our  horses'  heads  a  little  against  the  stream.  As  Ave  thus  altered  our 
course,  the  long  line  of  baggage-horses  appeared  to  be  SAvung  round  altogether, 
as  if  sAvept  off  their  legs.  None  of  them,  hoAvever,  broke  away,  and  they  con- 
tinued their  advance  Avithout  accident,  and  at  length  Ave  all  reached  the  shore 
in  safety." 

After  a  day's  journey  in  Iceland,  rest,  as  may  well  be  supposed,  is  highly 
acceptable.  Instead  of  passing  the  night  in  the  peasant's  hut,  the  traveller, 
Avhen  no  church  is  at  hand,  generally  prefers  pitching  liis  tent  near  a-  running 


THE   ICELANDERS. 


113 


stream  on  a  grassy  plain  ;  but  sometimes,  in  consequence  of  the  great  tlistaiice 
from  one  habitable  place  to  another,  he  is  obliged  to  encamp  in  the  midst  of  a 
bog  where  the  poor  horses  find  either  bad  herbs,  scarcely  fit  to  satisfy  their 
hunger,  or  no  food  at  all.  After  they  have  been  unloaded,  their  fore  legs  are 
bound  together  above  their  hoofs,  so  as  to  prevent  them  straying  too  far, 
while  their  masters  arrange  themselves  in  the  tent  as  comfortably  as  th%y  can. 


ICELANDIC   BOG. 


114 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


COAST   OF    H;liL.A^'L>. 


CHAPTER  VIIL 

THE  WESTMAN  ISLANDS. 

The  Westmans.— Their  extreme  Difficulty  of  Access.— How  they  became  peopled.— Heimaey.  — 
Kaufstathir  and  Ofanleyte. —  Sheep-hoisting.  —  Egg-gathering. —  Dreadful  Moitality  among  lh(^ 
Children.— The  Ginklofi.— Gentleman  John.— The  Algerine  Pirates.— Dreadful  Sufferings  of  the 
Islanders. 

^T)ISING  abruptly  from  the  sea  to  a  height  of  916  feet,  the  small  Westman 
^^  Islands  are  no  less  .picturesque  than  difficult  of  access.  Many  a  traveller 
while  sailing  along  the  south  coast  of  Iceland  has  admired  their  towering  rock- 
walls,  but  no  modern  tourist  has  ever  landed  there.  For  so  stormy  a  sea  rolls 
between  them  and  the  mainland,  and  so  violent  are  the  currents,  which  the 
slightest  Avind  brings  forth  in  the  narrow  channels  of  the  archipelago,  that  a 
landing  can  be  effected  only  when  the  weather  is  perfectly  caliy.  The  Dri- 
fanda  foss,  a  cascade  on  the  opposite  mainland,  rushing  from  the  brow  of  the  Eya- 
fyalla  range  in  a  column  of  some  800  or  900  feet  in  height,  is  a  sort  of  barometer, 
which  decides  whether  a  boat  can  put  off  with  a  prospect  of  gaining  the  West- 
mans.  In  stormy  weather  the  wind  eddying  among  the  cliffs  converts  the  fall, 
though  considerable,  into  a  cloud  of  spray'  which  is  dissipated  in  the  atmos- 
phere, so  that  no  cascade  is  visible  from  the  beach.  In  calm  weather  the 
column  is  intact,  and  if  it  remains  so  two  days  in  succession,  then  the  sea  is 
usually  calm  enough  to  allow  boats  to  land,  and  they  venture  out.  As  the  Ice- 
landers, through  stormy  weather,  are  frequently  cut  off  from  Europe,  so  ther^in- 
habitants  of  the  Westmans  are  still  more  frequently  cut  off  from  Iceland,  and 
it  is  seldom  more  than  once  a  year  that  the  mails  are  landed  direct.  The  few 
letters  from  Denmark  (for  the  correspondence  is  in  all  probability  not  very 
active)  are  landed  in  Iceland  at  Reykjavik,  and  thence  forwarded  to  the  islands 
by  boat,  as  chance  may  offer,  for,  during  the  whole  winter  and  the  greater  part 


THE   WESTMAN  ISLANDS.  115 

of  the  summer,  communication  is  impossible.  It  will  now  "bo  understood  why 
tourists  are  so  little  inclined  to  visit  the  Westmans,  despite  the  magnificence 
of  their  coast  scenery,  for  who  has  the  patience  to  tarry  in  a  miserable  hut  on 
the  opposite  mainland  till  the  cascade  informs  hira  that  they  are  accessible,  or 
is  inclined  to  run  the  risk  of  being  detained  by  a  sudden  change  of  the  weather 
for  weeks  or  even  months  on  these  solitary  I'ocks  ? 

Mr.  Ross  Browne  thus  describes  the  general  aspect  of  the  coast  of  Iceland  : 
"  Nothing  could  surpass  the  desolate  grandeur  of  the  coast  as  we  approached 
the  point  of  Reykjaness.  It  was  of  an  almost  infernal  blackness.  The  whole 
country  seemed  uptorn,  rifted,  shattered,  and  scattered  about  in  a  vast  chaos 
of  ruin.  Huge  cliffs  of  lava  split  down  to  their  bases  toppled  over  the  surf. 
Rocks  of  every  conceivable  shape,  scorched  and  blasted  with  fire,  wrested 
from  the  main  and  hurled  into  the  sea,  battled  with  the  waves,  their  black 
scraggy  points  piercing  the  mist  like  giant  hands  upthrown  to  smite  or  sink  in 
a  fierce  death-struggle.  T.he  wild  havoc  wrought  in  the  conflict  of  elements 
was  appalling.  Birds  screamed  over  the  fearful  wreck  of  matter.  The  surf 
from  the  im'olling  waves  broke  against  the  charred  and  shattered  desert  of  ruin 
with  a  ten-ific  roar.  Columns  of  spray  shot  up  over  the  blackened  fragments 
of  lava,  while  in  every  opening  the  lashed  Avaters,  discolored  by  the  collision, 
seethed  and  surged  as  in  a  huge  caldron." 


WESTMAN   ISLES. 


Of  the  Westman  Islands,  he  says  :  "  Towards  noon  wc  made  the  West- 
man  Isles,  a  small  rocky  group  some  ten  miles  distant  from  the  main  island. 
A  fishing  and  trading  establishment,  owned  by  a  company  of  Danes,  is  located 


116  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

on  one  of  these  islands.  The  Arcturus  touches  twice  a  year  to  deliver  and  re- 
ceive a  mail.  On  the  occasion  of  our  visit,  a  boat  came  out  with  a  hardy-look- 
ing crew  of  Danes  to  receive  the  mail-bag.  It  was  doubtless  a  matter  of  great 
rejoicing  to  them  to  obtain  news  from  home.  I  had  barely  time  to  make  a 
rough  outline  of  the  islands  as  we  lay  off  the  settlement.  The  chief  interest  at- 
tached to  the  Westman  group  is,  that  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  visited  by 
Columbus  in  1477,  fifteen  years  prior  to  his  voyage  of  discovery  to  the  shores 
of  America." 

The  puffin,  or  the  screeching  sea-mew^,  seem  the  only  inhabitants  for  which 
nature  has  fitted  the  Westraans,  and  yet  they  have  a  history  which  leads  us 
back  to  the  times  when  Iceland  itself  first  became  known  to  man. 

About  875,  a  few  years  after  Ingolfr  followed  his  household  gods  to  Reyk- 
javik, a  Norwegian  pirate,  perchance  one  of  the  associates  of  that  historical 
personage,  landed  on  the  coast  of  Ireland,  attacked  with  fire  and  sword  the  de- 
fenseless population,  captured  forty  or  fifty  persons,  men,  women,  and  children, 
and  carried  them  off  as  slaves.  The  passage  must  have  been  any  thing  but 
pleasant,  for  it  gave  the  Hibernians  such  a  foretaste  of  the  wretchedness  that 
awaited  them  in  Iceland,  their  future  abode,  that,  taking  courage  from  despair, 
they  rose  on  their  captors,  threw  them  overboard,  and  went  ashore  on  the  first 
land  they  met  with. 

A  day  of  rare  serenity  must  have  witnessed  their  arrival  on  the  Westmans, 
a  spot  which  of  all  others  seemed  most  unlikely  to  become  their  home.  Why 
they  remained  there,  is  a  secret  of  the  past ;  most  likely  they  had  no  other  al- 
ternative, and  freedom  on  a  rock  was,  at  all  events,  better  than  slavery  under  a 
cruel  viking. 

Thus  these  weather-beaten  islets  were  first  peopled  by  men  from  the  west, 
whence  they  derive  their  name,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  present  inhabitants 
are  the  descendants  of  those  children  of  Erin.  No  one  will  be  inclined  to  envy 
them  the  heritage  bequeathed  to  them  by.  their  fathers. 

The  Westmans  are  fourteen  in  number ;  but  of  these  only  one,  called  Hei- 
maey,  or  Home  Island,  is  inhabited.  It  is  fifteen  miles  from  the  coast  of  Iceland, 
and  forty-five  from  Ilecla.  Though  larger  than  all  the  others  put  together,  its 
entire  surface  is  not  more  than  ten  square  miles.  It  is  almost  surrounded  with 
high  basaltic  cliffs,  and  an  otherwise  iron-bound  shore ;  its  interior  is  covered 
with  black  ashy-looking  cones,  bearing  undoubted  evidence  of  volcanic  action  ; 
in  fact,  the  harbor,  which  lies  on  its  north-east  side,  and  is  only  accessible  to 
small  craft,  is  formed  out  of  an  old  crater,  into  which  the  sea  has  worn  an  en- 
trance. The  inhabitants  are  located  in  two  villages  ;  Kaufstathir,  on  a  little 
grassy  knoll  near  the  landing-place,  and  Ofanleyte,  on  the  grassy  platform  of  the 
island.  Only  three  of  the  other  islets  produce  any  vegetation  or  pasturage,  and 
it  is  said  that  on  one  of  these  the  sheep  are  hoisted  with  a  rope  out  of  the 
boats  by  an  islander,  'vvflo,  at  the  risk  of  his  neck,  has  climbed  to  the  top  of  the 
precipitous  rock.  The  others  are  mere  naked  cliffs  or  basaltic  pillars,  the  abode 
of  innumerable  sea-birds,  which,  when  accessible,'  are  a  precious  resource  to  the 
islanders.  For,  as  may  well  be  supposed,  the  scanty  grass  lands  afford  nourish- 
ment but  to  a  few  cows  and  sheep ;  and  as  the  unruly  Avaters  too  often  prevent 


THE   WESTMAN   ISLANDS.  117 

their  fishing-boats  from  putting  to  sea,  they  depend  in  a  great  measure  foi- 
their  subsistence  upon  the  sea-birds,  in  whose  capture  tliey  exhibit  wonderful 
courage  and  skill.  In  the  egg-season  they  go  to  the  top  of  the  cliff,  and,  put- 
ting a  rope  round  a  man's  waist,  let  him  down  the  side  of  the  perpendicular 
rock,  one,  two,  or  three  hundred  feet ;  on  arriving  at  the  long,  narrow,  hori- 
zontal shelves,  he  proceeds  to  fill  a  large  bag  with  the  brittle  treasures  depos- 
ited by  the  birds.  When  his  bag  is  full,  he  and  his  eggs  are  drawn  to  the  toj) 
by  his  companions.  If  the  rope  breaks,  or  is  cut  off  by  the  sharp  corners  of 
the  rock,  Avhich,  however,  happens  but  seldom,  nothing  can  save  the  luckless 
fowler,  Avho  is  either  precipitated  into  the  sea,  or  dashed  to  pieces  on  the 
rocks  below. 


;V-,:^ 


UOME   OF   yKA-BIia)S. 


At  a  later  period  in  the  season  they  go  and  get  the  young  birds,  and  then 
they  have  often  desperate  battles  with  the  old  ones,  who  will  not  give  up  fight- 
ing for  their  offspring  till  their  necks  are  broken,  or  their  brains  knocked  out 
with  a  club.  Where  the  cliffs  are  not  accessible  from  the  top,  they  go  round 
the  bottom  in  boats,  and  show  a  wonderful  agility  and  daring  in  scaling  the 
most  terrible  precipices. 

In  summer  they  get  the  eggs  and  the  fresh  meat  of  the  young  birds,  which 
they  also  salt  for  the  winter.  The  feathers  form  their  chief  article  of  export, 
besides  dried  and  salted  codfish,  and  with  these  they  procure  their  few  nec- 
essaries and  luxuries,  consisting  principally  of  clothing,  tobacco  and  snuff,  spir- 
its, fish-hooks  and  lines,  and  salt.  As  there  is  no  peat  on  these  islands,  nor 
dried  fish-bones  in  sufiicient  quantity,  they  also  make  use  of  the  tough  old 
sea-birds  as  fuel.  For  this  purpose  they  split  them  open,  and  dry  them  on  the 
rocks. 

The  Westmans  form  a  separate  Syssel,  or  county,  and  they  have  a  church, 
and  usually  two  clergymen.  Their  church  was  rebuilt  of  stone,  at  the  expense 
of  the  Danish  Government,  in  1 VV4,  and  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  best  in  Iceland. 


118  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

Unfortunately  the  two  clergymen  to  whom  the  spiritual  care  of  the  islanders  is 
confided  seem  to  have  but  a  very  indifferent  flock,  for  their  neiglibors  on  the 
mainland  give  rather  a  bad  character  to  the  inhabitants  of  Heimaey,  describing 
them  as  great  sluggards  and  drunkards. 

The  population,  which  was  formerly  more  considerable,  amounts  to  about 
200  souls,  but  even  this  is  more  than  might  be  expected  from  the  dreadful  mor- 
tality which  reigns  among  the  children.  The  eggs  and  the  oily  flesh  of  sea-birds 
furnish  a  miserable  food  for  infants,  particularly  when  weaned,  as  is  here  cus- 
tomary, at  a  very  early  age;  but  the  poor  islanders  have  nothing  else  to  give 
them,  except  some  fish,  and  a  very  insufiicient  quantity  of  cow's  or  sheep's  milk. 
This  unhealthy  diet,  along  with  the  boisterous  air,  gives  rise  to  an  incurable  in- 
fantile disease,  called  Ginklofi  {tetanus).  Its  first  symptoms  are  squinting  and 
rolling  of  the  eyes,  the  muscles  of  the  back  are  seized  Avith  incipient  cramjjs  and 
become  stiff.  After  a  day  or  two  lock-jaw  takes  place,  the  back  is  bent  like  a 
bow,  either  backward  or  forward.  The  lock-jaw  prevents  swallowing,  and  the 
cramps  become  more  frequent  and  prolonged  iintil  death  closes  the  scene.  The 
same  disease  is  said  to  decimate  the  children  on  St.  Kilda  in  consequence  of  a 
similar  mode  of  life. 

The  only  means  of  preserving  the  infants  of  Heimaey  from  the  Ginklofi,  is  to 
send  them  as  soon  as  possible  to  the  mainland  to  be  reared,  and  thus  a  long  con- 
tinuance of  bad  weather  is  a  death-warrant  to  many.  * 

Who  w^ould  suppose  that  the  Westman  Islanders,  doubly  guarded  by  their 
poverty  and  almost  inaccessible  cliffs,  could  ever  have  become  the  prey  of  free- 
booters ?  and  yet  they  have  been  twice  attacked  and  j)illaged,  and  well-nigh  ex- 
terminated by  sea-rovers. 

I  have  already  mentioned,  in  a  previous  chapter,  that  before  the  discovery  of 
the  banks  of  Newfoundland,  the  English  cod-fishers  used  to  resort  in  great  num- 
bers to  the  coasts  of  Iceland,  where  some  of  them — now  and  then — appeared 
also  in  the  more  questionable  character  of  corsairs.  One  of  these  worthies,  who, 
like  Paul  Clifford,  or  Captain  Macheath,  so  effectually  united  the  suaviter  in 
vnodo  with  the  fortiter  in  re,  as  to  have  merited  the  name  of  "  Gentleman  John," 
came  to  the  Westmans  in  1614  and  set  the  church  on  fire,  after  having  previous- 
ly removed  the  little  that  was  worth  taking.  After  this  exploit  he  returned  to 
Great  Britain,  but  King  James  I.  had  him  hung,  and  ordered  the  church  orna- 
ments which  he  had  robbed  to  be  restored  to  the  poor  islanders.  It  was,  how- 
ever, written  in  the  book  of  fate  that  they  were  not  to  enjoy  them  long,  for  in 
1627,  a  vessel  of  Algerine  pirates,  after  i)lundering  several  places  on  the  eastern 
and  southern  coasts  of  Iceland,  fell  like  a  thunderbolt  on  Heimaey.  These  mis- 
creants, compared  with  whom  John  was  a  "  gentleman  "  indeed,  cut  down  every 
man  who  ventured  to  oppose  them,  plundered  and  burnt  the  new-built  church, 
and  every  hovel  of  the  place,  and  carried  away  about  400  prisoners — men, 
women,  and  children.  One  of  the  two  clergymen  of  the  island,  Jon  Torsteinson, 
Avas  murdered  at  the  time.  This  learned  and  pious  man  had  translated  the 
Psalms  of  David  and  the  Book  of  Genesis  into  Icelandic  verse,  and  is  spoken 
of  as  the  "  martyr  "  in  the  history  of  the  land.     The  other  clergyman,  Olaf  Egil- 


THE   WESTMAN   ISLANDS.  119 

son,  with  his  wife  and  children,  and  the  rest  of  the  i)risoners,  was  sold  into 
slavery  in  Algiers.  The  account  of  his  sufferings  and  privations,  which  he 
wrote  in  the  Icelandic  language,  was  afterwards  translated  and  published  in 
Danish. 

It  was  not  until  1636,  nine  years  after  their  capture,  that  the  unfortunate 
Ileimaeyers  were  released,  and  then  only  by  being  ransomed  by  the  King  of 
Denmark.  Such  was  the  misery *they  had  endured  from  their  barbarous  task- 
masters, that  only  thirty-seven  of  the  whole  number  survived,  and  of  these  but 
thirteen  lived  to  return  to  their  native  island. 


120 


THE  POLAR   WORLD. 


\  ■ 


FlbHING  IK    NORWAY. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

FROM  DEONTHEIM  TO  THE  NORTH  CAPE. 

Mild  Climate  of  the  Norwegian  Coast.— Its  Causes.— The  Norwegian  Peasant.— Norwegian  Constitution.— 
Romantic  coast  Scenerj'.- Drontheim.— GreiflTenfeld  Holme  and  Vare.— Tiie  Sea-eagle. — The  Herring- 
fisheries.— The  Lofoten  Islands.—The  Cod-fisheries.— Wretched  Condition  of  the  Fishermen.— Tromso- 
— Altenfiord. — The  Copper  Mines. — Hammerfest  the  most  northern  Town  in  the  World, — The  North 
Cape. 

OF  all  the  lands  situated  either  within  or  near  the  Arctic  Circle  none  enjoys 
a  more  temperate  climate  than  the  Norwegian  coast.  Here,  and  nowhere 
else  throughout  the  northern  world,  the  birch  and  the  fir-tree  climb  the  mount- 
ain-slopes to  a  height  of  VOO  or  800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  as  far  as  the 


FROM  PRONTHEIM   TO   THE   NORTH   CAPE.  121 

70th  degree  of  latitude;  here  we  still  find  a  flourishing  agriculture  in  the  inte- 
rior of  the  Malanger  Fjord,  in  69°,  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  PofKr  Ocean 
extends  the  inaccessible  ice  belt  of  East  Greenland;  Spitzbergen  and  Nova 
Zembla  are  not  400  miles  distant  from  Talvig  and  Ilammerfest,  and  yet  these 
ports  are  never  blocked  with  ice,  and  even  in  the  depth  of  winter  remain  con- 
stantly open  to  navigation.  What  are  the  causes  which  in  this  favored  region 
banish  the  usual  rigors  of  the  Arctic  zone  ?  How  comes  it  that  the  winter  even 
at  the  North  Cape  (mean  temperature  4-22°)  is  much  less  severe  than  at  Que- 
bec (mean  temperature  -|-14°),  Avhich  is  situated  25°  of  latitude  nearer  to  the 
equator  ? 

The  high  mountain  chains  which  separate  Norway  from  Swedgn  and  Fin- 
land, and  keep  off  the  eastern  gales  issuing  from  the  Siberian  wastes,  while  its 
coasts  lie  open  to  the  mild  south-westerly  winds  of  the  Atlantic,  no  doubt  ac- 
count in  some  measure  for  the  comparative  mildness  of  its  climate ;  but  the 
main  cause  of  this  phenomenon  must  no  doubt  be  sought  for  iu  the  sea.  Flow- 
ing into  the  Atlantic  Otean  between  Florida  and  Cuba,  the  warm  Gulf  Stream 
traverses  the  sea  from  west  to  east,  and  although  about  the  middle  of  its  course 
it  partly  turns  to  the  south,  yet  a  considerable  portion  of  its  waters  flows  on- 
ward to  the  north-east,  and  streaming  through  the  Avide  portal  between  Iceland 
and  Great  Britain,  eventually  reaches  the  coasts  of  Norway.  Of  course  its 
warmth  diminishes  as  it  advances  to  the  north,  but  this  is  imparted  to  the 
winds  that  sweep  over  it,  and  thus  it  not  merely  brings  the  seeds  of  tropical 
plants  from  Equatorial  America  to  the  coasts  of  Norway,  but  also  the  far  more 
important  advantages  of  a  milder  temperature. 

The  soil  of  Norway  is  generally  rocky  and  sterile,  but  the  sea  amply  makes 
up  for  the  deficiencies  of  the  land,  and  with  the  produce  of  their  fisheries,  of 
their  forests,  and  their  mines,  the  inhabitants  are  able  to  purchase  the  few  for- 
eign articles  which  they  require.  Though  poor,  and  not  seldom  obliged  to  reap 
the  gifts  of  nature  amidst  a  thousand  hardships  and  dangers,  they  envy  no  other 
nation  upon  earth. 

The  Norwegian  peasant  is  a  free  man  on  the  scanty  bit  of  ground  Avhich  he 
has  inherited  from  his  fathers,  and  he  has  all  the  virtues  of  a  freeman — an  open 
character,  a  mind  clear  of  every  falsehood,  a  hospitable  heart  for  the  strangei". 
His  religious  feelings  are  deep  and  sincei-e,  and  the  Bible  is  to  be  found  in  every 
hut.  He  is  said  to  be  indolent  and  phlegmatic,  but  when  necessity  urges  he  sets 
vigorously  to  work,  and  never  ceases  till  his  task  is  done.  His  courage  and  his 
patriotism  are  abundantly  proved  by  a  history  of  a  thousand  years. 

Norway  owes  her  present  prosperity  chiefly  to  her  liberal  constitution.  The 
press  is  completely  free,  and  the  power  of  the  king  extremely  limited.  All 
privileges  and  hereditary  titles  are  abolished.  The  Parliament,  or  the  "  Stor- 
thing," which  assembles  every  three  years,  consists  of  the  "  Odelthing,"  or  Up- 
per House,  and  of  the  "  Logthing,"  or  Legislative  Assembly.  Every  new  law  re- 
quires the  royal  sanction ;  but  if  the  Storthing  has  voted  it  in  three  successive 
sittings,  it  is  definitively  adopted  in  spite  of  the  royal  veto.  Public  .education 
is  admirably  cared  for.  There  is  an  elementary  school  in  every  village,  and 
where  the  population  is  too  thinly  scattered,  the  schoolmaster  may  truly  be  said 


122 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


to  be  abroad,  as  he  wanders  from  farm  to  farm,  so  that  the  most  distant  fami- 
lies have*the  benefit  of  his  instruction.  Every  town  has  its  public  library,  and 
in  many  districts  the  peasants  annually  contribute  a  dollar  towards  a  collection 
of  books,  which,  under  the  care  of  the  priest,  is  lent  out  to  all  subscribers.  No 
Norwegian  is  confirmed  who  does  not  know  how  to  read,  and  no  Norwegian  is 
allowed  to  marry  who  has  not  been  confirmed.  He  who  attains  his  twentieth 
vear  without  having  been  confirmed  has  to  fear  the  House  of  Correction.  Thus 
ignorance  is  punished  as  a  crime  in  Norway,  an  excellent  example  for  far  richer 
and  more  powerful  nations. 

The  population  of  Norway  amovmts  to  about  1,350,000,  but  these  are  very 
unequally  distributed ;  for  while  the  southern  province  of  Aggerhuus  has  513,000 
inhabitants  on  a  surface  of  35,200  square  miles,  Nordland  has  only  59,000  on 
16,325,  and  Finmark,  the  most  northern  province  of  the  land,  but  38,000  on 
29,925,  or  hardly  more  than  one  inhabitant  to  every  square  mile.  But  even  this 
scanty  population  is  immense  when  compared  with  that  of  Eastern  Siberia  or 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  territories,  and  entirely  owes  its  eiisteuce  to  the  mildness 
of  the  climate  and  the  open  sea,  which  at  all  seasons  affords  its  produce  to  the 
fisherman. 

It  is  difficult  to  imagine  a  more  secluded,  solitary  life  than  that  of  the  "  bond- 
ers," or  peasant  propiietors,  along  the  northern  coasts  of  Iforway.  The  farms, 
confined  to  the  small  patches  of  more  fruitful  ground  scattered  along  the  fjords, 
at  the  foot  or  on  the  sides  of  the  naked  mountains,  are  frequently  many  miles 
distant  from  their  neighbors,  and  the  stormy  winter  cuts  off:  all  communication 


MORWEGIAN  FARM. 


FROM  DRONTHEIM  TO   THE   NORTH   CAPE. 


123 


STEAMING   ALONG   THE   COAST. 


between  them.  Thus  every  family,  reduced  to  its  own  resources,  forms  as  it  were 
a  small  commonwealth,  which  has  but  little  to  do  with  the  external  world,  and 
is  obliged  to  rely  for  its  happiness  on  internal  harmony,  and  a  moderate  com- 
petency. Strangers  seldom  invade  their  solitude,  for  tlfey  are  far  from  the  or- 
dinary tracks  of  the  tourist,  and  yet  a  journey  from  Drontheim  to  Hammerfest 
and  the  North  Cape  affords  many  objects  of  interest  well  worthy  of  a  visit. 
The  only  mode  of  communication  is  by  sea,  for  the  land  is  everywhere  inter- 
sected by  deep  fjords,  bounded  by  one  continuous  chain  of  precipitous  cliffs  and 
rocks,  varying  from  one  thousand  to  four  thousand  feet  in  height.  Formerly, 
even  the  sea-voyage  was  attended  with  considerable  difficulties,  for  the  misera- 
ble "  yoegt,"  or  Scandinavian  sloop,  the  only  means  of  conveyance  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  traveller,  required  at  the  best  of  times  at  least  a  month  to  perform 
the  voyage  from  Drontheim  to  Hammerfest,  and  in  case  of  stormy  weather,  or 
contrary  wind,  had  often  to  wait  for  weeks  in  some  intermediate  port.  Now, 
however,  a  steamer  leaves  the  port  of  Drontheim  every  week,  and  conveys  the 
traveller  in  five  or  six  days  to  the  remote  northern  terminus  of  his  journey. 

Innumerable  i^les  of  every  size,  from  a  few  yards  in  diameter  to  as  many 
miles,  stud  the  line  of  coast,  and  between  these  and  the  mainland  the  steamer 
ploughs  its  way.  Sometimes  the  channel  is  as  narrow  as  the  bed  of  a  ri\-cr,  at 
others  it  expands  into  a  mighty  lake,  and  the  ever- varying  forms  of  the  isles,  of 
the  fjords,  ai^d  of  the  mountains,  constantly  open  new  and  magnificent  prospects 
to  the  view.  One  grand  colossal  picture  follows  upon  another,  but  unfortu- 
nately few  or  none  show  the  presence  of  man.  From  time  to  time  only  some 
fishing-boat  makes  its  appearance  on  the  sea,  or  some  wooden  farm-house  rises 


124  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

on  the  solitary  beach.  On  advancing  farther  to  the  north,  the  -aspect  of  nature 
becomes  more  and  more  stern,  vegetation  diminishes,  man  is  more  rarely  seen, 
and  the  traveller  feels  as  if  he  were  on  the  point  of  entering  the  gloomy  re- 
gions of  perpetual  death. 

With  the  sole  exception  of  Archangel,  Drontheim  is  the  most  populous  and  ' 
important  town  situated  in  so  high  a  latitude  as  63°  24'.  Although  the  cradle 
of  ancient  Scandinavian  history,  and  the  residence  of  a  long  line  of  kings,  it  looks 
as  if  it  had  been  built  but  yesterday,  as  its  wooden  houses  have  frequently  been 
destroyed  by  fire.  The  choir  of  its  magnificent  cathedral,  built  in  the  eleventh 
century,  and  once  the  resort  of  innumerable  pilgrims  who  came  flocking  to  the 
shrine  of  St.  Olave  from  all  Scandinavia,  is  the  only  remaining  memorial  of  the 
old  Tronyem  of  the  Norse  annalists  and  scalds.  The  modern  town  has  a  most 
pleasing  and  agreeable  appearance,  and  the  lively  colors  with  which  the  houses 
are  painted  harmonize  with  the  prosperity  of  its  inhabitants,  which  is  due  in  a 
great  measure  to  its  thriving  fisheries,  and  to  the  rich  iron  and  copper  mines  in 
its  neighborhood.  The  tall  chimneys  of  many  smelting-huts,  iron  foundries, 
and  other  manufactories,  bear  evidence  that  modern  industry  has  found  its  way 
to  the  ancient  capital  of  Norway.  In  point  of  picturesque  beauty,  the  bay,  on  a 
peninsula  of  which  the  town  is  situated,  does  not  yield  to  that  of  Naples.  Up 
and  down,  in  every  direction,  appear  the  villas  of  the  merchant,  and  ships  of 
all  burden  riding  at  anchor  in  the  bay,  and  boats  passing  and  repassing.  In  a 
small  island  of  the  bay,  fronting  the  town,  is  the  celebrated  castle  of  Munkholm, 
where  in  former  times  many  a  prisoner  of  state  has  bewailed  the  loss  of  his 
liberty.  Here,  among  others,  Greiffenfeld,  who  had  risen  from  obscurity  to  the 
rank  of  an  all-powerful  minister,  was  incarcerated  for  eighteen  years  (1680-98.) 
At  Hildringen,  Avhefe  the  potato  is  still  cultivated  with  success,  and  barley 
ripens  every  four  or  five  years',  begins  the  province  of  Nordland,  which  extends 
from  65°  to  69°  30'  N,  lat.  The  mostly  uninhabited  isles  along  the  coast  are 
called  "  Holme,"  when  rising  like  steep  rocks  out  of  the  water,  and  "  Vare " 
when,  fiat  and  but  little  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  latter  are  the 
breeding-places  of  numberless  sea-fowls,  whose 
eggs  yield  a  welcome  harvest  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  neighboring  mainland  or  of  the  larger 
islands.  A  well-stocked  egg-viir  is  a  valuable 
addition  to  a  farm,  arid  descends  from  father 
to  son,  along  with  the  pasture-grounds  and  the 
herds  of  the  paternal  land.  When  the  propri- 
etor comes  to  plunder  the  nests,  the  birds  re- 
main quiet,  for  they  know  by  experience  that 
only  the  superfluous  eggs  are  to  be  removed. 
Biit  not  unfrequently  strangers  land,  and  leave 
not  a  single  egg  behind.  Then  all  the  birds, 
THE  PUFFIN.  several  thousands  at  once,  rise  from  their  nests 

and  fill  the  air  with  their  doleful  cries.  If  such 
disasters  occur  repeatedly  they  lose  courage,  and,  abandoning  the  scene  of  their 
misfortunes,  retire  to  another  var.     Most  of  these  birds  are  sea-gulls  {Maasfucfl, 


FROM   DRONTHEIM   TO   THE    NORTH   CAPE.  125 

or  Maage),  their  eggs  are  large,  and  of  a  not  disagreeable  taste.  The  island  of 
Lovunnen  is  the  favorite  breeding-place  of  the  puffin,  which  is  highly  esteemed 
on  account  of  its  feathers.  This  silly  bird  is  very  easily  caught.  The  fowler 
lets  down  an  iron  hook,  or  sends  a  dog  trained  on  purpose  into  the  narrow 
clefts  or  holes  of  the  rock,  where  the  puffins  sit  crowded  together.  The  first 
bird  being  pulled  out,  the  next  one  bites  and  lays  hold  of  his  tail,  and  thus  in 
succession,  till  the  whole  family,  clinging  together  like  a  chain,  is  dragged  to 
light. 

This  rocky  coast  is  also  much  frequented  by  the  sea-eagle,  who  is  very  much 
feared  over  the  whole  province,  as  he  not  only  carries  away  lambs  and  other 
small  animals,  but  even  assails  and  not  seldom  overpowers  the  Norwegian  oxen. 
His  mode  of  attack  is  so  singular  that  if  Von  Buch  had  not  heard  it  so  posi- 
tively and  so  circumstantially  related  in  various  places,  situated  at  great  dis- 
tances from  each  other,  he  would  willingly  lixive  doubted  its  truth.  The  eagle 
darts  down  into  the  waves,  and  then  rolls  about  with  his  wet  plumage  on  the 
beach  until  his  wings  are  quite  covered  with  sand.  Then  he  once  more  rises 
into  the  air  and  hovers  over  his  intended  victim.  Swooping  down  close  to  him, 
he  claps  his  wings,  flings  the  sand  into  the  eyes  of  the  unfortunate  brute,  and 
thoroughly  scares  it  by  repeated  blows  of  his  pinions.  The  blinded  ox  rushes 
away  to  avoid  the  eagle's  attacks,  until  he  is  completely  exhausted  or  tumbles 
down  some  precipitous  cliff. 

The  sea-coast  from  Alsten  to  Rodoe,  which  is  crossed  by  the  Arctic  Circle, 
is  particularly  rich  in  herrings,  as  it  furnishes  more  than  one-half  of  the  fish  ex- 
ported to  Bergen. 

In  respect  of  the  capital  invested,  the  cod-fishery  must  be  regarded  as  the 
most  important'  of  the  Norwegian  deep-sea  fisheries,  but  in  the  number  of 
hands  employed,  the  herring-fishery  takes  precedence  The  number  of  men 
actually  engaged  in  the  latter  is  not  less  than  60,000,  and  considerably  more 
than  double  that  number  are  directly  or  indirectly  interested  in  the  result  of 
their  operations.  The  herrings  taken  in  1866  filled  750,000  barrels,  each  weigh- 
ing 224  lbs.,  the  largest  catch  ever  taken  on  the  Norwegian  coast,  at  least  in 
recent  years.  As  the  movements  of  the  fish  are  extremely  erratic,  large  shoals 
being  found  one  year  in  a  part  of  the  coast  where  none  Avill  be  seen  the  year 
following,  the  fishermen  are  forced  to  move  from  place  to  place,  and  formerly 
the  herrings  frequently  escaped  altogether  for  want  of  hands  to  capture  them. 
Now  this  difficulty  is  in  a  great  measure  removed.  Telegraph  stations  are 
erected  at  different  places  on  the  coast,  from  which  the  movements  of  the 
shoals  are  carefully  watched  ;  and  field  telegraphs  are  kept  in  readiness  to  be 
joined  on  to  the  main  line,  so  as  to  summon  the  fishermen  from  every  part  of 
the  country  on  the  first  appearance  of  the  fish  at  any  new  point.  The  best 
time  for  the  herring-fishery  is  from  January  to  March,  and  in  1866,  200,000 
barrels,  or  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  total  catch,  were  caught  between  Feb- 
ruftry  11th  and  14th. 

At  the  northern  extremity  pf  the  province  of  Nordland,  between  68°  and 
69°  N.  lat.,  are  situated  the  Lofoten  Islands,  or  Vcsteraalen  Oerne,  which  are 
separated  from  the  mainland  by  the  Vestfjord.     This  broad  arm  of  the  sea  is 


126  THE   POLAR    WORLD. 

remarkable  both  for  its  violent  currents-  and  whirlpools,  among  which  the  Mael- 
strom has  attained  a  world-wide  celebrity,  and  also  from  its  being  the  most 
northerly  limit  where  the  oyster  has  been  found.  But  it  is  chiefly  as  the  re- 
sort of  the  cod  that  the  Vestfjord  is  of  the  highest  importance,  not  only  to 
Nordland,  but  to  the  whole  of  Norway.  No  less  than  6000  boats  from  all 
parts  of  the  coast,  manned  probably  by  more  than  half  of  the  whole  adult  male 
population  of  Nordland,  annually  assemble  at  Vaage,  on  the  island  o£  Ost  Vaa- 
goe,  and  besides  these,  more  than  300  yoegts,  or  larger  fishing-sloops,  from 
Bergen,  Christiansand,  and  Molde,  appear  upon  the  scene.  The  banks  of  New- 
foundland hardly  occupy  more  hands  than  the  fishing-grounds  of  the  Vestf- 
jord, which,  after  the  lapse  of  a  thousand  years, .continue  as  prolific  as  ever;* 
nor  is  there  an  instance  known  of  its  having  ever  disappointed  the  fisherman's 
hopes.  In  Harold  Haarfagr's  times,  Vaage  was  already  renowned  for  its  fish- 
eries, and  several  yarls  had  settled  in  this, northern  district,  to  reap  the  rich 
harvest  of  the  seas.  At  a  later  period,  xmder  the  reign  of  Saint  Olave  (1020), 
the  annual  Parliament  of  Nordland  was  held  at  Vaage,  and,  in  1 120,  the  benev- 
olent King  Eystein,  brother  of  Sigurd  the  Crusader,  caused  a  church  to  be 
erected  here  in  honor  of  his  saintly  predecessor,  along  with  a  number  of  huts, 
to  sei've  as  a  shelter  to  the  poor  fishermen,  a  deed  which  he  himself  prized 
more  highly  than  all  his  chivalrous  brother's  warlike  exploits  in  the  East,  for 
"  these  men,"  said  he,  "  will  still  remember  in  distant  times  that  a  King  Ey- 
stein once  livid  in  Norway." 

The  reason  why  the  fish  never  cease  visiting  this  part  of  the  coast  is  that 
the  Lofoten  Isles  inclose,  as  it  were,  an  inland  or  mediterranean  sea,  which  only 
communicates  with  the  ocean  by  several  narrow  channels  between  the  islands, 
and  where  the  fish  find  the  necessary  protection  against  stormy  weather.  They 
assemble  on  three  or  four  banks  well  known  to  the  fishermen,  seldom  arriving 
before  the  middle  of  January,  and  rarely  later  than  towards  the  end  of  Febru- 
ary. They  remain  in  the  sheltered  fjord  no  longer  than  is  necessary  for  spawn- 
ing, and  in  April  have  all  retired  to  the  deeper  waters,  so  that  the  whole  of 
the  fishing  season  does  not  last  longer  than  a  coujile  of  months.  The  fish  are 
either  caught  by  hooks  and  lines,  or  more  f  re(juently  in  large  nets  about  twen- 
ty fathoms  long  and  seven  or  eight  feet  broad,  buoyed  with  pieces  of  light 
wood,  and  lested  with  stones,  so  as  to  maintain  a  vertical  position  when  let 
down  in  the  water.  The  fish,  swimming  with  impetuous  speed,  darts  into  the 
meshes,  which  effectually  bar  his  retreat.  The  nets  are  always  spread  in  the 
evening,  and  hauled  up  in  the  morning ;  for  as  long  as  it  is  daylight,  the  fish 
sees  and  avoids  them,  even  at  a  depth  of  sixty  or  eighty  fathoms.  A  single 
haul  of  the  net  frequently  fills  half  the  boat,  and  the  heavy  fish  would  undoubt- 
edly tear  the  meshes  if  they  were  not  immediately  struck  with  iron  hooks,  and 
flung  into  the  boat  as  soon  as  they  are  dragged  to  the  surface. 

Claus  Niels  Sliningen,  a  merchant  of  Borgund,  first  introduced  the  use  of 
these  nets  in  the  year  1685,  an  innovation  which  more  than  doubled  the  total 

*  In  18(16  the  total  catch  of  cod  was  21,000,000,  about  12,000,000  of  which  were  salted  (clip  fish),  and 
the  remainder  diied  (stock-fish);  each  fish  making  on  an  average  2  lbs.  of  clip-fish,  and  one-fourth  less 
of  stock-fish. 


FROM  DRONTHEIM   TO   THE   NORTH   CxVPE.  127 

produce  of  the  fisheries.  But  (as  with  all  useful  inventions)  loud  complaints 
were  raised  against  him  in  Norway,  and  as  late  as  1762  no  nets  were  allowed 
at  Drouth eim, "  to  prevent  the  ruin  of  the  poor  people  who  had  not  the  capital 
to  provide  themselves  with  them." 

The  life  of  a  fisherman  is  everywhere  full  of  privations  and  dangers,  but  no- 
where more  so  than  at  the  Lofoten  Islands.  Here,  after  toiling  on  the  stormy 
sea  for  many  hours,^he  has  nothing  but  the  miserable  shelter  of  a  damp,  filthy, 
over-crowded  hut,  which  affords  him  neither  the  rest  nor  the  warmth  needed 
after  his  fatiguing  day's  work.  Even  the  iron-framed  sons  of  the  North  are 
frequently  unable  to  resist  such  continuous  hardships,  and  bring  home  with 
them  the  seeds  of  contagion  and  death.  Malignant  fevers  have  frequently  dec- 
imated the  population  of  Norway,  and  their  origin  may  generally  be  traced  to 


THE   VOVHEFJiuLU. 


the  fishing-grounds.  "  The  Arjib  and  the  Persian,"  says  Leopold  von  Buch, 
"  build  caravanseras  for  the  wayfarers  through  the  desert ;  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Alps  have  founded  'hospices  '  on  the  summits  of  the  mountain  passes  ;  and 
the  Norwegian  has  erected  houses  of  refuge  on  Dovrefjold,  but  none  for  the 
fishermen  of  Lofoten.  Near  Rodoe  thei-e  is  a  large  hospital  for  the  sick  of 
Nordland  ;*  would  it  not  be  as  well  to  build  houses  in  Lofoten,  so  as  not  to 
crowd  the  hospitals  and  churchyards  ?"  This  was  written  at  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  but  the  poor  fishermen  are  still  as  neglected  as  ever,  for  a 
more  recent  traveller,  Marmiei-,  beheld  with  pity  the  wretched  huts  in  whicl; 
they  spend  three  winter  months  far  from  their  families. 

In  the  channel  between  Hvalo  and  the  mainland  lies,  in  09'''  45'  N.  l:it.,  the 


128  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

small  island  of  Troni,so,  where  about  fifty  years  since  only  a  few  fishermen  re- 
sided, whose  huts  have  gradually  expanded  into  a  thriving  little  town  of  about 
3000  inhabitants,  along  the  shore  opposite  the  mainland.  Its  staple  exports 
are  dried  and  salted  cod,  and  train-oil.  The  livers  of  the  cod  are  put  in  open 
barrels  and  placed  in  the  sun,  and  the  melted  portion  which  rises  to  the  sur- 
face is  skimmed  off,  being  the  purest  oil.  The  coarse  refuse  is  boiled  in  great 
iron  pots  by  the  side  of  the  sea,  and  yields  the  common  "  train-oil,"  The  mus- 
cular mattqj-  which  remains  is  collected  into  barrels  and  Exported  as  a  powerful 
manure  ;  some  of  it  is  sent  to  England. 

The  town  consists  mainly  of  one  long  straggling  street,  following  the  wind- 
ings of  the  shore,  and  has  a  picturesque  appearance  from  the  harbor.  The 
houses  are  all  of  wood  painted  with  lively  colors,  and  the  roofs,  mostly  covered 
A^th  grass,  diversified  with  bright  clusters  of  yellow  and  white  flowers,  look 
pretty  in  summer.  Tromso  has  a  Latin  school,  and  even  boasts  of  a  news- 
jjaper,  the  Tromso  TldencU  et  Blan  for  Nordland*og  Fimnarken  ("The 
Tromso  Gazette,  a  paper  for  Nordland  and  Finmark  ").  This  paper  is  publish- 
ed twice  a  week ;  and  as  only  one  mail  arrives  at  Tromso  every  three  Aveeks, 
the  foreign  news  is  given  by  instalments,  spreading  over  six  successive  num- 
bers, until  a  fresh  dispatch  arrives. 

The  island  of  Tromso  is  beautifully  situated,  being  on  all  sides  environed 
by  mountains,  so  that  it  seems  to  lie  in  the  midst  of  a  huge  salt  lake.  Its  sur- 
face rises  in  gentle  slopes  to  a  tolerable  elevation,  and  no  other  Arctic  isle  con- 
tains richer  pasturage,  or  dwarf  plantations  of  greater  luxuriance.  Many 
meadows  are  yellow  with  buttercups  and  picturesque  underwood,  and  the 
heathy  hills  are  covered  Avith  shrubsj  bearing  briglit  berries  of  many  hues. 
The  pride  of  the  Tromsoites  in  their  island  and  town,  and  their  profound  at- 
tachment to  it,  are  remarkable.  No  Swiss  can  be  more  enthusiastically  bound 
to  his  mountains  and  vales,  than  they  are  to  their  circumscribed  domain. 

To  the  north  of  Tromso  lies  the  broad  and  deep  Altenfjord,  whose  borders 
are  studded  with  numerous  dwellings,  and  where  the  botanist  meets  with  a 
vegetation  that  may  well  raise  his  astonishment  in  so  high  a  latitude.  Here 
the  common  birch-tree  grows  1450  feet,  and  the  Vaccinhtm  myrtillus  2030 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea;  the  dwarf  birch  {Betula  nana)  still  vegetates 
at  a  height  of  2740  feet,  and  the  Arctic  willow  is  even  found  as  high  as  3500 
feet,  up  to  the  limits  of  perennial  snow. 

.  Alten  is  moreover  celebrated  through  its  copper-mines.  A  piece  of  ore  hav- 
ing been  found  by  a  Lap- woman  in  the  year  1825,  accidentally  fell  into  the  hands 
of  Mr.  Crowe,  an  English  merchant  in  Hammerfest.  This  gentleman  immediate- 
ly took  measures  for  obtaining  a  privilege  from  Government  for  the  working  of 
the  mines,  and  all  preliminaries  being  arranged,  set  off  for  London,  where  he 
founded  a  company,  with  a  capital  of  £75,000.  When  Marmier  visited  the  Al- 
tenfjord in  1842,  more  than  1100  workmen  were  employed  in  these  most  north- 
erly mining-works  of  the  world,  and  not  seldom  more  than  ten  English  vessels 
at  a  time  were  busy  unloading  coals  at  Kaafjord  for  the  smelting  of  the  ores. 
New  copper-works  had  recently  been  opened  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  bay  at 
Raipass,  and  since  then  the  establishment  has  considerably  increased. 


FROM   DRONTHEIM  TO   THE   NORTH   CAPE.  129 

Hammcrfest,  the  capital  of  Finmark,  situated  on  tlie  west  side  of  the  island 
of  Hvalo,  in  70°  39'  15",  is  the*most  7iorthern  town  in  the  world.  Half  a  centu- 
ry since,  it  had  but  44  inhabitants;  at  present  its  population  amounts  to  1200. 
As  at  Tromso,  very  many  of  the  houses,  forming  one  long  street  winding  round 
the  shore,  have  grass  sown  on  their  roofs,  which  gives  the  latter  the  appearance 
of  little  plots  of  meadows.  With  us  the  expression,  "  he  sleeps  with  grass  above 
liis  head,"  is  equivalent  to  saying  "he  is  in  his  grave;"  but  here  it  may  only 
mean  that  he  sleeps  beneath  the  verdant  roof  of  his  daily  home.  Many  large 
warehouses  are  built  on  j^iles  projecting  into  the  water,  with  landing-quays  be- 
fore them ;  and  numerous  ranges  of  open  sheds  are  filled  with  reindeer  skins, 
wolf  and  bear  skins,  walrus  tusks,  reindeer  horns,  train-oil,  and  dried  fish,  ready 
for  exportation.  The  chief  home  traffic  of  Ilammerfest  consists  in  barter  with 
the  Laps,  who  exchange  their  reindeer  skins  for  brandy,  tobacco,  hardware,  and 
cloth.  Some  enterprising  merchants  annually  fit  out  vessels  for  walrus  and 
seal  hunting  at  Spitzbergen  and  Bear  Island,  but  the  principal  trade  is  with 
Archangel,  and  is  carried  on  entirely  in  "  lodjes,"  or  "White  Sea  ships,  with  three 
single  upright  masts,  each  hoisting  a  huge  try-sail.  These  vessels  supply  Ham- 
merfest  with  Russian  rye,  meal,  candles,  etc.,  and  receive  stock-fish  and  train-oil 
in  exchange.     Sometimes,  also,  an  English  ship  arrives  with  a  supply  of  coals. 

The  fishing-grounds  off  the  coast  of  Finmark,  whose  produce  forms  the  sta- 
ple article  of  the  merchants  of  Hammerfest,  are  scarcely  inferior  in  importance  to 
those  of  Lofoten,  the  number  of  cod  taken  here  in  1866  amounting  to  15,000,000. 
A  great  part  of  the  fish  is  jjurchased  by  the  Russians  as  it  comes  out  of  the 
water.  Of  the  prepared  cod,  Spain  takes  the  lai-gest  quantity,  as  in  1865  up- 
wards of  44,000,000  lbs.  of  clip-fish  (nearly  the  whole  yield  for  the  year)  was 
consigned  to  that  country.  Of  the  dried  variety,  10,000,000  lbs.  were  exported 
to  the  Mediterranean,  and  upwards  of  4,000,000  lbs.  more  to  Italy.  Sweden 
and  Holland  come  next  in  order,  the  supply  in  each  case  being  over  5,000,000 
lbs.  Great  Britain  takes  scarcely  any  stock-fish,  but  1,500,000  lbs.  of  clip-fish, 
and  the  large  export  to  the  West  Indies  is  almost  entirely  composed  of  the  lat- 
ter article. 

The  winter,  though  long  and  dark,  has  no  terrors  for  the  jolly  Ilammerf est- 
ers, for  all  the  traders  and  shopkeepers  form  a  united  aristocracy,  and  rarely  a 
night  passes  without  a  feast,  a  dance,  and  a  drinking-bout.  The  day  when  the 
sun  re-appears  is  one  of  general  rejoicing ;  the  first  who  sees  the  great  luminary 
proclaims  it  with  a  loud  voice,  and  every  body  rushes  into  the  street  to  exchange 
congratulations  with  his  neighbors.  The  island  of  Hvalo  has  a  most  dreary,  ster- 
ile aspect,  and  considerable  masses  of  snow  fill  the  ravines  even  in  summer. 
Tlie  birch,  however,  is  still  found  growing  620  feet  above  the  sea,  but  the  fir 
has  disappeared. 

It  may  well  be  supposed  that  no  stranger  has  ever  sojourned  in  this  interest- 
ing place,  the  farthest  outpost  of  civilization  towards  the  Pole,  without  visiting, 
or  at  least  attempting  to  visit,  the  far-famed  North  Cape,  situated  about  sixty 
miles  from  Hammerfest,  on  the  island  of  Magero,  where  a  few  Norwegians  live 
in  earthen  huts,  and  still  manage  to  rear  a  few  heads  of  cattle.  The  voyage  to 
this  magnificent  headland,  which  fronts  the  sea- with  a  steep  rock-wall  nearly  a 

9 


130 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


thousand  feet  high,  is  frequently  difficult  and  precai'ious,  nor  can  it  be  scaled 
without  considerable  fatigue ;  but  the  view  from  the  summit  amply  rewards 
the  trouble,  and  it  is  no  small  satisfaction  to  stand  on  the  brink  of  the  most 
northern  promontory  of  Europe. 

"It  is  impossible,"  says  Mr.  W.  Hurton, "  adequately  to  describe  the  emo- 
tion experienced  by  me  as  I  stepped  up  to  the  dizzy  verge.  I  only  know  that  I 
devoutly  returned  thanks  to  the  Almighty  for  thus  permitting  me  to  realize  one 
darling  dream  of  my  boyhood.  Despite  the  wind,  which  here  blew  violently 
and  bitterly  cold,  I  sat  down,  and  wrapping  my  cloak  around  me,  long  contem- 
plated the  spectacle  of  Nature  in  one  of  her  sublimest  aspects.  I  was  truly 
alone.  Not  a  living  object  was  in  sight;  beneath  my  feet  was  the  boundless 
expanse  of  ocean,  with  a  sail  or  two  on  its  bosom  at  an  immense  distance ; 
above  me  was  the  canopy  of  heaven,  flecked  with  fleecy  cloudlets ;  the  sun  was 
luridly  gleaming  over  a  broad  belt  of  blood-red  mist ;  the  only  sounds  were  the 
whistling  of  the  wandering  winds  and  the  occasional  plaintive  scream  of  the 
hovering  sea-fowl.  The -only  living  creature  which  came  near  me  was  a  bee, 
which  hummed  merrily  by.  What  did  the  busy  insect  seek  there  ?  Not  a 
blade  of  grass  grew,  and  the  only  vegetable  matter  on  this  point  was  a  cluster 
of  withered  moss  at  the  very  edge  of  the  awful  precipice,  and  this  I  gathered,  at 
considerable  risk,  as  a  memorial  of  the  visit." 


SPITZBERaEN— BEAR  ISLAND— JAN  MEYEN. 


131 


MIDNIGHT  SUN   OFF   SPITZBERGEN. 


CHAPTER  X. 

SPITZBERGEN— BEAR  ISLAND— JAN  MEYEN. 

The  west  Coast  of  Spitzbergen. — Ascension  of  a  Mountain  by  Dr.  Scoresby. — His  Excursion  along  tlie 
Coast.— A  stranded  Whale.— Magdalena  Bay.— Multitudes  of  Sea-biids.— Animal  Life.— Midnight 
Silence. —  Glaciers.— A  dangerous  Neigliborhood.  —  Interior  Plateau. — Flora  of  Spitzbergen. — Its 
Similarity  with  that  of  the  Alps  above  the  Snow-line. — Reindeer. — The  hyperborean  Ptarmigan. — 
Fishes. — Coal. — Drift-wood. — Discovery  of  Spitzbergen  by  Barentz,  Heemskerk,  and  Rj'p. — Brilliant 
Period  of  the  Whale-fishery. — Coffins. — Eight  English  Sailors  winter  in  Spitzbergen,  1630. — Melan- 
choly Death  of  some  Dutch  Volunteers. — Russian  Hunters. — Their  Mode  of  wintering  in  Spitzber- 
gen.— Scharostin. — Walrus-ships  from  Hammerfest  and  Tromso.— Bear  or  Cherie  Island. — Bennet. 
— Enormous  Slaughter  of  Walruses. — Mildness  of  its  Climate. — Mount  Misery. — Adventurous  Boat- 
voyage  of  some  Norwegian  Sailors. — Jan  Meyen. — Beerenberg. 

'T^HE  archipelago  of  Spitzbergen  consists  of  five  large  islands :  West  Spitz- 
-*-  bergen,  North-east  Land,  Stans  Foreland,  Barentz  Land,  Prince  Charles 
Foreland ;  and  of  a  vast  number  of  smaller  ones,  scattered  around  their  coasts. 
Its  surface  is  about  equal  to  that  of  two-thirds  of  Scotland :  its  most  southern 
point  (76°  30'  N.  lat.)  lies  nearer  to  the  Pole  than  Melville  Island ;  and  Ross 
Islet,  at  its  northern  extremity  (80°  49'  N.  lat.),  looks  out  upon  the  unknown 
ocean,  which  perhaps  extends  without  interruption  as  far  as  the  Straits  of 
Bering. 

Of   all   the  Ar/3tic  countries   that  have  hitherto  been  discovered,  Grinnell 


133  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

Land  and  Washington  alone  lie  nearer  to  the  Pole ;  but  while  these  ice-block- 
ed regions  can  only  be  reached  with  the  utmost  difficulty,  the  western  and 
north-western  coasts  of  Spitzbergen,  exposed  to  the  mild  south-westerly  winds, 
and  to  the  influence  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  are  frequently  visited,  not  only  by 
walrus-hunters  and  Arctic  explorers,  but  by  amateur  travellers  and  sportsmen. 

The  eastern  coasts  are  far  less  accessible,  and  in  parts  have  never  yet  been 
accurately  explored.  As  far  as  they  are  known,  they  are  not  so  bold  and  in- 
dented as  the  western  and  north-western  coasts,  which,  projecting  in  mighty 
capes  or  opening  a  passage  to  deep  fjords,  have  been  gnawed  into  every  vaiie- 
ty  of  fantastic  form  by  the  corroding  power  of  an  eternal  winter,  and  justify, 
by  their  endless  succession  of  jagged  spikes  and  break-neck  acclivities,  the 
name  of  Spitzbergen,  which  its  first  Dutch  discovei;ers  gave  to  this  land  of 
"  serrated  peaks." 

The  mountains  on  the  west  coast  are  very  steep,  many  of  them  inaccessible, 
and  most  of  them  dangerous  to  climb,  either  from  the  smooth  hard  snow  with 
which  they  are  encrusted  even  in  summer,  or  from  the  looseness  of  the  disin- 
tegrated stones  which  cover  the  parts  denuded  by  the  sun,  and  give  way  un- 
der the  slightest  pressure  of  the  foot. 

More  than  one  daring  seaman  has  paid  dearly  for  his  temerity  in  venturing 
to  scale  these  treacherous  heights.  The  supercargo,  or  owner,  of  the  very  first 
Dutch  whaler  that  visited  Spitzbergen  (1612)  broke  his  neck  in  attempting  to 
climb  a  steep  mountain  in  Prince  Charles  Foreland,  and  Barentz  very  nearly 
lost  several  of  his  men  under  similar  circumstances.  Dr.  Scoresby,  who  in  the 
course  of  his  whaling  expeditions  touched  at  Spitzbergen  no  less  than  seven- 
teen times,  was  more  successful  in  scaling  a  mountain  3000  feet  high,  near 
Mitre  Cape,  though  the  approach  to  the  summit  was  by  a  ridge  so  narrow  that 
he  could  only  advance  by  sitting  astride  upon  its  edge,.  But  the  panorama 
which  he  beheld,  after  having  attained  his  object,  amply  repaid  him  for  the 
danger  and  fatigue  of  clambering  for  several  hours  over  loose  stones,  which  at 
every  step  rolled  with  fearful  rapidity  into  the  abyss  beneath. 

"  The  prospect,"  says  the  distinguished  naturalist,  "  was  most  extensive  and 
grand.  A  fine  sheltered  bay  was  seen  to  the  east  of  us ;  an  arm  of  the  same 
on  the  north-east ;  and  the  sea,  whose  glassy  surface  was  unruflaed  by  a  breeze, 
formed  an  immense  expanse  on  the  west ;  the  icebergs,  rearing  their  proud  crests 
almost  to  the  tops  of  the  mountains  between  which  they  were  lodged,  and  de- 
fying the  power  of  the  solar  beams,  were  scattered  in  vaiious  directions  about 
the  sea-coast  and  in  the  adjoining  bays.  Beds  of  snow  and  ice,  filling  extensive 
hollows  and  giving  an  enamelled  coat  to  adjoining  valleys,  one  of  which,  com- 
mencing at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  where  we  stood,  extended  in  a  continued 
line  towards  the  north  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach  ;  mountain  rising  above 
mountain,  until  by  distance  they  dwindled  into  insignificance  ;  the  whole  con- 
trasted by  a  cloudless  canopy  of  deepest  azure,  and  enlightened  by  the  rays  of 
a  blazing  sun,  and  the  effect  aided  by  a  feeling  of  danger — seated,  as  we  were, 
on  the  pinnacle  of  a  rock,  almost  surrounded  by  tremendous  precipices ;  all 
united  to  constitute  a  picture  singularly  sublime. 

"Our  descent  we  found  really  a. very  hazardous,  and  in  some  instances  a 


SPITZBEKGEN— BEAR   ISLAND— JAN  ME  YEN.  im 

painful  undertaking.  Every  movement  was  a  work  of  deliberation.  Having, 
by  much  care  and  with  some  anxiety,  made  good  our  descent  to  tlie  top  of  the 
secondary  hills,  we  took  our  way  down  one  of  the  steepest  banks,  and  slid  for- 
ward with  great  facility  in  a  sitting  posture.  Towards  the  foot  of  the  hill  an 
expanse  of  snow  stretched  across  the  line  of  descent.  This  being  loose  and 
soft,  we  entered  upon  it  without  fear,  but  on  reaching  the  middle  of  it,  we 
came  to  a  surface  of  solid  ice,  perhaps  a  hundred  yards  across,  over  which  we 
launched  with  astonishing  velocity,  but  happily  escaped  without  injury.  The 
men,  whom  we  left  below,  viewed  this  latter  movement  with  astonishment  and 
fear." 

After  this  perilous  descent,  Scoresby  continued  his  excursion  on  the  flat  land 
next  the  sea,  where  he  found  scattered  here  and  there  many  skulls  and  other 
bones  of  sea-horses,  whales,  narwhals,  foxes,  and  seals.  Two  Russian  lodges, 
formed  of  logs  of  pine,  with  a  third  in  ruins,  were  also  seen ;  the  former,  from 
a  quantity  of  fresh  chips  about  them  and  other  appearances,  gave  evidence  of 
having  been  recently  inhabited.  These  huts  were  built  upon  a  ridge  of  shingle 
adjoining  the  sea.  Among  the  boulders  heaped  upon  the  shore,  numerous  sea- 
birds  had  built  their  nests  or  laid  their  eggs,  which  they  defended  with  loud 
cries  and  determined  courage  against  the  attacks  of  gulls.  The  only  insect  he 
perceived  was  a  small  green  fly,  but  the  water  along  the  coast  was  filled  with 
medusoe  and  shrimps.  The  strong  north-west  winds  had  covered  the  strand 
with  large  heaps  of  Fucus  vesiculosus  and  Laminaria  sa.ccharina,  the  same 
which  the  storms  also  cast  out  upon  our  shores. 

The  view  of  this  high  northern  life  was  extremely  interesting,  but  Dr. 
Scoresby  was  still  further  rewarded  by  the  discoveiy  of  a  dead  whale,  found 
stranded  on  the  beach,  which,  though  much  swollen  and  not  a  little  putrid, 
proved  a  prize  worth  at  least  £400.  By  a  harpoon  found  in  its  body,  it  appear- 
ed to  have  been  struck  by  some  of  the  fishers  on  the  Elbe,  and  having  escaped 
from  them,  it  had  probably  stranded  itself  on  the  spot  where  it  was  found. 
When  the  first  incision  was  made,  the  oil  gushed  forth  like  a  fountain.  It  was 
a  slow  and  laborious  work  to  transport  the  blubber  to  the  ship,  which  on  ac- 
count of  the  dangerous  nature  of  the  coast  was  obliged  to  remain  two  miles 
off  at  sea.  After  five  boat-loads  had  safely  been  brought  on  board,  the  wind 
suddenly  changed,  so  that  the  ship  was  driven  far  out  to  sea,  and  the  boat 
reached  her  with  great  difficulty. 

Of  the  numerous  fjords  of  Spitzbergen,  once  the  busy  resort  of  whole  fleets 
of  whalers,  and  now  but  rarely  visited  by  man,  none  has  been  more  accurately 
described  by  modern  Arctic  voyagers  than  the  magnificent  harbor  of  Magda- 
lena  Bay.  Here  the  Dorothea  and  the  Trent  anchored  in  1818,  on  their  way 
to  the  North  Pole ;  here  also  the  French  naturalists,  who  had  been  sent  out  in 
the  corvette  La  Recherche  (1835-36)  to  explore  the  high  northern  latitudes, 
sojourned  for  several  weeks. 

The  number  of  the  sea-birds  is  truly  astonishing.  On  the  ledges  of  a  high 
rock  at  the  head  of  the  bay  Beechey  saw  the  little  auks  {Arctica  alle)  extend 
in  an  uninterrupted  line  full  three  miles  in  length,  and  so  closely  congregated 
that  about  thirty  fell  at  a  single  shot.     He  estimated  their  numbers  at  about 


134 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


4,000,000.     When  they  took  flight  they  darkened  the  air  ;  and  at  the  distance 
of  four  miles  their  chorus  could  distinctly  be  heard. 

On  a  fine  summer's  day,  the  bellowing  of  the  walruses  and  the  hoarse  bark 


of  the  seals  are  mingled  with  the  shrill  notes  of  the  auks,  divers,  and  gulls. 
Although  all  these  tones  produce  a  by  no  means  harmonious  concert,  yet  they 
have  a  pleasing  effect,  as  denoting  the  happy  feelings  of  so  many  creatures. 


SPITZBERGEN— BEAR  ISLAND— JAN  3IEYEN.  l:Jo 

When  the  sun  vei-ges  to  the  pole,  every  animal  becomes  mute,  and  a  silence 
broken*  only  by  the  bursting  of  a  glacier  reigns  over  the  whole  bay — a  remark- 
able contrast  to  the  tropical  regions,  where  Nature  enjoys  her  repose  during 
the  noonday  heat,  and  it  is  only  after  sunset  that  life  awakens  in  the  forest 
and  the  field. 

Four  glaciers  reach  down  this  noble  inlet :  one,  called  the  Wagon  Way,  is 
'7000  feet  across  at  its  terminal  cliff,  which  is  300  feet  high,  presenting  a  mag- 
nificent wall  of  ice.  But  the  whole  scene  is  constructed  on  so  colossal  a  scale 
that  it  is  only  on  a  near  approach  that  the  glaciers  of  Magdalena  Bay  appear 
in  all  their  imposing  grandeur.  In  clear  weather  the  joint  effect  of  the  ice  un- 
der the  water,  and  the  reflection  of  the  glacier-wall  above,  causes  a  remarkable 
optical  delusion.  The  w^ater  assumes  a  milk-white  color,  the  seals  appear  to 
gambol  in  a  thick  cream-like  liquid,  and  the  error  only  becomes  apparent  when, 
on  leaning  c^i^er  the  side  of  the  boat,  the  spectator  looks  down  into  the  trans- 
parent depth  below. 

It  is  extremely  dangerous  to  approach  these  cliffs  of  ice,  as  every  now  and 
tlien  large  blocks  detach  themselves  from  the  mass,  and  frequently  even  a  con- 
cussion of  the  air  is  enough  to  make  them  fall. 

During  the  busy  period  of  Spitzbergen  history,  when  its  bay  used  to  be  fre- 
quented by  whalers  who  anchored  under  the  glacier-walls,  these  ice-avalanches 
often  had  disastrous  consequences.  Thus,  in  the  year  1619,  an  English  ship 
was  driven  by  a  storm  into  Bell  Sound.  While  it  was  passing  under  a  preci- 
pice of  ice,  a  prodigious  mass  came  thundering  down  upon  it,  broke  the  masts, 
and  threw  the  ship  so  violently  upon  one  side  that  the  captain  and  part  of  the 
crew  were  swept  into  the  sea.  The  captain  escaped  unhurt,  but  two  sailors 
were  killed  and  several  others  wounded. 

One  day  a  gun  was  fired  from  a  boat  of  the  Trent'  when  about  half  a  mile 
from  one  of  the  glaciers  of  Magdalena  Bay.  Immediately  after  the  report  of 
the  musket,  a  noise  resembling  thunder  was  heard  in  the  direction  of  the  ice- 
stream,  and  in  a  few  seconds  more  an  enormous  mass  detached  itself  from,  its 
front,  and  fell  into  the  sea.  The  men  in  the  boat,  supposing  themselves  to  be 
beyond  the  reach  of  its  influence,  were  tranquilly  contf?mplating  the  magnificent 
sight,  when  suddenly  a  large  wave  came  sweeping  over  the  bay,  and  cast  their 
little  shallop  to  a  distance  of  ninety-six  feet  upon  the  beach. 

Another  time,  when  Franklin  and  Beechey  had  approached  one  of  these  ice- 
walls,  a  huge  fragment  suddenly  slid  from  its  side,  and  fell  with  a  crash  into 
the  sea.  At  first  the  detached,  mass  entirely  disappeared  under  the  waters,  cast- 
ing up  clouds  of  spray,  but  soon  after  it  shot  up  again  at  least  100  feet  above 
the  surface,  and  then  kept  rocking  several  minutes  to  and  fro.  When  at  length 
the  tumult  subsided,  the  block  was  found  to  measure  no  less  than  1500  feet  in 
circumference ;  it  projected  60  feet  above  the  water,  and  its  weight  was  calcu- 
lated  at  more  than  400,000  tons. 

Besides  the  glaciers  of  Magdalena  Bay,  Spitzbergen  has  many  others  that 
protrude  their  crystal  walls  down  to  the  water's  edge  ;  and  yet  but  few  ice- 
bergs, and  the  largest  not  to  be  compared  with  the  productions  of  Baffin's  Bay, 
are  drifted  from  the  shores  of  Spitzbergen  into  the  open  sea.     The  reason  is 


136  THE   POLAR   WOKLD. 

that  the  glaciers  usually  terminate  where  the  sea  is  shallow,  so  that  no  very 
large  mass  if  dislodged  can  float  away,  and  they  are  at  the  same  time  so  fre- 
quently dismembered  by  heavy  swells  that  they  can  not  attainany  great  size. 

The  interior  of  Spitzbergen  has  never  been  explored.  According  to  the 
Swedish  naturaUsts,*  who  climbed  many  of  the  highest  mountains  in  various 
parts  of  the  coast,  all  the  central  regions  of  the  archipelago  form  a  level  ice- 
plateau,  interrupted  only  here  and  there  by  denuded  rocks,  projecting  like  isl- 
ands from  the  crystal  sea  in  which  they  are  imbedded.  The  height  of  this  j)la- 
teau  above  the  level  of  the  ocean  is  in  general  from  1 500  to  2000  feet,  and  from  its 
frozen  solitudes  descend  the  various  glaciers  above  described.  During  the  sum- 
mer months,  the  radiation  of  the  sun  at  Spitzbergen  is  always  very  intense,  the 
thermometer  in  some  sheltered  situations  not  seldom  rising  at  noon  to  62°,  67°, 
or  even  73°.  Even  at  midnight,  at  the  very  peak  of  the  high  mountain  ascend- 
ed by  Scoresby,  the  power  of  the  sun  produced  a  temperature  several  degrees 
above  the  freezing-point,  and  occasioned  the  dischai'ge  of  streams  of  water  from 
the  snov\--capped  summit.  Hence,  though  even  in  the  three  warmest  months  the 
temperature  of  Spitzbergen  does  not  average  more  that  34^°,  yet  in  the  more 
southern  aspects,  and  particularly  where  the  warmth  of  the  sun  is  absorbed  and 
radiated  by  black  rock-walls,  the  mountains  are  not  seldom  bared  at  an  eleva- 
tion nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  snow-line  of  Norway,  and  various  Alpine  plants 
and  grasses  frequently  flourish,  not  only  in'  sheltered  situations  at  the  foot  of 
the  hills,  but  even  to  a  considerable  height,  wherever  the  disintegrated  rocks 
lodge  and  form  a  tolerably  good  soil. 

The  Flora  of  Spitzbergen  consists  of  about  ninety-three  species  of  flowering 
or  phenogamous  plants,  which  generally  grow  in  isolated  tufts  or  patches ;  but 
the  mosses  which  carpet  the  moist  lowlands,  and  the  still  more  hardy  lichens, 
which  invest  the  rocks  with  their  thin  crusts  or  scurfs  as  far  as  the  last  limits 
of  vegetation,  are  much  more  numerous.  Some  of  the  plants  of  Spitzbergen 
are  also  found  on  the  Alps  beyond  the  snow-line,  at  elevations  of  from  9000  to 
10,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  According  to  Mr.  Martins,  nothing  can 
give  a  better  idea  of  Spitzbergen  than  the  vast  circus  of  neve,  in  the  centre  of 
Avhich  rises  the  triangular  rock  known  to  the  visitors  of  Chamouny  as  the  Jardin 
or  the  Courtil.  Let  the  tourist,  placed  on  this  spot  at  a  time  when  the  sun 
rises  but  little  above  the  horizon,  or  better  still,  when  wreaths  of  mist  hang 
over  the  neighboring  mountains,  fancy  the  sea  bathing  the  foot  of  the  amphi- 
theatre of  which  he  occupies  the  centre,  and  he  has  a  complete  Spitzbergen 
prospect  before  him.  Supposing  him  to  be  a  botanist,  the  sight  of  the  Ranuncu- 
lus glacialis,  Ce7xistium.  alpinum,  Arenaria  biflora,  and  Erigeron  unifiorus 
will  still  further  increise  the  illusion. 

The  only  esculent  plant  of  Spitzbergen  is  the  Cochleciria  fenestrata,  which 
here  loses  its  acrid  principles,  and  can  be  eaten  as  a  salad.     The  grasses  which 

*  Within  the  last  few  j^ears,  no  loss  than  three  scientific  expeditions  have  been  sent  out  to  Spitz- 
bergen at  the  expense  of  the  Swedish  Government.  During  the  summer  of  1858,  Messrs.  Otto  Torell, 
Guennerstedt,  and  Nordenskjold  visited  the  western  parts  of  the  archipehago.  In  1861  the  whole  coast, 
from  Ice  Sound  to  Dove  Baj'  in  North-east  Land  was  accurately  investigated  by  Messrs.  Torell,  IM.nlm- 
gren,  Chydenius,  etc.,  and  in  1861  Messrs.  Nordenskjold,  Duner,  and  Malmgren  visited  the  southern 
•  shores  and  Wjde  Jan's  Water.     A  fourth  expedition  has  just  left  the  port  of  Gothenburg  (June,  1868) 


SPITZBERGEN— BEAR  ISLAND— JAN  ]\rEYEN.  137 

Keilhmi  found  growing  neai'  some  Russian  huts  in  Stans  Foreland  arc  (luring 
tlie  summer  a  precious  resource  for  tlie  reindeer,  which,  thougli  extremely  shy, 
make  their  appearance  from  time  to  time  in  every  part  of  the  kind  from  the 
Seven  Islands  to  South  Cape,  and  are  more  abundant  than  could  have  been  ex- 
pected. The  Polar  bears  are  probably  their  only  native  enemies  on  these  isl- 
ands and  their  fleetness  furnishes  them  with  ample  means  of  escape  from  a 
pursuer  so  clumsy  on  land.  Lord  Mulgrave's  crew  killed  fifty  deer  on  Vogel- 
sang, a  noted  hunting-place,  and  on  Sir  Edward  Parry's  polar  expedition  about 
seventy  deer  Avere  shot  in  Treurenberg  Bay  by  inexperienced  deer-stalkers,  and 
without  the  aid  of  dogs.  During  the  winter  these  large  herbivora  live  on  the 
Icelandic  moss  which  they  scent  under  the  snow,  but  it  may  well  be  asked  where 
they  find  shelter  in  a  naked  wilderness  without  a  single  tree.  In  May  and 
June  they  are  so  thin  as  scarcely  to  be  eatable,  but  in  July  they  begin  to  get 
fat,  and  then  their  flesh  would  everywhere  be  reckoned  a  delicacy. 

Besides  the  reindeer,  the  only  land-quadrupeds  of  Spitzbergen  are  the  Polar 
bear,  the  Arctic  fox,  and  a  small  field-mouse,  which  in  summer  has  a  mottled, 
and  in  winter  a  white  fur. 

Of  the  birds,  the  hyperborean  ptarmigan  {Zagojncs  hi/jyerborea),  which 
easily  procures  its  food  under  the  snow,  undoubtedly  winters  in  Spitzbergen, 
and  probably  also  the  lesser  red-pole,  which  perhaps  finds  grass  seeds  enough 
for  its  subsistence  during  the  long  polar  nights,  while  the  snow-bunting  (Plec- 
trophanes  nivalis),  and  the  twenty  species  of  water-fowl  and  waders  that  fre- 
quent the  shores  of  the  high  northern  archipelago  during  the  summer,  all  mi- 
grate southward  when  the  long  summer's  day  verges  to  its  end. 

Until  very  lately  the  Spitzbergen  waters  were  supposed  to  be  poor  in  fishes, 
though  the  numerous  finbacks,,  which  towards  the  end  of  summer  frequent  the 
southern  and  south-western  coasts,  and,  unlike  the  large  smooth-back  whales, 
chiefly  live  on  herrings,  as  well  as  the  troops  of  salmon-loving  white  dolphin 
seen  about  the  estuaries  of  the  rivers,  sufficiently  proved  the  contrary,  not  to 
mention  the  herds  of  seals,  and  the  hosts  of  ichthyophagous  sea-birds  that  breed 
on  every  rocky  ledge  of  the  archipelago.  Phipps  and  Scoresby  mention  only 
three  or  four  species  of  fishes  occurring  in  the  seas  of  Spitzbergen,  while  the 
Swedish  naturalist  Malmgren,  the  first  who  seems  to  have  paid  real  attention  to 
this  interesting  branch  of  zoology,  collected  no  less  than  twenty-three  sjiecies  in 
1861  and  1864.  The  northern  shark  [Scymnus  microcej^halas)  is  so  abundant 
that  of  late  its  fishery  has  proved  highly  remunerative.  The  first  shi))  which 
was  fitted  out  for  this  purpose  in  1863  by  Ililbert  Pettersen,  of  Tromso,  returned 
from  Bell  and  Ice  Sounds  with  a  full  cargo  of  sharks'  livers,  and  in  1865  the 
same  enterprising  merchant  sent  out  no  less  than  five  shark-ships  to  Spitzbergen. 
The  cod,  the  common  herring,  the  shell-fish,  the  halibut  have  likewise  been 
caught  in  the  waters  of-  the  archipelago,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe 
that  their  fishery,  which  has  hitherto  been  entirely  neglected,  might  be  pursued 
with  great  success. 

The  mineral  riches  of  Spitzbergen  are,  of  course,  but  little  known.  Coal  of 
an  excellent  quality,  which  might  easily  bo  worked,  as  it  nearly  ci-ops  out  on 
the  surface  at  a  short  distance  from  the  sea,  has,  however,  been  discovered 

V 


138  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

lately  by  Mr.  Blomstrand  in  King's  Bay,  and  similar  strata  exist  in  various  parts 
of  Bell  Sound  and  Ice  Sound.  Large  quantities  of  drift-wood,  probably  from 
the  large  Siberian  rivers,  are  deposited  by  the  currents,  particularly  on  the 
north  coasts  of  North-east  Land,  and  on  the  southern  coasts  of  Stans  Fore- 
land. In  English  Bay  Lord  Dufferin  saw  innumerable  logs  of  unhewn  tim- 
ber, mingled  with  which  lay  pieces  of  broken  spars,  an  oar,  a  boat's  flagstaff, 
and  a  few  shattered  fragments  of  some  long-lost  vessel's  planking. 

Most  probably  the  Norwegians  had  their  attention  directed  at  a  very  early 
period  to  the  existence  of  a  land  lying  to  the  north  of  Finmarken  by  the  troops 
of  migratory  birds  which  they  saw  flying  northward  in  spring,  and  by  the 
casual  visits  of  sea-bears,  which  the  drift-ice  carried  to  the  south.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  they  were  the  first  discoverers  of  Spitzbergen,  but  their  his- 
toiy  contains  no  positive  records  of  the  fact,  and  it  was  not  before  the  sixteenth 
century  that  Europe  first  became  acquainted  with  that  desolate  archipelago. 
Sir  Huoh  Willoughby  may  possibly  have  seen  it  in  1559,  but  it  is  certain  that 
on  June  19, 1596,  Barentz,  Heemsk-erke,-and  Ryp,  who  had  sailed  in  two  ships 
from  Amsterdam  to  discover  the  north-eastern  passage  to  India,  landed  on  its 
western  coast,  and  gave  it  the  name  it  bears  to  the  present  day.  In  the  year 
1607  it  was  visited  by  the  unfortunate  Henry  Hudson,  and  four  years  later  the 
first  English  whalers  were  fitted  out  by  the  Russia  Company  in  London  to  fish 
in  the  bays  of  Spitzbergen,  or  East  Greenland,  as  it  was  at  that  time  called, 
being  supposed  to  be  the  eastern  prolongation  of  that  vast  island.  Here  our 
countrymen  met  with  Dutchmen,  Norwegians,  and  Biscayans  from  Bayonne 
and  the  ports  of  Northern  Spain,  and  commercial  rivalry  soon  led  to  the  usual 
quarrels.  In  the  year  1613  James  I.  granted  the  Russia  Company  a  patent, 
giving  them  the  exclusive  right  to  fish  in  the  Spitzbergen  waters,  and  seven 
ships  of  war  were  sent  out  to  enforce  their  pretensions.  The  Dutch,  the  Nor- 
wegians, and  tl>e  Biscayans  were  driven  away ;  a  cross  with  the  name  of  the 
King  of  England  was  erected  on  the  shore,  and  Spitzbergen  received  the  name 
of  "  King  James  his  Newland."  This  triumph,  however,  was  but  of  short  du- 
ration, and  after  a  struggle,  in  Avhich  none  of  the  combatants  gained  any  decis- 
ive advantage,  all  parties  came  at  last  to  an  amicable  agreement.  The  English 
received  for  their  share  the  best  stations  on  the  south-western  coast,  along  with 
English  B:\y  and  Magdalena  Bay.  The  Dutch  were  obliged  to  retreat  to  the 
north,  and  chose  Amsterdam  Island,  Avith  Smeerenberg  Bay,  as  the  seat  of  their 
operations.  The  Danes  or  Norwegians  established  their  head-quarters  on 
Dane's  Island ;  the  Hamburgers,  who  also  came  in  for  their  share,  in  Ham- 
burg Bay  ;  and  the  French  or  Biscayans  on  the  north  coast,  in  Red  Bay.  At 
present  a  right  or  smooth-backed  whale  rarely  shows  itself  in  the  Spitzbergen 
waters,  but  at  that  time  it  was  so  abundant  that  frequently  no  less  than  forty 
whalers  used  to  anchor  in  a  single  bay,  and  send  out  their  boats  to  kill  these 
cetaceans,  who  came  there  for  the  purpose  of  casting  their  young  in  the  shel- 
tered friths  and  channels.  The  fat  of  the  captured  whales  was  immediately 
boiled  in  large  kettles  on  the  Shore,  and  the  bays  of  Spitzbergen  presented  a 
most  animated  spectacle  during  the  summer  season. 

Numerous  coffins — an  underground  burial  being  impossible   izi  this  frost- 


SPITZBERGEN— BEAR  ISLAND— JAN  lilEYEN. 


139 


IN    bl^ITZBEKCjEN. 


hardened  earth — still  bear  witness  to  those  busy  times,  and  also  to  the  great 
mortality  among  the  fishermen,  caused  doubtless  by  their  intemperate  habits. 
They  are  pai-ticularly  abundant  at  Smeerenberg,  where  Admiral  Beechey  saw 
upwards  of  one  thousand  of  them ;  boards  with  English  inscriptions  Avere 
erected  over  a  few,  but  the  greater  number  were  Dutch,  and  had  been  deposited 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  Some  cofiins  having  been  opened,  the  corpses  were 
found  in  a  state  of  perfect  preservation,  and  even  the  woollen  caps  and  stock- 
ings of  trhe  mariners,  who  might  perhaps  have  rested  for  more  than  a  century 
on  this  cold  earth,  were  still  apparently  as'^new  as  if  they  had  been  but  recently 
put  on. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  English  and  the  Dutch  made  several  at- 
tempts to  establish  permanent  settlements  in  Spitzbergen.  The  Russia  Com- 
pany tried  to  engage  volunteers  by  the  promise  of  a  liberal  pay,  and  as  none 
came  forward,  a  free  pardon  was  offered  to  criminals  who  would  undertake  to 
winter  in  Bell  Sound.  A  few  wretches,  tired  of  confinement,  accepted  the  pro- 
posal, but  when  the  fleet  was  about  to  depart,  and  they  saw  the  gloomy  hills, 
and  felt  the  howling  north-eastern  gales,  their  hearts  failed  them,  and  they  en- 
treated the  captain  who  had  charge  of  them  to  take  them  back  to  London  and 
let  them  be  hanged.  Their  request  to  be  taken  back  was  complied  with,  but 
the  company  genei'ously  interceded  for  them,  and  obtained  their  pardon. 

Some  time  after,  in  the  year  1630,  an  English  whaler  landed  eight  men  in 
Bell  Sound  to  hunt  reindeer.  They  remained  on  shore  during  the  night,  but 
meanwhile  a  storm  had  arisen,  and  on  the  following  morning  their  ship  had 


140 


THE   POLAK   WORLD. 


vanished  out  of  siglit.     It  was'towards  the  end  of  August,  and  they  had  no  hope 
of  rescue  at  this  advanced  period  of  the  year. 

Their  despair  may  be  imagined,  but  they  soon  recovered  their  courage,  and 
wisely  determmed  to  make  preparations  for  the  impending  winter,  instead  of 
losing  time  in  useless  lamentations.  Their  first  care  was  to  lay  in  a  stock  of 
food  and  in  a  short  time  they  had  killed  nineteen  reindeer  and  four  bears. 
Fortunately  they  found  in  Bell  Sound  the  necessary  materials  for  the  erection 
of  a  hut,  A  large  shed  fifty  feet  long  and  thirty-eight  broad  had  been  built 
as  a  workshop  for  the  men  of  the  Russia  Company,  and  they  very  judiciously 
constructed  their  small  hut  of  stones  and  thick  planks  within  this  inclosed 
space.  They  thus  gained  a  better  protection  against  the  icy  wind  and  room 
for  exercise  during  stormy  weather,  one  of  the  best  preservatives  against  the 
scurvy.  They  made  their  beds  and  winter  dresses  of  the  skins  of  the  animals 
they  had  killed,  sewing  them  together  with  needles  made  of  bone  splinters,  and 
using  disentangled  rope-ends  as- thread. 

Their  hut  was  ready  by  September  12,  and  to  preserve  their  supply  of  meat 
as  long  as  possible,  they  lived  four  days  of  the  week  on  the  offal  of  whales'  fat 
which  lay  scattered,  about  in  great  plenty.  From  October  26  to  February  15 
they  saw  no  sun,  and  from  the  13th  to  the  31st  of  December  no  twilight.  The 
new  year  began  with  excessive  cold :  every  piece  of  metal  they  touched  stuck 
to  their  fingers  like  glue,  and  their  skin  became  blistered  when  exposed  to  the 
air.  The  re-appearance  of  the  sun  was  as  a  resurrection  from  death.  To  in- 
crease their  joy,  they  saw  two  bears  on  the  ice,  one  of  which  they  killed,  but 
they  found,  what  has  since  been  frequently  experienced  by  others,  that  the 


ARCTIC  FOX. 


SPITZBERGE:!^— BEAR  ISLAND— JAN  MEYEN.  141 

liver  of  the  animal  has  poisonous  qualities,  or  is  at  least  very  unwholesome,  for, 
after  eating  it,  they  were  all  attacked  with  a  kind  of  eruptive  fever,  and  their 
skin  peeled  off.  Towards  the  middle  of  March  their  provisions  were  well-nigli 
exhausted,  but  the  Polar  bears  appearing  more  frequently,  replenished  their 
stock.  Soon  also  the  migratory  birds  arrived  from  the  south,  the  foxes  crept 
out  of  their  burrows,  and  many  were  caught  in  traps.  On  June  5  the  ice  be- 
gan to  break  up,  and  on  the  following  morning  one-half  of  the  bay  was  open. 
A  gale  forced  them  to  seek  the  shelter  of  their  hut.  There,  seated  round  the 
fire,  they  sjDoke  of  their  approaching  delivery,  when  suddenly  a  loud  halloo 
was  heard.  They  immediately  rushed  out  into  the  open  air,  and  hardly  be- 
lieved their  eyesight,  for  they  were  greeted  by  their  comrades  of  the  previ- 
ous summer,  and  saw  their  own  well-known  ship  at  anchor  in  the  bay.  Thus 
were  these  brave-hearted  men  rescued  after  a  ten  months'  exile  in  the  lati- 
tude of  17°.  ^  ■ 

The  possibility  of  wintering  in  Spitzbergen  having  thus  been  proved,  some 
volunteers  belonging  to  the  Dutch  fleet  were  induced  by  certain  emoluments 
to  attempt  the  same  enterprise  on  Amsterdam  Island ;  but,  less  fortunate  than 
their  predecessors,  they  all  fell  victims  to  the  scurvy.  A  diary  which  they 
left  behind  recorded  the  touching  history  of  their  sufferings.  "  Four  of  us," 
•  these  were  its  last  words,  "  are  still  alive,  stretched  out  flat  upon  the  floor,  and 
might  still  be  able  to  eat  if  one  of  us  had  but  the  strength  to  rise  and  fetch 
some  food  and  fuel,  but  we  are  all  so  weak,  and  every  movement  is  so  painful, 
that  we  are  incapable  of  stirring.  We  constantly  pray  to  God  soon  to  release 
us  from  our  sufferings,  and  truly  we  can  not  live  much  longer  without  food 
and  warmth.  None  of  us  is  able  to  help  the  others,  and  each  must  bear  his 
burden  as  well  as  he  can." 

Since  that  time  both  the  English  and  the  Dutch  have  given  up  the  idea  of 
forming  permanent  settlements  in  Spitzbergen,  but  scarcely  a  year  passes  that 
some  Russians  and  Norwegians  do  not  winter  in  that  high  northern  land.  As 
far  back  as  the  seventeenth  century,  the  former  used  to  send  out  their  clumsy 
but  strongly-built  "lodjes  "  of  from  60  to  160  tons  from  the  ports  of  Archan- 
gel, Mesen,  Onega,  Kola,  and  other  places  bordering  the  White  Sea,  to  chase 
the  various  animals  of  Spitzbergen,  the  reindeer,  the  seal,  the  beluga,  but  chief- 
ly the  walrus,  the  most  valuable  of  all.  These  vessels  leave  home  in  July,  or 
as  soon  as  the  navigation  of  the  White  Sea  opens,  and  as  the  shortness  of  the 
season  hardly  allows  them  to  return  in  the  same  year,  they  pass  the  winter  in 
some  sheltered  bay.  Their  first  care  on  landing  is  to  erect  a  large  cross  on  the 
shore,  a  ceremony  they  repeat  on  leaving,  and  such  is  their  religious  faith  that 
under  the  protection  of  that  holy  symbol  they  mock  all  the  terrors  of  the  Arc- 
tic winter.  Near  the  place  where  their  vessels  are  laid  up,  they  build  a  large 
hut  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  square,  which  is  used  as  a  station  and  mag- 
azine ;  but  the  huts  used  by  the  men  who  go  in  quest  of  skins,  and  which  are 
erected  at  distances  of  from  ten  to  fifty  versts  along  the  shore,  ai-e  only  seven  or 
eight  feet  square.  The  smaller  huts  are  usually  occupied  by  two  or  three  men, 
who  take  care  to  provide  themselves  from  the  store-house  with  the  necessary 
provisions  for  the  winter.     Scoresby  visited  several  of  these  huts,  some  con- 


142  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

stvuctecl  of  logs,  others  of  deal  two  inches  in  thickness.  They  are  of  the  same 
kind  as  those  used  by  the  peasants  in  Russia,  and,  being  taken  out  in  pieces, 
are  erected  with  but  little  trouble  in  the  most  convenient  situation.  The  stoves 
are  built  with  bricks,  or  with  clay  found  in  the  coujitry.  During  the  stay  of 
the  hunters,  they  employ  themselves  in  killing  seals  or  walruses  in  the  water, 
and  bears,  foxes,  deer,  or  whatever  else  they  meet  with  on  land.  Each  ship  is 
furnished  with  provisions  for  eighteen  months,  consisting  of  rye  flour  for  bread, 
oatmeal,  barley-meal,  peas,  salt  beef,  salt  cod,  and  sail  halibut,  together  with 
curdled  milk,  lioneV,  and  linseed  oil ;  besides  which,  they  enjoy  the  flesh  of  the 
animals  which  they  kill.  Their  drink  consists  chiefly  of  quas,  a  national  bev- 
erage made  from  rye  flour  and  water ;  malt  or  spirituous  liquors  being  entirely 
forbidden,  to  prevent  drunkenness,  as,  when  they  were  allowed  it,  they  drank 
so  immoderately  that  their  work  was  often  altogether  neglected.  Their  fuel 
for  the  most  part  is  brought  with  them  from  Russia,  and  drift-wood  is  used 
for  the  same  purpose. 

The  hunters,  seldom  travelling  far  in  winter,  make  their  short  excursions  on 
foot  on  snow-skates,  and  draw  their  food  after  them  on  hand-sledges.  Not  sel- 
dom they  are  overtaken  by  terrific  snowstorms,  which  force  them  to  throw 
themselves  flat  upon  the  ground,  and  sometimes  even  cost  them  their  lives. 
Their  best  preservation  against  the  scurvy  is  bodily  exercise  ;  they  also  use  the 
Cochlearia  fenentrata,  v^^hich  grows  wild  in  the  country,  either  eating  it  without 
any  preparation,  or  drinking  the  liquor  prepared  from  it  by  infusion  in  water. 
Yet,  in  spite  of  all  their  precautions,  they  often  fall  a  prey  to  this  terrible 
scourge.  In  the  year  1771,  Mr."  Steward,  of  Whitby,  landed  in  King's  Bay  to 
gather  drift-wood,  and  found  a  Russian  hut.  After  having  vainly  called  for  ad- 
mittance, they  opened  it,  and  found  a  corpse  stretched  out  on  the  ground,  its 
face  covered  with  green  mould.  Most  likely  the  unfortunate  man,  having  bur- 
ied all  his  comrades,  had,  as  the  last  survivor,  found  no  one  to  perform  the  same 
kind  oflice  for  himself.  Generally  the  Russian  hunters,  after  spending  the  win- 
ter in  Spitzbergen,  return  home  in  the  following  August  or  September ;  but 
their  stop  is  often  prolonged  during  several  years ;  and  Scharostin,  a  venerable 
Russian,  who  died  in  1826  in  Ice  Sound,  is  deservedly  remarkable  for  having 
spent  no  less  than  thirty-two  winters  of  his  long  life  in  that  high  northern  land, 
where  he  once  remained  during  fifteen  consecutive  years.  Surely  this  man 
ought  to  have  been  crowned  king  of  Spitzbergen — 

On  a  throne  of  rocks,  in  a  robe  of  clouds, 
With  a  diadem  of  snow ! 

Every  year,  at  the  beginning  of  summer,  about  a  dozen  vessels  leave  the  ports 
of  Hammerfest  and  Tromso  for  Spitzbergen.  Formerly  it  was  a  very  common 
thing  for  them  to  procure  three  cargoes  of  walrus  and  seals  in  a  season,  and  less 
than  twQ  full  cargoes  was  considered  very  bad  luck  indeed ;  now,  however,  it  is 
a  rare  thing  to  get  more  than  one  cargo  in  a  season,  and  many  vessels  return 
home  after  four  months'  absence  only  half  full.  Yet,  in  spite  of  this  diminution, 
the  numbers  of  walruses  still  existing  in  that  country  are  very  considerable,  par- 
ticularly on  the  northern  banks  and  skerries,  which  are  only  accessible  in  open 


SPITZBERGEN— BEAR   ISLAND— JAN  IVIEYEN. 


143 


seasons,  or  perhaps  once  in  every  three  or  four  summers,  when  the  persecuted 
animals  get  a  Httle  time  to  breed  and  replenish  their  numbers. 


About  midway  between  Hammerfest  and  Spitzbergen.  lies  Bear  Island,  orig- 
inally discovered  by  Barentz  on  June  9,  1596.     Seven  years  later,  Stephen  Ben- 


144  THE   POLAR    WORLD. 

net,  a  shipmaster  in  the  service  of  the  Muscovy  Company,  while  on  a  voyage  of 
discovery  in  a  north-easterly  direction,  likewise  saw  Bear  Island  on  August  16. 
Ignorant  of  its  previous  discovery  by  Barentz,  he  called  it  Cherie  Island,  after 
Sir  Francis  Cherie,  a  member  of  the  company,  and  to  this  day  both  names  are 
used. 

Bennet  found  some  walruses  on  its  desert  shores,  and  returned  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  with  a  vessel  fitted  out  by  a  merchant  of  the  name  of  Welden,  to  wage 
war  with  these  sea-monsters.  His  first  operations  were  not  very  successful. 
Of  a  herd  of  at  least  a  thousand  walruses,  he  killed  no  more  than  fifteen,  and  a 
later  attack  upon  an  equally  enormous  troop  raised  the  entire  number  of  his 
victims  to  no  more  than  fifty.  Their  tusks  alone  were  brought  away,  and  along 
Avith  some  loose  ones  collected  on  the  beach  formed  the  chief  produce  of  the  ex- 
pedition. At  first  the  unwieldy  creatures  were  fired  at,  but  as  the  bullets  made 
no  great  impression  on  their  thick  hides,  grapeshot  was  now  discharged  into 
their  eyes,  and  the  blinded  animals  were  finally  killed  with  axes. 

In  the  following  year  "Welden  himself  proceeded  to  Bear  Island,  and  the  art 
of  walrus-killing  gradually  improving  by  practice,  this  second  expedition 
proved  far  more  profitable  than  the  first.  Care  had  also  been  taken  to  provide 
large  kettles  and  the  necessary  fuel  to  boil  their  fat  on  the  spot,  so  that  besides 
the  tusks  a  quantity  of  oil  was  gained.  In  1606  Bennet  again  appeared  on  the 
field  of  action,  and  the  dexterity  of  the  walrus-hunters  had  now  become  so  great 
that  in  less  than  six  hours  they  killed  more  than  700,  which  yielded  twenty-two 
tons  of  oil.  During  the  folfoAving  voyage,  Welden,  who  seems  to  have  acted  in 
partnership  with  Bennet,  each  taking  his  turn,  killed  no  less  than  1000  walruses 
in  seven  hours.  Thus  Bear  Island  proved  a  mine  of  wealth  to  these  enterpris- 
ing men,  and  though  the  walruses  are  not  now  so  abundant  as  in  the  good  old 
times,  yet  they  are  still  sufficiently  numerous  to  attract  the  attention  of  specula- 
tors. Every  year  several  expeditions  proceed  to  its  shores  from  the  Russian 
and  Norwegian  ports,  and  generally  some  men  pass  the  winter  in  huts  erected 
on  its  northern  and  south-eastern  coasts. 

Considering  its  high  northern  latitude  of  15°,  the  climate  of  Bear  Island  is  un- 
commonly mild.  According  to  the  reports  of  some  Norwegian  walrus-hunters, 
Avho  remained  there  from  1824  to  1826,  the  cold  was  so  moderate  during  the 
first  winter  that,  until  the  middle  of  November,  the  snow  which  fell  in  the  night 
melted  during  the  daytime.  It  rained  at  Christmas,  and  seventy  walruses  were 
killed  during  Christmas  week  by  the  light  of  the  moon  and  that  of  the  Aurora. 
Even  in  February  the  weather  was  so  mild  that  the  men  were  able  to  work  in 
the  open  air  under  the  same  latitude  as  Melville  Island,  where  mercury  is  a  solid 
body  during  five  months  of  the  year.  The  cold  did  not  become  intense  be- 
fore March,  and  attained  its  maximum  in  April,  when  the  sea  froze  fast  round 
the  island,  and  the  white  bears  appeared  which  had  been  absent  during  the 
whole  winter.  The  second  winter  was  more  severe  than  the  first,  but  even  then 
the  sea  remained  open  until  the  middle  of  November— evidently  in  consequence 
of  the  prevailing  south-westerly  winds.  The  greater  part  of  Bear  Island  is  a 
desolate  plateau  raised  about  100  or  200  feet  above  the  sea.  Along  its  western 
shores  rises  a  group  of  three  mountains,  supposed  to  be  about  200  feet  high, 


SPITZBERGEN— BEAR  ISLAND— JAN   MEYEN.  145 

and  towards  the  south  it  terminates  in  a  solitary  hill  to  which  tlie  first  discov- 
erers gave  the  appropriate  name  of  Mount  Misery.  At  the  northern  foot  of 
this  terrace-shaped  elevation  the  plateau  is  considerably  depressed,  and  forms 
a  kind  of  oasis,  where  grass  {Poa  2yratensis),  enlivened  with  violet  cardamines 
and  white  polygonums  and  saxifragas,  grows  to  half  a  yard  in  height.  The 
general  character  of  the  small  island  is,  however,  a  monotony  of  stone  and  mo- 
rass, with  here  and  there  a  patch  of  snow,  while  the  coasts  have  been  worn  by 
the  action  of  the  waves  into  a  variety  of  fantastic  shapes,  bordered  in  some  parts 
l)y  a  flat  narrow  strand,  the  favorite  resort  of  the  walrus,  and  in  others  afford- 
ing convenient  breeding-places  to  hosts  of  sea-birds.  In  Coal  Bay,  fom-  parallel 
seams  of  coal,  about  equidistant  from  each  other,  are  visible  on  the  vertical  rock- 
walls,  but  they  are  too  thin  to  be  of  any  practical  use. 

Bear  Island  has  no  hai'bors,.and  is  consequently  a  rather  dangerous  place  to 
visit.  During  the  first  expedition  sent  out  from  Ilammerfest,  it  happened  that 
some  of  the  men  who-had  been  landed  were  abandoned  by  their  ship,  which  was 
to  have  cruised  along  the  coast  while  they  were  hunting  on  shore.  But  the 
current,  the  wind,  and  a  dense  fog  so  confused  the  ignorant  captain  that,  leaving 
them  to  their  fate,  he  at  once  returned  to  Ilammerfest.  When  the  men  became 
aware  of  their  dreadful  situation,  they  determined  to  leave  the  island  in  their 
boat,  and  taking  with  them  a  quantity  of  young  walrus  flesh,  they  luckily  reach- 
ed Northkyn  after  a  voyage  of  eight  days.  It  seems  almost  incredible  that 
these  same  people  immediately  after  revisited  Bear  Island  in  the  same  ship,  and 


A    GLIMPSE   OF   JAN    MEYEN  S    ISLAND, 


14G  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

were  again  obliged  to  return  to  Xorway  in  the  same  boat.  The  ship  had  an- 
chored  in  the  open  bay  of  North  Haven,  and  having  taken  in  its  cargo,  consist- 
ino-  of  180  wah'uses,  which  had  all  been  killed  in  a  few  days,  was  about  to  leave, 
when  a  storm  arose,  which  cast  her  ashore  and  broke  her  to  pieces..  The  Rus- 
sians had  built  some  huts  in  the  neighborhood,  and  the  provisions  might  probably 
have  been  saved,  but  rather  than  winter  in  the  island  the  crew  resolved  to  ven- 
ture home  again  in  the  boat.  This  was  so  small  that  one-half  of  them  were 
obliged  to  lie  down  on  the  bottom  while  the  others  rowed  ;  the  autumn  was  al- 
ready far  advanced,  and  they  encountered  so  savage  a  storm  that  an  English 
ship  they  fell  in  with  at  the  North  Cape  vainly  endeavored  to  take  them  on 
board.  After  a  ten  days'  voyage,  however,  they  safely  arrived  at  Magero,  thus 
proving  the  truth  of  the  old  saying  that  "  Fortune  favors  the  bold."  The  dis- 
tance from  Bear  Island  to  North  Cape  is  aboiTt  sixty  nautical  miles. 

In  a  straight  line  between  Spitzbergen  and  Iceland  lies  Jan  Meyen,  which, 
exposed  to  the  cold  Greenland  current,  almost  perpetually  veiled  with  mists,  and 
surrounded  by  drift  ice,  would  scarcely  ever  be  disturbed  in  its  dreary  solitude 
but  for  the  numerous  walrus  and  seal  herds  that  frequent  its  shores.  The  ice- 
bears  and  the  wild  sea-birds  are  its  only  inhabitants  ;  once  some  Dutchmen  at- 
tempted to  winter  there,  but  the  scurvy  swept  them  all  away.  Its  most  remark- 
able features  are  the  volcano  Esk  and  the  huge  mountain  Beerenberg,  towering 
to  the  height  of  6870  feet,  with  seven  enormous  glaciers  sweeping  down  its 
sides  into  the  sea. 


NOVA  ZEMBLA.  147 


CHAPTER  XI. 

NOVA    ZEMBLA. 

The  Sea  of  Kara.— Loschkin.—Rosmysslow.—Liitke.—Krotow.—PaclKussow.— Sails  along  tlie  east- 
ern Coast  of  the  Southern  Island  to  Matoschkin  Schar. — His  second  Voyage  and  Death.— Meteoro- 
logical Observations  of  Ziwolka. — The  cold  Summer  of  Nova  Zembla. — VonBaer's  scientific  Voyage 
toNovaZembla.— His  Adventures  in  Matoschkin  Schar.— Storm  in  Kostin  Schar.— Sea  Bath  and 
votive  Cross. — Botanical  Observations. — A  natural  Garden. — Solitude  and  Silence. — A  Bkd  Ba- 
zar.— Hunting  Expeditions  of  the  Russians  to  Nova  Zembla. 

nppIE  sea  of  Kara,  bounded  on  the  west  by  Nova  Zembla,  and  on  the  east  by 
-■-  the  vast  peninsula  of  Tajmurland,  is  one  of  the  most  inhospitable  parts  of 
the  inhospitable  Polar  Ocean.  For  all  the  ice  which  the  east-Avesterly  marine 
currents  drift  during  the  summer  along  the  Siberian  coasts  accumulates  in  that 
immense  land-locked  bay,  and  almost  constantly  blocks  the  gate  of  Kara,  as 
the  straits  have  been  named  that  separate  Nova  Zembla  from  the  island  of 
Waigatz. 

The  rivers  Jenissei  and  Obi,  which  remain  frozen  over  until  late  in  June, 
likewise  discharge  their  vast  masses  of  ice  into  the  gulf  of  Kara,  so  that  we 
can  not  wonder  that  the  eastern  coast  of  Nova  Zembla,  fronting  a  sea  which 
opposes  almost  insuperable  obstacles  to  the  Arctic  navigator,  has  remained  al- 
most totally  unknown  until  1833,  while  the  we'stern  coast,  exposed  to  the  Gulf 
Stream,  and  bathed,  in  summer  at  least,  by  a  vast  open  ocean,  has  long  been 
traced  in  all  its  chief  outlines  on  the  map. 

The  walrus-hunter  Loschkin  is  indeed  said  to  have  sailed  along  the  whole 
eastern  coast  of  Nova  Zembla  in  the  last  century,  but  we  have  no  authentic 
records  of  his  voyage,  and  at  a  later  period  Rosmysslow,  who,  penetrating 
through  Mathew's  Straits,  or  Matoschkin  Schar,  found  Nova  Zembla  to  consist 
of  two  large  islands,  investigated  but  a  small  part  of  those  unknown  shores. 
From  1819  to  1824  the  Russian  Government  sent  out  no  less  than  five  expedi- 
tions to  the  sea  of  Kara;  the  famous  circumnavigator  Admiral  Liitke  en- 
deavored no  less  than  four  times  to  advance  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Nova 
Zembla,  but  all  these  efforts  proved  fruitless  against  the  superior  power  of  a 
stormy  and  ice-blocked  sea.  Yet  in  spite  of  these  repeated  failures,  two  enter- 
prising men — Klokow,  a  chief  inspector  of  forests,  and  Brandt,  a  rich  merchant 
of  Archangel— fitted  out  three  ships  in  1832  for  the  purpose  of  solving  the 
mysteries  of  the  sea  of  Kara. 

One  of  these  vessels,  commanded  by  Lieutenant  Krotow,  was  to  penetrate 
through  Mathew's  Straits,  and,  having  reached  their  eastern  outlet,  to  sail  thence 
across  the  sea  to  the  mouth  of  the  Obi  and  the  Jenissei ;  but  nothing  more 
was  heard  of  the  ill-fated  ship  after  her  first  separation  from  her  companions  at 
Kanin  Nos. 

The  second  ship,  which  was  to  sail  along  the  western  coast  of  Nova  Zem- 
bla, and,  if  possible,  to  round  its  northern  extremity,  was  more  fortunate,  for 


148  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

though  it  never  reached  that  pohit,  it  returned  home  with  a  rich  cargo  of  wal- 
rus-teeth. 

*  The  third  ship,  finally,  undoi-  Pachtussow's  command,  was  to  penetrate 
throuo-h  the  gate  of  Kara,  and  from  thence  to  proceed  along  the  eastern  coast.- 
When  Pachtussow,  according  to  his  instructions,  had  reached  the  straits,  all 
his  efforts  to  effect  a  passage  proved  ineffectual.  It  was  in  vain  he  more  than 
once  steered  to  the  east ;  the  stormy  weather  and  large  masses  of  drift  ice  con- 
stantly threw  him  back,  the  short  summer  approached  its  end,  and  thus  he  Avas 
oblio-ed  to  put  off  all  further  attempts  to  the  next  year,  and  to  settle  for  the 
winter  in  Rocky  Bay  within  the  gate  of  Kara.  A  small  hut  was  built  out  of 
the  drift-wood  found  on  the  spot,  and  joined  by  means  of  a  gallery  of  sail-cloth 
to  a  bathing-room,  that  indispensable  comfort  of  a  Russian.  The  laying  of 
traps,  in  which  many  Arctic  foxes  were  caught,  and  the  carrying  of  the  wood, 
which  had  sometimes  to  be  fetched  from  a  distance  of  ten  versts,  occupied  the 
crew  during  fair  weather.  In  April  a  party  under  Pachtussow's  command 
set  out  for  the  purpose  of  exploring  the  western  coast.  On  this  expedition 
they  were  overtaken  on  the  tAventy-fourth  day  of  the  month  by  a  terrible  snow- 
storm, which  obUged  them  to  throw  themselves  flat  upon  the  ground  to  avoid 
being  swept  away  by  the  w^ind.  They  remained  three  days  without  food  under 
the  snow,  as  it  was  impossible  for  them  to  reach  the  depot  of  provisions  buried 
a  few  versts  off. 

On  June  24  the  gate  of  Kara  was  at  length  open,  and  Pachtussow  would 
gladly  have  sailed  through  the  passage,  but  his  ship  was  fast  in  the  ice.  He 
therefore  resolved,  in  order  to  make  the  best  use  of  his  time,  to  examine  the 
eastern  coast  in  a  boat,  and  reached  in  this  manner  the  small  Sawina  River, 
M'here  he  found  a  wooden  cross  with  the  date  of  1742.  Most  likely  it  had 
been  placed  there  by  Loschkin,  his  predecessor  on  the  path  of  discovery.  He 
now  returned  with  his  boat  to  the  ship,  which,  after  an  imprisonment  of  297 
days,  was  at  length,  July  11,  able  to  leave  the  bay. 

On  Stadolski  Island,  near  Cape  Menschikoff,  they  found  a  wretched  hut, 
which  proved  that  they  were  not  the  first  to  penetrate  into  these  deserts.  But 
the  hut  was  tenantless,  and  a  number  of  human  bones  were  strewn  over  the 
ground.  One  of  Pachtussow's  companions  now  related  that  in  1822  a  Samo- 
jede,  named  Mawei,  had  gone  with  his  wife  and  children  to  ISTova  Zembla,  and 
had  never  returned.  On  gathering  the  bones,  they  were  found  to  compose  the 
skeletons  of  two  children  and  of  a  woman,  but  no  remains  could  be  discovered 
of  the  man.  Most  likely  the  unfortunate  savage  had  been  surprised  by  a  snow- 
storm, or  had  fallen  a  prey  to  a  hungry  ice-bear,  on  one  of  his  excursions,  and 
his  family,  deprived  of  their  support,  had  died  of  hunger  in  the  hut. 

On  July  19  they  reached  the  river  Stawinen,  and  on  the  21st  Liitke's  Bay, 
where  a  number  of  white  dolphins  and  seals  of  an  unknown  species  were  found. 
Here  contrary  winds  arrested  the  progress  of  the  navigators  during  eighteen 
days.  On  August  13  Pachtussow  entered  Matoschkin  Schar,  and  reached  its 
western  mouth  on  the  19th.  Thus  he  succeeded  at  least  in  circumnavigating 
the  southern  island,  which  no  one  had  achieved  before  him,  and  as  his  exhaust- 
ed provisions  did  not  allow  him  to  spend  a  second  winter  in  Nova  Zembla,  he 


NOVA  ZEMBLA.  149 

resolved  to  retui-n  at  once  to  Archangel.  But  contrary  winds  drove  him  to 
the  island  of  Kolgujew,  and  thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  Petschora,  where,  on 
September  3,  a  di-eadful  storm  at  length  shattered  his  crazy  vessel.  The  crew 
found  refuge  in  a  hut,  but  this  also  was  filled  by  the  water ;  so  that  they  had 
to  wade  several  versts  before  they  could  reach  the  dry  land. 

Pachtnssow  now  travelled  by  way  of  Archangel  and  Onega  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, where  he  communicated  the  results  of  his  journey  to  the  Minister  of 
Marine,  who  gave  him  a  most  flattering  reception,  Avell  merited  by  his  ability 
and  courage.  The  success  he  had  already  obtained  encouraged  the  hope  that 
a  second  expedition  would  be  able  to  complete  the  undertaking,  and  consequent- 
ly, by  an  imperial  order,  the  schooner  Krotow  and  a  transport  were  fitted  out, 
with  which  Pachtussow  once  more  sailed  from  the  port  of  Archangel  on 
August  5.  His  instructions  were  to  winter  in  Mathew's  Straits,  and  thence  to 
attempt  in  the  following  summer  the  exploration  of  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
northern  island.  The  winter  hut  he  built  at  the  western  entrance  of  the  straits 
Avas  ready  for  his  reception  by  October  20.  It  was  of  stately  dimensions,  for  a 
Nova  Zembla  residence — 25  feet  long,  21  bi-oad,  8  feet  high  in  the  centre,  5  at 
the  sides,  and  consisted  of  two  compartments,  one  for  the  ofiicers  and  the  other 
for  the  crew.  They  found  the  cold  very  endurable,  but  were  r;ither  incom- 
moded by  the  smoke,  which  did  not  always  find  a  ready  passage  through  the 
opening  in  the  roof.  Sometimes  the  snow  accumulated  in  such  masses,  or  the 
storm  raged  so  furiously  round  the  hut,  that  they  could  not  leave  it  for  eight 
days  running,  and  frequently  the  hole  in  the  roof  had  to  serve  them  for  a  door. 

Eleven  white  bears  were  killed  about  the  hut  during  the  winter ;  one  on  the 
roof,  another  in  the  passage.  Pachtussow,  well  aware  that  occupation  is  the 
best  remedy  against  melancholy,  kept  his  crew  in  constant  activity.  They 
were  obliged  to  fetch  wood  from  distances  of  ten  or  eleven  versts,  not  seldom 
during  a  cold  of  —36°,  which,  thanks  to  their  thick  fur  dresses,  they  bore  re- 
markably well,  particularly  as  a  temperature  lower  than  —25°  never  occurred, 
unless  during  perfectly  calm  weather.  He  also  made  them  lay  fox-traps  at 
considerable  distances  from  the  hut,  and  amused  them  with  shooting  at  a  mark 
and  gymnastic  exercises.  By  this  means  he  succeeded  in  preserving  their 
health,  and  warding  of£  the  attacks  of  the  scurvy. 

As  early  as  April  the  indefatigable  Pachtussow  fitted  out  two  sledge-parties, 
for  the  exploration  of  the  eastern  coast.  The  one,  consisting  of  seven  men,  he 
commanded  in  person ;  the  other  was  led  by  the  steersman  Ziwolka.  Both 
parties  travelled  in  company  as  far  as  the  eastern  entrance  of  the  straits,  where 
one  of  the  huts  in  which  Rosmysslow  had  wintered  seventy  years  before  was 
still  found  in  a  good  condition. 

Pachtussow  now  returned  for  the  purpose  of  accurately  surveying  the  straits, 
while  Ziwolka  proceeded  along  the  east  coast,  with  a  sinall  tent  and  provisions 
for  a  month.  All  his  men  had  Samojede  dresses,  but  they  were  already  so 
hardened  that  they  did  not  wear  the  upper  coat  with  the  hood  even  during  the 
night,  although  snow-storms  not  seldom  occurred.  Once  their  boots  were 
frozen  so  hard  that  they  could  not  pull  them  off  before  they  had  been  previous- 
ly thawed,  and  as  drift-wood  was  nowhere  to  be  found,  they  were  obliged  to 


150  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

burn  the  poles  of  their  tent,  and  to  keep  their  feet  over  the  fire  until  the  leather 
became  soft.  On  May  18,  the  thirty-fourth  day  of  his  journey,  Ziwolka  re- 
turned to  his  commander,  after  having  explored  the  east  coast  northward  to  a 
distance  of  150  versts. 

Meanwhile  Pachtussow  had  been  busy  building  a  boat  eighteen  feet  long, 
with  which  he  intended  to  proceed  along  the  western  coast  to  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  the  island,  and,  the  elements  permitting,  to  return  to  the  straits 
along  its  eastern  shores.  About  the  beginning  of  June  the  migratory  birds 
made  their  appearance,  and  introduced  a  very  agreeable  change  in  the  monoton- 
ous fare  of  the  navigators,  who,  a  few  weeks  later,  enjoyed  the  sight  of  bloom- 
ing flowers,  and  gathered  antiscorbutic  herbs  in  large  quantities. 

Thus  the  high  northern  land  had  assumed  its  most  friendly  aspect,  and  looked 
as  cheerfully  as  it  possibly  coijld,  when,  on  July  11,  Pachtussow  and  Ziwolka 
set  out  for  the  north  with  the  boat  and  the  transport,  the  schooner  being  left 
behind  in  the  straits  with  the  surgeon  and  a  few  invalids.  At  first  the  wind 
and  weather  favored  their  course,  but  on  July  21  the  boat  was  smashed  be- 
tween two  pieces  of  ice,  so  that  they  had  hardly  time  to  escape  upon  the  land 
witli  the  nautical  instruments,  a  sack  of  flour,  and  some  butter. 

In  this  unpleasant  situation  they  were  obliged  to  remain  for  thirteen  days, 
until  at  last  a  walrus-hunter  appeared,  who  took  the  shipwrecked  explorers 
on  board,  and  brought  them  safely  back  to  their  winter-quarters  on  August  22. 
Thus  this  first  attempt  ended  in  complete  disappointment,  and  the  season  was 
already  too  far  advanced  to  permit  of  its  renewal.  Yet  Pachtussow,  resolving 
with  praiseworthy  zeal  to  make  the  most  of  the  last  days  of  the  short  summer, 
set  out  again  on  August  26  for  the  eastern  entrance  of  the  straits,  and  proceeded 
along  the  coast,  untilr  he  was  stopped  by  the  ice  at  some  distance  beyond  the 
small  islands  which  bear  his  name. 

Convinced  of  the  fruitlessness  of  all  further  efforts,  Pachtussow  bade  adieu 
with  a  sorrowful  heart  to  the  coast,  which  stiU  stretched  out  before  him  in  un- 
discovered mystery,  and  sailed  back  again  to  Archangel  on  September  20.  Soon 
after  his  return  he  fell  ill,  and  four  weeks  later  his  mourning  friends  carried  him 
to  his  grave. 

The  Arctic  Ocean  is  so  capricious  that  in  the  following  year  the  walrus- 
hunter  Issakow,  of  Kem,  who  had  no  discoveries  in  view,  was  able  to  round 
without  difficxdty  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  Nova  Zembla,  but,  fearful  of 
encountering  the  dangers  of  that  dreadful  coast,  he  almost  immediately  returned. 
During  the  two  winters  he  spent  in  Nova  Zembla,  the  steersman  Ziwolka 
had  daily  consulted  the  thermometer,  and  the  result  of  his  observations  gave 
to   the  western  entrance   of  Mathew's   Straits   a  mean   annual   temperature 

of  +ir.  ■ 

Thus  Nova  Zembla  is  colder  than  the  west  coast  of  Spitzbergen,  which,  al- 
though still  farther  to  the  north,  is  more  favorably  situated  with  regard  to  the 
winds  and  currents,  and  from  five  to  ten  degrees  warmer  than  the  high  north- 
ern parts  of  Siberia  and  continental  America,  Avhich  sustain  a  comparatively 
numerous  population,  while  Nova  Zembla  is  uninhabited.  Hence  this  want, 
and  the  circumstance  that  the  vegetation  of  these  islands  scarcely  rises  a  span 


NOVA  ZE^klBLA,  .  lol 

above  the  ground,  while  the  forest  region  still  penetrates  far  within  the  con- 
fines of  the  colder  continental  regions  above  mentioned,  are  to  be  ascribed  not 
to  the  low  mean  annual  temperature  of  Nova  Zembla,  but  to  the  unfavorable 
distribution  of  warmth  over  the  various  seasons  of  the  year.  For  although 
high  Northern  Siberia  and  America  have  a/ar  colder  winter,  they  enjoy  a  con- 
siderably warmer  summer,  and  this  it  is  which  in  the  higher  latitudes  determines 
the  existence  or  the  development  of  life  on  the  dry  land.  During  the  winter 
the  organic  woi'ld  is  partly  sheltered  under  the  snow,  or  else  it  migrates,  or  it 
produces  within  itself  sufficient  warmth  to  defy  the  cold— and  thus  a  few  de- 
grees more  or  less  at  that  time  of  the  year  are  of  no  material  consequence,  while 
the  warmth  of  summer  is  absolutely  indispensable  to  awaken  life  and  determine 
its  development. 

The  comparatively  mild  lointer  of  Nova  Zembla  (no  less  than  thirty-three  de- 
grees warmer  than  that  of  Jakutsk)  is  therefore  of  but  little  benefit  to  vegetable 
hfe,  which  on  the  other  hand  suffers  considerably  from  a  summer  inferior  even 
to  that  of  Melville  Island  and  Boothia  Felix.  A  coast  where  the  sun,  in  spite  of 
a  day  of  several  months'  continuance,  generates  so  small  a  quantity  of  heat,  and 
where  yet  some  vegetation  is  able  to  flourish,  must  necessarily  be  well  worthy 
the  attention  of  botanists,  or  rather  of  all  those  who  take  an  interest  in  the 
geographical  distribution  of  plants.  For  if  in  the  primitive  forests  of  Brazil 
the  naturalist  admires  the  effects  of  a  tropical  sun  and  an  excessive  humidity  in 
producing  the  utmost  exuberance  of  vegetation,  it  is  no  less  interesting  for  him 
to  observe  how  Flora  under  the  most  adverse  circumstances  still  wages  a  suc- 
cessful war  against  death  and  destruction. 

Thus  a  few  years  after  Pachtussow's  expedition,  the  desire  to  explore  a  land 
so  remarkable  in  a  botanical  point  of  view,  and  to  gather  new  fruits  for  science 
in  the  wilderness,  induced  Ilerr  von  Baer,  though  already  advanced  in  years,  to 
undertake  the  journey  to  Nova  Zembla. 

Accompanied  by  two  younger  naturalists,  Mr.  Lehmann  and  Mr.  Ruder,  the 
celebrated  Petersburg  academician  arrived  on  July  29,  1837,  at  the  western  en- 
trance of  Mathew's  Straits,  sailed  through  them  the  next  day  in  a  boat,  and 
reached  the  sea  of  Kara,  where  he  admired  a  prodigious  number  of  jelly-fishes 
{Pleurohrachia  pileus)  swimming  about  in  the  ice-cold  waters,  and  displaying 
a  marvellous  beauty  of  coloring  in  their  ciliated  ribs.  This  excursion  might, 
however,  have  had  very  disagreeable  consequences,  for  a  dreadful  storm,  blow- 
ing from  the  west,  prevented  their  boat  from  returning,  and  forced  them  to  pass 
the  night  with  some  walrus-hunters,  whom  they  had  the  good-fortune  to  meet 
with.  On  the  following  day  the  storm  abated,  so  that  the  return  could  be  at- 
tempted ;  they  were,  however,  obliged  to  land  on  a  small  island  in  the  Beluga 
Bay,  where,  wet  to  the  skin,  and  their  limbs  shaking  with  cold,  they  fortunately 
found  a  refuge  in  the  ruins  of  a  hut  in  which  Rosmysslow  had  wintered  in  1 767. 
Meanwhile  the  wind  had  veered  to  the  east,  accompanied  by  a  very  disagreeable 
cold  rain,  which  on  the  mountains  took  the  form  of  snow ;  they  were  now,  how- 
ever, able  to  make  use  of  their  sail,  and  arrived  late  at  night  at  the  spot  where 
their  ship  lay  at  anchor,  completely  wet,  but  in  good  health  and  spirits. 

"  We  could  esteem  ourselves  happy,"  says  Von  Baer,  "  in  having  paid  so 


152  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

slight  a  penalty  for  neglecting  the  precaution,  so  necessary  to  all  travellers  in 
Nova  Zembla,  of  providing  for  a  week  when  you  set  out  for  a  day's  excursion." 
On  Auo-ust  4,  after  a  thorough  botanical  examination  of  the  straits,  the  party 
proceeded  along  the  west  coast.  The  wind,  blowing  from  the  north,  brought 
them  to  the  Kostin  Schar,  a  maze  of  passages  between  numerous  islets,  where 
the  walrus-hunters  in  Nova  Zembla  chiefly  assemble. 

On  August  9  an  excursion  was  made  up  the  river  Kechwatowa,  where  they 
rested  in  a  hut  which  had  been  erected  by  some  fisherman  employed  in  catching 
"  o-olzi,"  or  Arctic  salmon.  On  returning  to  the  ship,  a  dreadful  storm  arose  from 
the  north-east,  which  lasted  nine  days,  and,  very  fortunately  for  the  botanists, 
caught  them  in  the  Kostin  Schar,  and  not  on  the  high  sea.  Although  they  were 
anchored  in  a  sheltered  bay,  the  waves  frequently  swept  over  the  deck  of  their" 
vessel,  and  compelled  them  to  remain  aU  the  time  in  their  small,  low  cabin. 
Only  once  they  made  an  attempt  to  land,  but  the  wind  was  so  strong  that  they 
could  hardly  stand.  Their  situation  was  rendered  still  more  terrible  and  anxious, 
as  part  of  the  crew  which  had  been  sent  out  hunting  before  the  storm  began 
had  not  yet  returned. 

When  at  last  the  storm  ceased,  winter  seemed  about  to  begin  in  good  earn- 
est. Every  night  ice  formed,  in  the  rivei-,  and  the  land  was.  covered  with  snow, 
Avhich  had  surprised  the  scanty  vegetation  in  its  full  bloom.  At  length  the 
hunters  retui;ned,  after  having  endured  terrible  hardships,  and  now  preparations 
were  made  for  a  definitive  departure.  A  general  bath  was  taken,  without  which 
no  anchorage  in  Nova  Zembla  is  ever  left,  and,  according  to  ancient  custom,  a 
votive  cross  was  likewise  erected  o^  the  strand,  as  a  memorial  of  the  expedi- 
tion. 

On  August  28  the  anchors  were  weighed,  but  they  were  soon  dropped  again 
in  the  Schar,  to  examine  on  a  small  island  the  vegetable  and  animal  products  of 
the  land  and  of  the  shore.  The  former  offered  but  few  objects  of  interest,  but 
they  were*  astonished  at  the  exuberance  of  marine  life.  After  having  been  de- 
tained by  a  thick  fog  in  this  place  for  several  days,  they  at  length  sailed  towards 
the  White  Sea,  where  they  were  obliged  by  contrary  winds  to  run  into  Tri  Os- 
trowa.  Dreary  and  desolate  as  the  tundras  at  this  extreme  point  of  Lapland 
had  appeared  to  them  on  their  journey  outward,  they  were  noAV  charmed  with 
their  green  slopes,  a  sight  of  which  they  had  been  deprived  in  Nova  Zembla. 

On  September  1 1  they  at  length  reached  the  port  of  Archangel,  with  the 
agreeable  prospect  of  passing  the  winter  in  a  comfortable  study  at  St.  Peters- 
burg instead  of  spending  it,  like  Barentz  and  his  associates,  as  might  easily  have 
happened,  in  a  wretched  hut  beyond  the  70th  degree  of  northern  latitude. 

Having  thus  briefly  sketched  Yon  Baer's  adventures,  I  will  now  notice  some 
of  the  most  interesting  scientific  results  of  his  journey. 

The  rocky  west  coast  of  Nova  Zembla  has  about  the  same  ajjpearance  as  the 
analogous  part  of  Spitzbergen,  for  here  also  the  mountains,  particularly  in  the 
northern  island,  rise  abruptly  to  a  height  of  three  or  four  thousand  feet  from 
the  sea,  while  the  eastern  coast  is  generally  flat.  In  both  countries,  angular 
Blocks  of  stone,  precipitated  from  the  summits,  cover  the  sides  of  the  hills,  and 
frequently  make  it  impossible  to  ascend  them.     In  fact,  no  rock,  however  hai'd 


,  NOVA  ZEMBLA.  153 

or  finely  grained,  is  able  to  withstand  the  effects  of  a  climate  where  the  sun> 
nier  is  so  wet  and  the  winter  so  severe.  Nowhere  in  Nova  Zembla  is  a  grass- 
covered  spot  to  be  found  deserving  the  name  of  a  meadow.  Even  the  folia- 
ceous  lichens,  which  grow  so  luxuriantly  in  Lapland,  have  here  a  stunted  ap- 
pearance ;  but,  as  Von  Baer  remarks,  this  is  owing  less  to  the  climate  than  to 
the  nature  of  the  soil,  as  plants  of  this  description  thrive  best  on  chalky  ground. 
The  crustaceous  lichens,  however,  cover  the  blocks  of  augite  and  porphyry  with 
a  motley  vesture,  and  the  dingy  carpet  with  which  Dryas  octopetala  invests 
here  and  there  the  dry  slopes,  formed  of  rocky  detritus,  reminds  one  of  the 
tundras  of  Lapland. 

The  scanty  vegetable  covering  which  this  only  true  social  plant  of  Nova 
Zembla  affords  is,  however,  but  an  inch  thick,  and  can  easily  be  detached  like 
a  cap  from  the  rock  beneath. 

On  a  clayey  ground  in  moist  and  low  situations,  the  mosses  afford  a  pro- 
tection to  the  polar  willow  {Sallx polaris)^  which  raises  but  two  leaves  and  a 
catkin  over  the  surface  of  its  covering. 

Even  the  most  sparing  sheet  of  humus  has  great  difficulty  to  form  in  Nova 
Zembla,  as  in  a  great  number  of  the  plants  which  grow  there  the  discolored 
leaf  dries  on  the  stalk,  and  is  then  swept  away  by  the  wands,  so  that  the  land 
would  appear  still  more  naked  if  many  plants,  such  as  the  snow  ranunculus 
{Ranunculus  nivalis),  were  not  so  extremely  abstemious  as  to  require  no  hu- 
mus at  all,  but  merely  a  rocky  crevice  or  -some  loose  gravel  capable  of  retaining 
moisture  in  its  interstices. 

But  even  in  Nova  Zembla  there  are  some  more  favored  spots.  Thus  when 
Von  Baer  landed  at  the  foot  of  a  high  slate  mountain  fronting  the  south-west, 
and  reflecting  the  rays  of  the  sun,  he  was  astonished  and  delighted  to  see  a  gay 
mixture  of  purple  silenes,  golden  ranunculuses,  peach-colored  parryas,  white 
cerastias,  and  blue  palemones,  and  was  particularly  pleased  at  finding  the  well- 
known  forget-me-not  among  the  ornaments  of  this  Arctic  pasture.  Between 
these  various  flowers  the  soil  was  everywhere  visible,  for  the  dicotyledonous 
plants  of  the  high  latitudes  produce  no  more  foliage  than  is  necessary  to  set 
off  the  colors  of  the  blossoms,  and  have  generally  more  flowers  than  leaves. 

The  entire  vegetation  of  the  island  is  confined  to  the  superficial  layer  of  the 
soil  and  to  the  lower  stratum  of  the  air.  Even  those  plants  which  in  warm 
climates  have  a  descending  or  vertical  root  have  here  a  horizontal  one,  and 
none,  whether  grasses  or  shrubs,  grow  higher  than  a  span  above  the  ground. 

In  the  polar  willow,  a  single  pair  of  leaves  sits  on  a  stem  about  as  thick  as 
a  straw,  although  the  Avhole  jilant  forms  an  extensive  shrub  with  nuiuerous  ram.- 
ifications.  Another  species  of  willow  {Salix  lanata)  attains  the  considerable 
height  of  a  span,  and  is  a  perfect  giant  among  the  Nova  Zembla  plants,  for  the 
thick  subterranean  trunk  sometimes  measures  two  inches  in  diameter,  and  can 
be  laid  bare  for  a  length  of  ten  or  twelve  feet  without  finding  the  end.  Thus 
in  tliis  country  the  forests  are  more  in  than  above  the  earth. 

This  horizontal  development  of  vegetation  is  caused  by  the  sun  principally 
heating  the  superficial  sheet  of  earth,  which  imparts  its  warmth  to  the  stratum 
of  air  immediately  above  it,  and  thus  confines  the  plants  within  the  narrow 


154  THE   POLAR  WORLD.  , 

limits  which  best  suit  their  growth.  Hence  also  the  influence  of  position  on 
vegetation  is  so  great  that,  while  a  plain  open  to  the  Avinds  is  a  complete  des- 
ert, a  gentle  mountain  slope  not  seldom  resembles  a  garden. 

The  absence  of  all  trees  or  shrubs,  or  even  of  all  vigorous  herbage,  imparts 
a  character  of  the  deepest  solitude  to  the  Nova  Zembla  landscape,  and  inspires 
even  the  rough  sailor  with  a  kind  of  religious  awe.  "  It  is,"  says  Von  Baei-, 
"  as  if  the  dawn  of  creation  had  but  just  begun,  and  life  were  still  to  be  called 
into  existence."  The  universal  silence  is  but  rarely  broken  by  the  noise  of  an 
animal.  But  neither  the  cry  of  the  sea-mew,  wheeling  in  the  air,  nor  the  rus- 
tling of  the  lemming  in  the  stunted  herbage  are  able  to  animate  the  scene.  No 
voice  is  heard  in  calm  weather.  The  rare  land-birds  are  silent  as  well  as  the 
insects,  which  are  comparatively  still  fewer  in  number.  This  tranquillity  of 
nature,  particularly  during  serene  days,  reminds  the  spectator  of  the  quiet  of 
the  grave ;  and  the  lemmings  seem  like  phantoms  as  they  glide  noiselessly 
from  burrow  to  burrow.  In  our  fields  even  a  slight  motion  of  the  air  becomes 
visible  in  the  foliage  of  the  trees  or  in  the  waving  of  the  corn ;  here  the  low 
plants  ai'e  so  stiff  and  immovable  that  one  might  suppose  them  to  be  painted. 
The  rare  sand-bee  (Andrena),  which  on  sunny  days  and  in  warm  places  flies 
about  Avith  languid  wings,  has  scarcely  the  spirit  to  hum,  and  the  flies  and 
gnats,  though  more  frequent,  are  equally  feeble  and  inoffensive. 

As  a  proof  of  the  rarity  of  insects  in  Nova  Zembla,  Von  Baer  mentions  that 
not  a  single  larva  was  to  be  found  in  a  dead  walrus  wdiich  had  been  lying  at 
least  fourteen  days  on  the  shore.  The  hackneyed  phrase  of  our  funeral  ser- 
mons can  not  therefore  be  apj^lied  to  these  high  latitudes,  where  even  above 
the  earth  the  decay  of  bodies  is  extremely  slow. 

However  poor  the  vegetation  of  Nova  Zembla  may  be,  it  still  suffices  to 
nourish  a  number  of  lemmings,  which  live  on  leaves,  stems,  and  buds,  but  not 
on  roots.  The  slopes  of  the  mountains  are  often  undermined  in  all  directions 
by  their  burrows.  Next  to  these  lemmings,  the  Arctic  foxes  are  the  most  nu- 
merous quadrupeds,  as  they  find  plenty  of  food  in  the  above-mentioned  little 
rodents,  as  well  as  in  the  young  birds,  and  in  the  bodies  of  the  marine  animals 
which  are  cast  ashore  by  the  tides.  White  bears  are  scarcely  ever  seen  during 
the  summer,  and  the  reindeer  seems  to  have  decreased  in  numbers,  at  least  on 
the  west  coast,  where  they  are  frequently  shot  by  the  Russian  morse-hunters. 

The  hosts  of  sea-birds  in  some  parts  of  the  coast  prove  that  the  waters  are 
far  more  prolific  than  the  land.  The  foolish  guillemots  (  Lrria  troile),  closely 
congregated  in  rows,  one  above  the  other,  on  the  narrow  ledges  of  vertical 
rock-walls,  make  the  black  stone  appear  striped  with  white.  Such  a  breeding- 
place  is  called  by  the  Russians  a  bazar.  On  the  summit  of  isolated  cliffs,  and 
suffering  no  other  bird  in  his  vicinity,  nestles  the  large  gray  sea-mew  {Larus 
glaucus),  to  whom  the  Dutch  Avhale-catchers  have  given  the  name  of  "  burgh- 
ermaster."  While  the  ice-bear  is  monai'ch  of  the  land  animals,  this  gull  appears 
as  the  sovereign  lord  of  all  the  sea-birds  around,  and  no  guillemot  Avould  ven- 
ture to  dispute  the  jDOSsession  of  a  dainty  morsel  claimed  by  the  imperious 
burghermaster. 

This  abundance  of  the  sea  has  also  attracted  man  to  the  desert  shores  of 


NOVA  ZEMBLA.  155 

Nova  Zembla.  Long  before  Barentz  made  Western  Europe  acquainted  witli 
the  existence  of  Nova  Zembla  (1594-9G),  the  land  Avas  known  to  the  Russians 
as  a  vahiable  hunting  or  fishing  ground ;  for  the  Dutch  discoverer  met  with  a 
laro-e  number  of  their  vessels  on  its  coast.  Burrough,  who  visited  the  j^ort  of 
Kola  in  1556,  in  search  of  the  unfortunate  Willoughby,  and  thence  sailed  as 
far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Petschora,  likewise  saw  in  the  gulf  of  Kola  no  less  than 
thirty  lodjes,  all  destined  for  walrus-hunting  in  Nova  Zembla. 

Whether,  before  the  Russians,  the  adventurous  Norsemen  ever  visited  these 
desolate  islands,  is  xtnknown,  but  so  much  is  certain,  that  ever  since  the  times 
of  Barentz  the  expeditions  of  the  Muscovites  to  its  western  coast  have  been 
uninterruptedly  continued.  As  is  the  case  with  all  fishhig  speculations,  their 
success  very  much  depends  upon  chance.  The  year  1834  was  very  lucrative, 
so  that  in  the  following  season  about  eighty  ships,  with  at  least  1000  men  on 
board,  sailed  for  Nova  Zembla  from  the  ports  of  the  White  Sea,  but  this  time 
the  results  were  so  unsatisfactoiy  that  in  1836  scarce  half  the  number  were 
fitted  out.  In  1837  no  more  than  twenty  vessels  were  employed,  and  Von 
Baer  relates  that  but  one  of  them  w^hich  penetrated  into  the  sea  of  Kara  made 
a  considerable  profit,  while  all  the  rest,  Avith  but  few  exceptions,  did  not  pay 
one-half  of  their  expenses. 

The  most  valuable  animals  are  the  walrus  and  the  white  dolphin,  or  beluga. 
Among  the  seals,  the  Phoca  alhigena  of  Pallas  distinguishes  itself  by  its  size, 
the  thickness  of  its  skin,  and  its  quantity  of  fat ;  Phoca  c/rcenlandica  and  Phoca 
hispida  rank  next  in  estimation.  The  Greenland  whale  never  extends  his  ex- 
cursions to  the  waters  of  Nova  Zembla,  but  the  fin-back  iind  the  grampus  ai*e 
frequently  seen. 

The  Alpine  salmon  {Salmo  alpinus),  which  tow^ards  autumn  ascends  into 
the  mountain-lakes,  is  caught  in  incredible  numbers;  and,  finally,  the  bean- 
goose  {Anser  segetuni)  breeds  so  frequently,  at  least  upon  the  southern  island, 
that  the  gathering  of  its  quill-feathers  is  an  object  of  some  importance. 


156  TIIE   POLAR   WOELD. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

THE  LAPPS. 

Their  ancient  History  and  Conversion  to  Christianity.— Self-denial  and  Poverty  of  the  Lapland  Clerg}\ 
—Their  singular  Mode  of  Preaching.— Gross  Superstition  of  the  Lapps.— The  Evil  Spirit  of  the 
Woods.— The  Lapland  Witches.— Physical  Constitution  of  the  Lapps.— Their  Dress.— The  Fjalllap- 
pars.— Their  Dwellings.— Store-houses.— Reindeer  Pens.— Milking  the  Reindeer.— Migration.— 
The  Lapland  Dog.— Skiders,  or  Skates.— The  Sledge,  or  Pulka.— Natural  Beauties  of  Lapland.— 
Attachment  of  the  Lapps  to  their  Country.— Bear-hunting.— Wolf-hunting.— Mode  of  Living  of  the 
wealthy  Lapps.— How  they  kill  the  Reindeer.— Visiting  the  Fair.- Mammon  Worship.— Treasure- 
hiding.— "  Tabak,  or  Braende."— Affectionate  Disposition  of  the  Lapps.— The  Skogslapp.— The 
Fisherlapp. 

THE  nation  of  the  Lapps  spreads  over  the  northern  parts  of  Scandinavia 
and  Finland  from  about  the  63d  degree  of  latitude  to  the  confines  of 
the  Polar  Ocean ;  but  their  number,  hardly  amounting  to  more  than  twenty 
thousand,  bears  no  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  vast  regions  in  which  they 
are  found.  Although  now  subject  to  the  crowns  of  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Nor- 
way, they  anciently  possessed  the  whole  Scandinavian  peninsula,  until  the  sons 
of  Odin  drove  them  farther  and  farther  to  the  north,  and,  taking  possession  of 
the  coasts  and  valleys,  left  them  nothing  but  the  bleak  mountain  and  the  deso- 
late tundra.  In  the  thirteenth  century,  under  the  reign  of  Magnus  Ladislas, 
King  of  Sweden,  their  subjugation  was  completed  by  the  Birkarls,  a  race 
dwelling  on  the  borders  of  the  Bothnian  Gulf.  These  Birkarls  had  to  pay  the 
crown  a  slight  tribute,  which  they  wrung  more  than  a  hundred-fold  from  the 
Lapps,  until  at  length  Gustavus  I.  granted  the  persecuted  savages  the  protec- 
tion of  more  equitable  laws,  and  sent  missionaries  among  them  to  reUeve  them 
at  the  same  time  from  the  yoke  of  their  ancient  superstitions.  In  1600  Charles 
IX.  ordered  churches  to  be  built  in  their  country,  and,  some  years  after,  his  son 
and  successor,  the  celebrated  Gustavus  Adolphus,  founded  a  school  for  the 
Lapps  at  Pitea,  and  ordered  several  elementary  Avorks  to  be  translated  into 
their  language.  In  the  year  1602,  Christian  IV.,  King  of  Denmark  and  Nor- 
way, while  on  a  visit  to  the  province  of  Finraark,  was  so  incensed  at  the  gross 
idolatry  of  the  Lapps  that  he  ordered  their  priests  or  sorcerers  to  be  persecuted 
Avith  bloody  severity.  A  worthy  clergyman,  Eric  Bredal,  of  Droutheim,  used 
means  more' consonant  with  the  spirit  of  the  Gospel,  and,  having  instructed 
several  young  Lapps,  sent  them  back  again  as  missionaries  to  their  famihes. 
These  interpreters  of  a  purer  faith  were,  however,  received  as  apostates  and 
traitors  by  their  suspicious  countrymen,  and  cruelly  murdered,  most  likely  at 
the  instigation  of  the  sorcerers.  In  1707  Frederic  IV.  founded  the  Finmark 
mission,  and  in  1716  Thomas  Westen,  a  man  of  rare  zeal  and  perseverance, 
preached  the  Gospel  in  the  wildest  districts  of  the  province.  Other  mission- 
aries and  teachers  followed  his  example,  and  at  length  succeeded  in  converting 
the  Lapps,  and  in  some  measure  conquering  their  ancient  barbarism.     Nothing 


THE    LAPPS.  157 

can  be  more  admii-able  than  the  self-denial  and  heroic  fortitude  of  these  minis- 
ters of  Christ,  for  to  renounce  all  that  is  precious  in  the  eyes  of  the  world  to 
follow  nomads  little  better  than  savages  through  the  wilds  of  an  Arctic  country 
surely  requires  a  courage  not  inferior  to  that  of  the  soldier 

Who  seeks  preferment  at  the  cann6n's  mouth. 

The  Lapland  schoolmaster  enjoys  an  annual  salary  of  twenty-five  dollars, 
and  receives  besides  half  a  dollar  for  every  child  instructed.  But  the  priest 
is  not  much  better  off,  as  his  stipend  amounts  to  no  more  than  thirty  dollars 
in  money,  and  to  about  150  dollars  in  produce.  Among  this  miserably  paid 
clergy  there  are,  as  in  Iceland,  men  worthy  of  a  better  lot.  The  famous  Lo- 
stadius  was  priest  at  Karesuando,  seventy-five  leagues  from  Tromso,  the  near- 
est town,  and  a  hundred  leagues  from  Tornea.  His  family  lived  upon  vye  bread 
and  fishes,  and  but  rarely  tasted  reindeer  flesh.  Chamisso  mentions  another 
Lapland  priest  who  had  spent  seven  years  in  his  parish,  which  lay  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  forest  region.  In  the  summer  he  was  completely  isolated,  as  then 
the  Lapps  wandered  with  their  herds  to  the  cool  shores  of  the  icy  sea ;  and  in 
the  winter,  when  the  moon  afforded  hght,  he  travelled  about  in  his  sledge,  fre- 
quently bivouacking  at  the  temperature  of  freezing  mercury,  to  visit  his  Lapps. 
During  all  that  time  his  solitude  had  been  but  twice  broken  by  civilized  man ; 
a  brother  had  come  to  see  him,  and  a  botanist  had  strayed  to  his  dwelUng.  He 
well  Inew  how  to  appreciate  the  pleasure  of  such  meetings,  but  neither  this 
pleasure  nor  any  other,  he  said,  Avas  equal  to  that  of  seefng  the  sun  rise  again 
above  the  horizon  after  the  long  winter's  night. 

It  is  a  singular  custom  that  the  pastors  preaching  to  the  Lapps  deliver  their 
harangues  in  a  tone  of  voice  as  elevated  as  if  their  audience,  instead  of  being 
assembled  in  a  small  chapel,  were  stationed  upon  the  top  of  a  distant  mount- 
ain, and  labor  as  if  they  were  going  to  burst  a  bloodvessel.  Dr,  Clarke,  who 
listened  to  one  of  these  sermons,  which  lasted  one  hour  and  twenty  minutes, 
ventured  to  ask  the  reason  of  the  very  loud  tone  of  voice  used  in  preaching. 
The  minister  said  he  was  aware  that  it  must  appear  extraordinary  to  a 
stranger,  but  that,  if  he  were  to  address  the  Laplanders  in  a  lower  key,  th|y 
would  consider  him  as  a  feeble  and  impotent  missionary,  wholly  unfit  for  bis 
office,  and  would  never  come  to  church ;  that  the  merit  and  abilities  of  the 
preacher,  like  that  of  many  a  popular  politician,  are  always  estimated  by  the 
strength  and  power  of  his  lungs. 

Though  the  Lapps  (thanks  to  the  efforts  of  their  spiritual  guides)  hardly 
even  remember  by  name  the  gods  of  their  fathers — Aija,  Akka,  Tuona — they 
still  pay  a  secret  homage  to  the  Saidas,or  idols  of  wood  or  stone,  to  whom  they 
were  accustomed  to  sacrifice  the  bones  and  horns  of  the  reindeer.  They  are  in 
fact  an  extremely  superstitious  race,  faithfully  believing  in  ghosts,  Avitchcraft, 
and  above  all  in  Stallo,  or  Troller,  the  evil  spirit  of  the  woods. 

Many  of  them,  when  about  to  go  hunting,  tlwow  a  stick  into  the  air,  and 
then  take  their  way  in  the  direction  to  which  it  points.  The  appearance  of 
the  Aurora  borealis  fills  them  with  terror,  as  they  believe  it  to  be  a  sign  of 
divine  wrath,  and   generally  shout   and  howl   during  the  whole  duration  of 


158  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

the  grand  phenomenon,  which  their  ignorance  connects  with  their  own  petty  ex- 
istence. 

The  pretended  gift  of  being  able  to  predict  future  events  is  common  among 
the  Laplanders.  The  sorcerers  fall  into  a  magic  sleep,  during  which  their  soul 
wanders.  In  this  state,  like  the  somnambules  of  more  polished  nations,  they  re- 
veal things  to  come  or  see  what  passes  at  a  distance.  Men  and  women  affect 
the  power  of  fortune-telling  by  the  common  trick  of  palmistry,  or  by  the  inspec- 
tion of  a  cup  of  liquor ;  and  this,  to  insure  the  greatest  possible  certainty,  must 
be  a  cup  of  brandy,  which  at  once  explains  the  whole  business  of  the  prophecy. 
The  Lapland  witches  pretended,  or  perhaps  still  pretend,  to  the  power  of  still- 
ino-  the  wind  or  causing  the  rain  to  cease,  and  such  was  their  reputation  that 
English  seamen  trading  to  Archangel  made  it  a  point  to  land  and  buy  a  wind 
from  these  poor  creatures. 

The  Lapps  are  a  dwarfish  race.  On  an  average,  the  men  do  not  exceed  five 
feet  in  height,  many  not  even  reaching  four,  and  the  women  are  considerably 
less.  Most  of  them  are,  however,  very  robust,  the  circumference  of  their  chest 
nearly  equalling  their  height.  Their  complexion  is  more  or  less  tawny  and 
copper-colored,  their  hair  dark,  straight,  and  lank,  its  dangling  masses  adding 
much  to  the  wildness  of  their  aspect.  They  have  very  little  beard,  and  as  its 
want  is  considered  a  beauty,  the  young  men  carefully  eradicate  the  scanty  su])- 
ply  given  them  by  nature. 

Their  dark  piercing  eyes  are  generally  deep  sunk  in  their  heads,  widely  sep- 
arated from  each  other,  and,  like  those  of  the  Tartars  or  Chinese,  obliquely  slit 
towards  the  temples.  The  cheek-bones  are  high,  the  mouth  pinched  close,  but 
Avide,  the  nose  flat.  The  eyes  are  generally  sore,  either  in  consequence  of  the 
biting  smoke  of  their  huts  or  of  the  refraction  from  the  snow,  so  that  a  Lapp 
seldom  attains  a  high  age  without  becoming  blind.  Their  countenances  gener- 
ally present  a  repulsive  combination  of  stolidity,  low  cunning,  and  obstinacy. 
Hotrguer,  who  dwelt  several  months  among  them,  and  saw  during  this  time  at 
least  800  Lapps,  found  not  twenty  Avho  were  not  decidedly  ugly ;  and  Dr.  Clarke 
says  that  many  of  them,  when  more  advanced  in  years,  might,  if  exhibited  in  a 
menagerie  of  wild  beasts,  be  considered  as  the  long-lost  link  between  man  and 
ape. 

Their  legs  are  extremely  thick  and  clumsy,  but  their  hands  are  as  small  and 
finely  shaped  as  those  of  any  aristrocrat.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  from  gen- 
eration to  genei-ation  they  never  perform  any  manual  labor,  and  the  very  trifling 
work  w^hich  they  do  is  necessarily  of  the  lightest  kind.  Their  limbs  are  singular- 
ly flexible,  easily  falling  into  any  posture,  like  all  the  Oriental  nations,  and  their 
hands  are  constantly  occupied  in  the  beginning  of  conversation  with  filling  a 
short  tobacco-pipe,  the  head  being  turned  over  one  shoulder  to  the  person  ad- 
dressed. Such  are  the  traits  by  which  the  whole  tribe  is  di^inguished  from 
the  other  inhabitants  of  Europe,  and  in  which  they  differ  from  the  other  natives 
of  the  land  in  which  they  live.. 

The  summer  garb  of  the  men  consists  of  the  "  poesk,"  a  sort  of  tunic,  gener- 
ally made  of  a  very  coarse  light-colored  woollen  cloth,  reaching  to  the  knees,  and 
fastened  round  the  waist  with  a  belt  or  girdle.     Their  woollen  caps  are  shaped 


THE    LAPPS.  159 

precisely  like  a  niglit-cap,  or  a  Turkish  fez,  with  a  red  tassel  and  red  worsted 
band  round  the  rim,  for  they  are  fond  of  lively  hues  strongly  contrasted. 
Their  boots  or  shoes  are  made  of  the  raw  skin  of  the  reindeer,  with  the  hair 
outward,  and  have  a  peaked  shape.  Though  these  shoes  are  very  thin,  and  the 
Lapp  wears  no  stockings,  yet  he  is  never  annoyed  by  the  cold  or  by  striking 
against  stones,  as  he  stuffs  them  with  the  broad  leaves  of  the  Carex  vesicarla, 
or  cyperus  grass,  which  he  cuts  in  summer  and  dries.  This  he  first  combs  and 
rubs  in  his  hands,  and  then  places  it  in  such  a  manner  that  it  covers  not  only 
his  feet  but  his  legs  also,  and,  being  thus  guarded,  he  is  quite  secure  against 
the  intense  cold.  With  this  grass,  which  is  an  admirable  non-conductor  of  heat, 
he  likewise  stuffs  his  gloves  in  order  to  preserve  his  hands.  But  as  it  wards 
off  the  cold  in  Avinter,  so  in  summer  it  keeps  the  feet  cool,  and  is  consequently 
used  at  all  seasons.  The  women's  apparel  differs  very  little  from  that  of  the 
other  sex,  but  their  girdles  are  more  ornamented  Avith  rings  and  chains.  In 
winter  both  sexes  are  so  packed  up  in  skins  as  to  look  more  like  bears  than 
human  beings,  and,  when  squatting  according  to  the  fashion  of  their  country, 
exhibit  a  mound  of  furs,  with  the  head  resting  upon  the  top  of  it. 

According  to  their  different  mode  of  life,  the  Lapps  may  be  aptly  subdivided 
into  Fjalllappars,  or  Mountain  Lapps ;  Skogslappars,  or  Wood  Lapps ;  and 
Fisherlapps. 

The  Fjalllappars,  who  form  the  greater  and  most  characteristic  part  of  the 
nation,  lead  an  exclusively  pastoral  life,  and  are  constantly  wandering  with  their 
herds  of  reindeer  from  place  to  place,  for  the  lichen  Avhich  forms  the  chief  food 
of  these  animals  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year  is  soon  cropped  from  the 
niggard  soil,  and  requires  years  for  its  reproduction.  For  this  reason,  also,  this 
people  do  not  herd  together,  and  never  more  than  three  or  four  families  pitch 
their  huts,  or  tuguria,  upon  the  same  spot.  Of  course  the  dwelling  of  the  no- 
mad Lapp  harmonizes  Avith  his  vagrant  habits  ;  a  rude  tent,  Avhich  can  easily 
be  taken  to  pieces,  and  as  easily  erected,  is  all  he  requires  to  shelter  his  family 
and  chattels.  It  consists  of  flexible  stems  of  trees,  placed  together  in  a  conical 
form,  like  a  stack  of  poles  for  hops,  and  covered  in  the  summer  Avith  a  coarse 
cloth,  in  winter  Avith  additional  skins,  to  be  better  fenced  against  the  inclemencies 
of  the  climate.  To  form  the  entrance,  a  part  of  the  hanging,  about  eighteen 
inches  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  terminating  upward  in  a  point,  is  made  to  turn 
back  as  upon  hinges.  The  hearth,  consisting  of  several  lai-ge  stones,  is  in  the 
centre,  and  in  the  roof  immediately  above  it  is  a  square  opening  for  the  escape 
of  smoke  and  the  admission  of  rain,  snow,  and  air.  All  the  light  which  the  den 
receives  AA'hen  the  door  is  closed  comes  from  this  hole.  The  diameter  of  one 
of  these  conical  huts  generally  measures  at  its  base  no  more  than  six  feet ;  its 
Avhole  circumference,  of  course,  does  not  exceed  eighteen  feet,  and  its  extreme 
height  may  be  about  ten  feet.  The  floor  is  very  nearly  covered  Avith  reindeer 
skins,  on  Avhich  the  inmates  squat  during  the  day  and  sleep  at  nights,  contract- 
ing their  limbs  together  and  huddling  round  their  hearth,  so  that  each  individ- 
ual of  this  pigmy  race  occupies  scarcely  more  space  than  a  dog.  On  the  side  of 
the  tent  are  suspended  a  number  of  pots,  Avooden  boAvls,  and  other  household 
utensils ;  and  a  small  chest  contains  the  holiday  apparel  of  the  family.     Such 


160  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

are  the  dwellings  of  those  among  the  Laplanders  who  are  called  wealthy,  and 
who  sometimes  possess  very  considerable  property. 

Near  the  tent  is  the  dairy  or  store-house  of  the  establishment.  It  consists  of 
nothino-  more  than  a  shelf  or  platform,  raised  between  two  trees,  so  as  to  be 
out  of  the  reach  of  the  dogs  or  wolves.  The  means  of  ascent  to  this  treasury 
of  curds,  cheese,  and  dried  reindeer  flesh,  is  simply  a  tree  stripped  of  its 
branches,  but  presenting  at  every  foot  or  so  knobs,  which  serve  the  same  pur- 
pose as  staves  on  a  ladder,  the  tree  being  obHquely  reared  against  the  platform. 
Another  characteristic  feature  of  a  Lapp  encampment  is  found  in  the  inclos- 
ures  in  which  the  reindeer  are  penned  during  the  night  or  for  the  purpose  of 
milking.  These  are  circus-like  open  places,  each  of  a  diameter  of  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  are  formed  by  stumps  of  trees  and  poles  set  upright 
on  the  ground,  and  linked  together  by  horizontal  poles.  Against  the  latter  are 
reared  birch  poles  and  branches  of  trees,  varying  from  six  to  ten  feet  in  heiglit, 
without  the  shghtest  attempt  at  neatness,  the  whole  being  as  rude  as  well  can 

be a  sufficient  security  against  the  wolves  being  all  that  its  builders  desire. 

The  milking  of  a  herd  of  reindeer  presents  a  most  animated  scene.  When 
they  have  been  driven  within  the  inclosure,  and  all  outlets  are  secured,  a  Lapp, 
selecting  a  long  thong  or  cord,  takes  a  turn  of  both  ends  round  his  left  hand, 
and  then  gathers  what  sailors  call  the  bight  in  loose  folds,  held  in  his  right.  He 
now  singles  out  a  reindeer,  and  throws  the  bight  with  unerring  aim  over  the 
antlers  of  the  victim.  Sometimes  the  latter  makes  no  resistance,  but  in  general 
the  moment  it  feels  the  touch  of  the  thong  it  breaks  away  from  the  spot,  and 
is  only  secured  by  the  most  strenuous  exertions.  Every  minute  may  be  seen 
an  unusually  powerful  deer  furiously  dragging  a  Lapp  round  and  round  the  in- 
closure, and  sometimes  it  fairly  overcomes  the  restraint  of  the  thong,  and  leaves 
its  antagonist  prostrate  on  the  sod.  This  part  of  the  scene  is  highly  exciting, 
and  it  is  impossible  not  to  admire  the  trained  skill  evinced  by  all  the  Lapps, 
women  as  well  as  men.  The  resistance  of  the  deer  being  overcome,  the  Lapp 
takes  a  dexterous  hitch  of  the  thong  round  his  muzzle  and  head,  and  then  fastens 
him  to  the  trunk  of  a  prostrate  tree,  many  of  which  have  been  brought  within 
the  level  inclosure  for  that  especial  purpose.  Men  and  women  are  indiscrimi- 
nately engaged  both  in  singling  out  milch  reins  and  in  milking  them.  Every 
one  is  fully  occupied,  for  even  the  little  children  are  practising  the  throwing  of 
'the  lasso,  in  which  they  evince  great  dexterity,  although  their  strength  is  insuf- 
ficient to  hold  the  smallest  doe. 

When  the  pasture  in  the  neighborhood  is  fully  exhausted,  which  generally 
takes  place  in  about  a  fortnight,  tfie  encampment  is  broken  up,  to  be  erected 
again  on  some  other  spot.  In  less  than  half  an  hour  the  tent  is  taken  to  pieces, 
and  packed  with  all  the  household  furniture  upon  the  backs  of  reindeer,  who  by 
long  training  acquire  the  capacity  of  serving  as  beasts  of  burden.  On  the 
journey  they  are  bound  together,  five  and  five,  with  thongs  of  leather,  and  led 
by  the  women  over  the  mountains,  Avhile  the  father  of  the  family  precedes  the 
march  to  select  a  proper  i)lace  for  the  new  encampment,  and  his  sons  or  serv- 
ants follow  with  the  remainder  of  the  herd. 

Towards  the  end  of  spring  the  Lapps  descend  from  the  mountains  to  the 


THE   LAPPS.  161 

sea.  When  they  approach  its  borders,  the  reindeer,  sniffing  the  sea  air  from  a 
distance,  rush  tumultuously  to  the  fjord,  where  they  take  long  draughts  of  the 
salted  water.  This,  as  the  Lapps  believe,  is  essential  to  their  health.  As  the 
summer  advances,  and  the  snow  melts,  they  ascend  higher  and  higher  into  the 
mountains.  At  the  approach  of  winter  they  retreat  into  the  woods,  where, 
with  the  assistance  of  their  dogs  and  servants,  they  have  enough  to  do  to  keep 
off  the  attacks  of  the  wolves.  The  reindeer  dog  is  about  the  size  of  a  Scotch 
terriei-,  bnt  his  head  bears  a  wonderful  resemblance  to  that  of  the  lynx.  His 
color  varies  considerably,  but  the  hair  is  always  long  and  shaggy.  Invaluable 
as  are  his  services,  he  is  nevertheless  treated  with  great  cruelty. 

For  their  winter  journeys  the  Lapps  use  sledges  or  skates.  One  of  their 
skates,  or  "  skiders,"  is  usually  as  long  as  the  jDerson  who  wears  it ;  the  other  is 
about  a  foot  shorter.  The  feet  stand  in  the  middle,  and  to  them  the  skates 
are  fastened  by  thongs  or  withes.  The  skiders  are  made  of  fir-wood,  and  cov- 
ered with  the  skins  of  young  reindeer,  which  obstruct  a  retrograde  movement 
by  acting  like  bristles  against  the  snow — the  roots  pointing  towards  the  fore 
part  of  the  skate,  and  thus  preventing  their  slipping  back.  With  these  skiders, 
the  Lapp  flies  like  a  bird  over  the;  snow,  now  scaling  the  mountains  by  a  tortu- 
ous ascent,  and  now  darting  down  into  the  valley : 

Ocior  cervis  et  agente  nimbos 
Ocior  Euro. 

Such  is  the  rapidity  of  his  course  that  he  will  overtake  the  swiftest  wild 
beasts  ;  and  so  violent  the  exercise  that,  during  the  most  rigorous  season  of  the 
year,  when  earnestly  engaged  in  the  chase,  he  will  divest  himself  of  his  furs. 
A  long  pole  with  a  round  ball  of  wood  near  the  end,  to  prevent  its  piercing  too 
deep  in  the  snow,  serves  to  stop  the  skater's  course  Avhen  he  wishes  to  rest. 
The  Laplander  is  no  less  expert  in  the  use  of  the  sledge,  or  "  pulka,"  w^hich  is 
made  in  the  form  of  a  small  boat  with  a  convex  bottom,  that  it  may  slide  all 
the  more  easily  over  the  snow ;  the  prow  is  sharp  and  pointed,  but  the  sledge  is 
flat  behind.  The  traveller  is  swathed  in  this  cai-riage  like  an  infant  in  a  cradle, 
with  a  stick  in  his  hand  to  steer  the  vessel,  and  disengage  it  from  the  stones  or 
stumps  of  trees  which  it  may  chance  to  encounter  in  the  route.  He  must  also 
balance  the  sledge  Avith  his  body,  to  avoid  the  danger  of  being  overturned. 
The  traces  by  which  this  carriage  is  fastened  to  the  reindeer  are  fixed  to  a  col- 
lar about  the  animal's  neck,  and  run  down  over  the  breast  between  the  fore  and 
hind  legs,  to  be  connected  with  the  prow  of  the  sledge ;  the  reins  managed  by 
the  traveller  are  tied  to  the  horns,  and  the  trappings  are  furnished  Avith  little 
bells,  the  sound  of  which  the  animal  likes.  With  this  draught  at  his  tail,  the 
reindeer  will  travel  sixty  or  seventy  English  miles  in  a  day ;  often  persevering 
fifty  miles  without  intermission,  and  without  taking  any  refreshment,  except 
occasionally  moistening  his  mouth  with  the  snow.  His  Lapland  driver  knows 
how  to  find  his  way  through  the  Avilderness  with  a  surprising  certainty ;  here  a 
rock,  there  a  fir-tree,  is  impressed  as  a  landmark  on  his  faithful  memory,  and 
thus,  like  the  best  pilot,  he  steers  his  sledge  to  the  distant  end  of  his  journey. 
Frequently  the  Aurora  lights  him  on  his  way,  illumining  the  snow-covered 

11 


163  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

landscape  with  a  magic  brilliancy,  and  investing  every  object  with  a  dream-like, 
supernatural  beauty. 

But  even  without  the  aid  of  this  mysterious  coruscation,  Lapland  is  rich  in 
grand  and  picturesque  features,  and  has  all  the  romance  of  the  mountain  and 
the  forest.  In  summer  countless  rivulets  meander  through  valleys  of  alpine 
verdure,  and  broad  pellucid  rivers  rush  down  the  slopes  in  thundering  cataracts, 
embracing  islands  clothed  with  pine-trees  of  incomparable  dignity  and  grace. 
Whoever  has  grown  up  in  scenes  like  these,  and  been  accustomed  from  infancy 
to  the  uncontrolled  freedom  of  the  nomad  state,  receives  impressions  never  to 
be  erased ;  and  thus  we  can  not  wonder  that  the  wild  Laplander  believes  his 
country  to  be  a  terrestrial  paradise,  and  feels  nowhere  happy  but  at  home. 

Li  the  year  1819  a  Scotch  gentleman  attempted  to  acclimatize  the  reindeer 
in  Scotland,  and  induced  two  young  Laplanders  to  accompany  the  herd  Avhich 
he  had  bought  for  that  purpose.  The  reindeer  soon  perished,  and  the  Lap- 
landers would  have  died  of  nostalgia  if  they  had  not  been  sent  home  by  the  first ' 
opportunity.  Prince  Jablonowsky,  a  Polish  nobleman,  who  travelled  about 
thirty  years  since  through  a  part  of  Russian  Lapland,  took  a  Lapp  girl  with 
him  to  St.  Petersburg.  He  gave  her  a  superior  education,,  and  she  was  well 
treated  in  every  respect.  She  made  rapid  progress,  and  seemed  to  be  perfectly 
reconciled  to  her  new  home.  About  two  years  after  her  iarrival,  it  happened 
that  a  Russian  gentleman,  who  possessed  extensive  estates  near  the  capital, 
bought  a  small  herd  of  reindeer,  which  arrived  under  the  guidance  of  a  Lapp 
family.  As  it  was  winter-time,  and  these  people  had  brought  with  them  their 
tents,  their  sledges,  and  their  snow-shoes,  they  soon  became  objects  of  curiosity, 
and  crowds  of  fashionable  yisitors  flocked  to  their  encampment ;  among  others, 
the  good-natured  prince,  who  imprudently  conducted  his  pupil,  the  young  Lap- 
land girl,  to  see  her  countrymen,  an  interview  which  he  supposed-  would  give 
her  great  pleasure.  But  from  that  moment  she  became  an  altered  being ;  she 
lost  her  spirits  and  her  appetite,  and,  in  spite  of  every  care  and  attention,  her  . 
health  declmed  from  day  to  day.  One  morning  she  disappeared,  and  it  was 
found  on  inquiry  that  she  had  returned  to  her  family,  where  she  remained  ever 
after. 

Another  very  remarkable  instance  of  the  Laplanders'  love  of  their  country 
is  related  by  Hogstrora.  During  the  war  of  Gustavus  III.  with  Russia,  a 
young  Lajilander  enlisted  in  a  regiment  Avhich  was  passing  through  Tornea. 
He  served  in  several  campaigns  as  a  common  soldier,  was  made  a  sergeant  in 
consequence  of  his  good  conduct  and  courage ;  and  having  given  himself  the 
greatest  trouble  to  improve  his  education  and  acquire  .militaiy  knowledge,  at 
length,  after  twenty  years  of  service,  attained  the  rank  of  captain  in  the  Swedish 
army.  After  this  long  time  spent  in  the  civilized  world,  and  having  become  ac- 
customed to  all  its  enjoyments  and  comforts,  he  felt  a  strong  desire  to  revisit 
his  family  and  his  country.  Scarcely  had  he  seen  his  native  mountains,  and 
spent  a  few  days  among  his  countrymen  and  the  reindeer,  than  he  at  once  quit- 
ted the  service,  and  resumed  the  nomad  life  of  his  youth. 

The  Laplander's  chief  desire  is  for  peace  and  tranquillity.  Exposed  to  all 
the  privations  of  a  vagrant  life,  and  to  every  inclemency  of  weather,  he  endures 


THE  LAPPS.  163 

the  greatest  hardships  with  equanimity,  desiring  only  not  to  be  disturbed  in  the 
enjoyment  of  the  little  that  is  his — not  to  be  interfered  with  in  his  old  customs 
and  habits. 

Yet  this  same  peaceful  Laplander,  who  has  so  easily  submitted  to  a  foreign 
yoke,  is  one  of  the  boldest  hunters,  and  not  only  pursues  the  elk  or  the  wild 
reindeer,  but  engages  in  single  combat  with  the  bear.  Like  all  the  other  Arctic 
nations  of  Russia  and  Siberia,  he  has  strange  notions  about  this  animal,  which 
in  his  opinion  is  the  most  cunning  and  gifted  of  all  created  beings.  Thus  he 
supposes  that  the  bear  knows  and  hears  all  that  is  said  about  him,  and  for  this 
reason  he  takes  good  care  never  to  speak  of  him  disrespectfully.  It  may  seem 
strange  that  he  should  venture  to  slay  an  animal  which  ranks  so  high  in  his  es- 
teem ;  but  the  temptation  is  too  strong,  as  its  flesh  has  an  excellent  flavor,  and 
its  fur,  though  not  near  so  valuable  as  that  of  the  American  black  bear,  is  still 
worth  from  fifteen  to  twenty  dollars. 

At  the  beginning  of  winter,  the  bear,  as  is  well  known,  retires  either  into  a 
rocky  cave,  or  under  a  cover  of  branches,  leaves,  and  moss,  and  remains  there 
without  food,  and  plunged  in  sleep  until  the  next  spring  recalls  him  to  a  more 
active  existence.  After  the  first  fall  of  snow,  the  Lapp  hunters  go  into  the  for- 
est and  look  out  for  traces  of  the  beai-.  Having  found  them,  they  carefully 
mark  the  spot,  and  returning  after  a  few  weeks  disturb  the  slumbering  brute, 
and  excite  him  to  an  attack.  It  is  not  considered  honorable  to  shoot  him 
while  sleeping ;  and  in  many  parts  of  Lapland  the  hunter  who  would  kill  a  bear 
with  any  other  weapon  but  a  lance  would  be  universally  despised,  Hogguer 
accompanied  two  Lapps,  well-armed  with  axes  and  stout  lances  with  barbed 
points,  on  one  of  these  bear-hunts.  When  about  a  hundred  paces  from  the 
lair  the  company  halted,  while  one  of  the  Lapps  advanced  shouting,  telling  his 
comrades  to  make  as  much  noise  as  they  could.  When  about  twenty  paces 
from  the  cavern,  he  stood  still  and  flung  sevei-al  stones  into  it.  For  some  time 
all  was  quiet,  so  that  Hogguer  began  to  fear  that  the  lair  was  deserted,  when 
suddenly  an  angry  growl  was  heard.  The  hunters  now  redoubled  their  clamor, 
until  slowly,  like  an  honest  citizen  disturbed  in  his  noonday  slumbers,  the  bear 
came  out  of  his  cavern.  But  this  tranquillity  did  not  last  long,  for  the  brute,  as 
soon  as  he  perceived  his  nearest  enemy,  uttered  a  short  roar  and  rushed  upon 
him.  The  Lapp  coolly  awaited  the  onset  with  his  lance  in  rest,  until  the  bear, 
coming  quite  near,  raised  himself  on  his  haunches  and  began  to  strike  at  him 
with  his  fore  paws.  The  hunter  bent  down  to  avoid  the  strokes,  and  then  sud- 
denly rising,  with  a  sure  eye  and  with  all  his  might,  plunged 'his  lance  into  the 
heart  of  the  bear.  During  this  short  conflict  the  Lapp  had  received  a  slight 
wound  on  the  hand,  but  the  marks  of  the  bear's  teeth  were  found  deeply  im- 
pressed upon  the  iron  of  the  lance.  According  to  an  ancient  custom,  the  wives 
of  the  hunters  assemble  in  the  hut  of  one  of  them  ;  and  as  soon  as  they  hear  the 
returning  sportsmen,  begin  chanting  or  howling  a  song  in  praise  of  the  bear. 
When  the  men,  laden  with  the  skin  and  flesh  of  the  animal,  approach,  they  are  re- 
ceived by  the  women  with  opprobrious  epithets,  and  forbidden  ingress  through 
the  door ;  so  that  they  are  obliged  to  make  a  hole  in  the  wall,  through  which 
they  enter  with  their  spoils.     This  comedy,  which  is  meant  to  pacify  the  manes 


164  THE   POLAR   WORLD, 

of  the  victim,  is  still  acted,  though  not  so  frequently  as  formerly ;  but  the  cus- 
tom of  beyging  the  bear's  pardon  with  many  tears  is  completely  out  of  date. 
The  animal's  interment,  however,  still  takes  place  with  all  the  ancient  honors 
and  ceremonies.  After  having  been  skinned,  and  its  flesh  cut  off,  the  body  is 
buried  in  anatomical  order — the  head  first,  then  the  neck,  the  fore  paw,  etc.  This 
is  done  from  a  belief  in  the  resurrection  of  the  bear,  who  having  been  decently 
buried,  will,  it  is  hoped,  allow  himself  to  be  killed  a  second  time  by  the  same 
Lapp;  while  a  neglect  of  the  honors  due  to  him  would  exasperate  the  whole 
race  of  bears,  and  cause  them  to  wreak  a  bloody  vengeance  on  the  disrespectful 
hunter. 

The  wolf  is  treated  with  much  less  ceremony.  Many  a  wealthy  Lapp,  the 
owner  of  a  thousand  reindeer,  has  been  reduced  to  poverty  by  the  ravages  of  this 
savage  beast,  which  is  constantly  prowling  about  the  herds.  Hence  one  of  the 
first  questions  they  put  to  each  other  when  they  meet  is,  "  Lekor  rauhe  ?"  "  Is 
it  peace  ?" — which  means  nothing  more  than,  "  Have  the  wolves  molested  you  ?" 
Such  is  their  detestation  of  these  animals  that  they  believe  them  to  be  creatures 
of  the  devil,  contaminating  all  that  touches  them  while  alive.  Thus  they  will 
never  shoot  a  wolf,  as  the  gun  that  killed  him  would  ever  after  be  accursed. 

At  the  first  alarm  that  wolves  have  appeared,  the  neighbors  assemble,  and 
the  chase  begins.  For  miles  they  pursue  him  over  hills  and  valleys  on  their 
"  skiders,"  and  kill  him  with  clubs,  Avhich  they  afterwards  burn.  They  will  not 
even  defile  themselves  with  skinning  him,  but  leave  his  hide  to  the  Finnish  or 
Russian  colonists,  who,  being  less  scrupulous  or  superstitious,  make  a  warm 
cloak  of  it,  or  sell  it  for  a  few  dollars  at  the  fair. 

Among  the  Fjall  Lapps  there  are  many  rich  owners  of  1000  or  1500  rein- 
deer, 300  of  which  fully  suftice  for  the  maintenance  of  a  family.  In  this  case 
the  owner  is  able  to  kill  as  many  as  are  necessary  for  providing  his  household 
with  food  and  raiment,  while  the  sale  of  the  superfluous  skins  and  horns  enables 
him  to  purchase  cloth,  flour,  hardware,  and  other  necessary  articles — not  to  for- 
get the  tobacco  or  the  brandy  in  which  he  delights.  The  price  of  the  entire 
carcass  of  a  reindeer,  skin  and  all,  varies  from  one  to  three  dollars  Norsk  (four 
shillings  and  sixpence  to  thirteen  shillings  and  sixpence).  A  fine  skin  will  al- 
ways sell  for  one  dollar  in  any  part  of  the  North.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  a 
Lapp  possessing  a  herd  of  500  or  1000  deer  is  virtually  a  capitalist  in  every 
sense  of  the  word,  far  richer  than  the  vast  majority  of  his  Norwegian,  Swedish, 
or  Eussian  fellow-subjects,  although  they  all  affect  to  look  upon  him  with  su- 
preme contempt." 

The  daily  food  of  the  mountain  Laplanders  consists  of  the  fattest  reindeer 
venison,  which  they  boil,  and  eat  with  the  broth  in  which  it  has  been  cooked. 
Their  summer  diet  consists  of  cheese  and  reindeer-milk.  The  rich  also  eat 
bread  baked  upon  hot  iron  plates. 

Their  mode  of  killing  the  reindeer  is  the  method  used  by  the  butchers  in  the 
South  of  Italy — the  most  ancient  and  best  method  of  slaying  cattle,  because  it 
is  attended  with  the  least  pain  to  the  animal,  and  the  greatest  profit  to  its  pos- 
sessor, Tliey  thrust  a  sharp-jiointed  knife  into  the  back  part  of  the  head  be- 
tween the  horns,  so  as  to  divide  the  spinal  marrow  from  the  brain.     The  beast 


THE    LAPPS.  165 

instantly  drops,  and  dies  without  a  groan  or  struggle.  As  soon  as  it  falls,  and 
appears  to  be  dead,  the  Laplander  plunges  the  knife  dexterously  behind  the  off- 
shoulder  into  the  heart ;  then  opening  the  animal,  its  blood  is  found  in  the  stom- 
ach, and  ladled  out  into  a  pot.     Boiled  with  fat  and  flour,  it  is  a  favorite  dish. 

An  important  epoch  in  the  life  of  the  Fjall  Lapp  is  his  annual  visit  to  one 
of  the  winter  fairs  held  in  the  chief  towns  or  villages  which  the  more  industri- 
ous Swedes,  Norwegians,  or  Fins  have  founded  on  the  coasts  here  and  there,  or 
in  the  well-watered  valleys  of  his  fatherland,  and  which  he  attends  frequent^}' 
from  an  immense  distance.  After  a  slight  duty  to  Government  has  been  paid, 
business  begins  ;  but  as  every  bargain  is  ratified  with  a  full  glass  of  brandy,  his 
thoughts  get  confused  before  the  day  is  half  over — a  circumstance  which  the 
cunning  merchant  does  not  fail  to  turn  to  account.  On  awaking  the  next  morn- 
ing, the  vexation  of  the  nomad  at  his  bad  bargains  is  so  much  the  greater,  as  no 
people  are  more  avowed  mammon- worshippers  than  the  Lapps,  or  more  inclined 
to  sing,  with  our  Burns  : — 

0  wae  on  the  siller,  it  is  sae  prevailin  '! 

Their  sole  object  seems  to  be  the  amassing  of  treasure  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
hoarding  it.  The  avarice  of  a  Lapp  is  gratified  in  collecting  a  number  of  silver 
vessels  or  pieces  of  silver  coin ;  and  being  unable  to  carry  this  treasure  with 
him  on  his  journeys,  he  buries  the  whole,  not  even  making  his  wife  acquainted 
with  the  secret  of  its  deposit,  so  that  when  he  dies  the  members  of  his  family 
are  often  unable  to  discover  where  he  has  hidden  it.  Some  of  the  Lapps  pos- 
sess a  hundred-weight  of  silver,  and  those  who  own  1500  or  1000  reindeer  have 
much  more ;  in  short,  an  astonishing  quantity  of  specie  is  dispersed  among 
them.  Silver  plate,  when  offered  to  them  for  sale,  must  be  in  a  polished  state, 
or  they  will  not  buy  it ;  for  such  is  their  ignorance,  that  when  the  metal,  by 
being  kept  buried,  becomes  tarnished,  they  conceive  that  its  value  is  impaired, 
and  exchange  it  for  other  silver,  which  being  repolished,  they  believe  to  be 
new.    The  merchants  derive  great  benefit  from  this  trafiic. 

Brandy  and  tobacco  are  the  chief  luxuries  of  the  Lapps.  The  tobacco-pipe 
is  never  laid  aside  except  during  meals ;  it  is  even  used  by  the  women,  who 
also  swallow  spirits  as  greedily  as  the  men  ;  in  fact,  both  sexes  will  almost  part 
with  life  itself  for  the  gratification  of  dram-drinking.  If  you  walk  up  to  a 
Lapp,  uncouthly  squatted  before  his  tent,  his  very  first  salutation  is  made  by 
stretching  forth  a  tawny  hand  and  demanding,  in  a  whining  tone,  "  Tabak"  or 
"  Braendi."  Dr.  Clarke  relates  an  amusing  instance  of  their  propensity  for 
spirituous  liquors.  On  his  very  first  visit  to  one  of  their  tents,  he  gave  the  fa- 
ther of  the  family  about  a  pint  of  brandy,  thinking  he  would  husband  it  with 
great  care,  as  he  had  seen  him  place  it  behind  him  upon  his  bed  near  the  skirt- 
ing of  the  tent.  The  daughter  now  entered,  and  begged  for  a  taste  of  the 
brandy,  as  she  had  lost  her  share  by  being  absent.  The  old  man  made  no  an- 
swer, but  when  the  request  Avas  repeated,  he  slyly  crept  round  the  outside  of  the 
tent  until  he  came  to  the  spot  where  the  brandy  was,  when,  thrusting  his  arm 
beneath  the  skirting,  he  drew  it  out,  and  swallowed  the  whole  contents  of  the 
bottle  at  a  drauolit. 


166  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

The  practice  of  dram-drinking  is  so  general  that  mothers  pour  the  horrid 
dose  down  the  throats  of  their  infants.  Their  christenings  and  funerals  be- 
come mere  pretexts  for  indjilging  in  brandy.  But  their  mild  and  pacific  dis- 
position shows  itself  in  their  drunkenness,  which  is  manifested  only  in  howling, 
jumping,  and  laughing,  and  in  a  craving  for  more  drams  with  hysteric  screams 
until  they  fall  senseless  on  the  ground — while  at  the  same  time  they  will  suffer 
kicks,  cuffs,  blows,  and  provocations  of  any  kind  without  the  smallest  irasci- 
bility. When  sober  they  are  as  gentle  as  lambs,  and  the  softness  of  their  lan- 
guage, added  to  their  effeminate  shrill  tone  of  voice,  remarkably  corresponds 
Avith  their  placable  disposition.  An  amiable  trait  in  the  character  of  the  La])p 
is  the  warmth  of  his  affection  towards  his  wife,  his  children,  and  his  dejDeud- 
ents.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  cordiality  of  their  mutual  greetings  after  sep- 
arations, and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  but  few  married  men  in  England  could 
match  the  Lapp  husband  who  assured  Castren  that  during  thirty  years  of  wed- 
lock no  worse  word  had  passed  between  himself  and  his  wife  than  "  Loddad- 
sham,"  or  "  My  little  bird." 

In  spite  of  his  fatiguing  life,  and  the  insufficient  shelter  afforded  him  by  his 
hut,  the  Fjall  Lapp  is  generally  vigorous  and  healthy,  and  not  seldom  lives  to 
a  hundred  years  age.  Continual  exercise  in  the  open  air  braces  his  constitu- 
tion, his  warm  clothing  protects  him  against  the  cold  of  winter,  and  his  gen- 
erous meat  diet  maintains  his  strength.  To  prevent  the  scurvy,  he  eats  the 
lierries  of  the  Empetrum  nigrum  or  liubus  chammmorus,  and  mixes  the  stems 
of  the  Angelica  among  his  food.  But  his  chief  remedy  against  this  and  every 
other  bodily  evil  is  warm  reindeer-blood,  which  he  drinks  with  delight  as  a 
universal  panacea. 

The  Skogs  Lapp,  or  Forest  Lapp,  occupies  an  intermediate  grade  between 
the  Fjall  Lapp  and  the  Fisher  Lapp,  as  fishing  is  his  summer  occupation,  and 
hunting  and  the  tending  of  his  reindeer  that  of  the  winter  months.  His  herds 
not  being  so  numerous  as  those  of  the  Fjall  Lapp,  he  is  not  driven  to  constant 
migration  to  procure  them  food ;  but  they  require  more  care  than  his  divided 
pursuits  allow  him  to  bestow  upon  them,  and  hence  he  inevitably  descends  to 
the  condition  of  the  Fisher  Lapp.  Lastadius  describes  his  life  as  one  of  the 
happiest  on  earth — as  a  constant  change  between  the  agreeable  pastime  of  fish- 
ing and  the  noble  amusement  of  the  chase.  He  is  not,  like  the  Mountain  Lapp, 
exposed  to  all  the  severity  of  the  Arctic  winter,  nor  so  poor  as  the  Fisher 
Lapp.     He  is  often  heard  to  sing  under  the  green  canopy  of  the  firs. 

The  villages  of  the  Fisher  Lapps — as  they  are  found,  for  instance,  on  the 
banks  of  Lake  Enara — afford  a  by  no  means  pleasing  spectacle. 

About  the  miserable  huts,  -which  are  shapeless  masses  of  mingled  earth, 
stones,  and  branches  of  trees,  and  scarcely  equal  to  the  dwellings  of  the 
wretched  Fuegians,  heaps  of  stinking  fish  and  other  offal  taint  the  air  with 
their  pestilential  odors.  When  a  stranger  approaches,  the  inmates  come  pour- 
ing out  of  their  narrow  doorway  so  covered  with  dirt  and  vermin  as  to  make 
him  recoil  with  disgust.  Not  in  the  least  ashamed,  however,  of  their  ajipear- 
ance,  they  approach  the  stranger  and  shake  his  hand  according  to  the  code  of 
Lapp  politeness.     After  this  preliminary,  he  may  expect  the  following  ques- 


THE  LAPPS.  167 

tions :  "  Is  peace  in  the  land  ?  How  is  the  emperor,  the  bishop,  and  the  cap- 
tain of  the  district  ?"  The  more  inquisitive  of  the  filthy  troop  then  ask  after 
the  home  of  the  stranger,  and  being  told  that  it  is  beyond  the  mountains,  they 
further  inquire  if  he  comes  from  the  laud  Avhere  tobacco  grows.  For  as  our 
imagination  loves  to  wander  to  the  sunny  regions, 

Where  the  citron  and  olive  are  fairest  of  fruit, 
And  the  voice  of  the  cighjtingale  never  is  mute ; 

SO  the  fancy  of  the  Lapp  conceives  no  greater  paradise  than  that  which  pro- 
duces the  weed  that,  along  with  the  brandy-bottle,  affoi'ds  him  his  highest 
luxury. 


168  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

MATTHIAS   ALEXANDER   CASTRieN. 

His  Birthplace  and  first  Studies.— Journey  in  Lapland,  1838.— The  Iwalojoki.— The  Lake  of  Enara.— 
The  Pastor  of  Utzjoki.— From    Rowaniemi   to  Kemi.— Second  Voyage,  1841-14.— Storm   on  th'2 

White  Sea. Return  to  Archangel.— The  Tundras  of  the  European  Samojedes. — Mesen.— Universal 

Drunkenness.— Sledge  Journey  to  Pustosersk.— A  Samojede  Teacher.— Tundra  Storms.— Abandon- 
ed and  alone  in  the  Wilderness. — Pustosersk.— Our  Traveller's  Persecutions  at  Ustsylmsk  and  Ish- 
emsk.— The  Uusa.— Crossing  the  Ural.— Obdorsk.— Second  Siberian  Journe}',  1845-48.— Overflow- 
ing of  the  Obi.— Surgut. — Krasnojarsk. — Agreeable  Surprise.— Turuchansk. — ^\"oyage  down  the 
Jenissei.— Castren's  Study  at  Plachina.— From  Dudinka  to  Tolstoi  Noss.— Frozen  Feet.— Return 
Voyage  to  the  South. — Frozen  fast  on  the  Jenissei.— Wonderful  Preservation.— Journey  across  the 
Chinese  Frontiers,  and  to  Transbaikalia.— Return  to  Finland.— Professorship  at  Helsingfors.- Death 
of  Castren,  1855. 

MATTHIAS  ALEXANDER  CASTR:^N,  whose  interesting  journeys  form 
the  subject  of  the  present  chapter,  was  born  in  the  year  1813,  at  Rowani- 
emi, a  Finland  village  situated  about  forty  miles  from  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia,  immediately  under  the  Arctic  Circle ;  so  that,  of  all  men  who  have 
attained  celebrity,  probably  none  can  boast  of  a  more  northern  birthplace. 
While  still  a  scholar  at  the  Alexander's  College  of  Helsingfors,  he  resolved  to 
devote  his  life  to  the  study  of  the  nations  of  Finnish  origin  (Fins,  Laplanders, 
Samojedes,  Ostjaks,  etc.) ;  and  as  books  gave  but  an  insufficient  account  of 
them,  each  passing  year  strengthened  his  desire  to  visit  these  tribes  in  then- 
own  haunts,  and  to  learn  from  themselves  their  languages,  their  habits,  and 
their  history. 

We  may  imagine,  therefore,  the  joy  of  the  enthusiastic  student,  Avhom  pov- 
erty alone  had  hitherto  prevented  from  carrying  out  the  schemes  of  his  youth, 
when  Dr.  Ehrstrom,  a  friend  and  medical  fellow-student,  proposed  to  take  him 
as  a  companion,  free  of  expense,  on  a  tour  in  Lapland.  No  artist  that  ever 
crossed  the  Alps  on  his  way  to  sunny  Italy  could  feel  happier  than  Castren  at 
the  prospect  of  plunging  into  the  Avildernesses  of  the  Arctic  zone. 

On  June  25,  1838,  the  friends  set  out,  and  arrived  on  the  30th  at  the  small 
town  of  Muonioniska,  where  they  remained  six  weeks — a  delay  which  Castren 
put  to  good  account  in  learning  the  Lapp  language  from  a  native  catechist. 
At  lens^th  the  decreasing  sun  warned  the  travellers  that  it  was  high  time  to 
continue  their  journey,  if  they  wished  to  see  more  of  Lapland  before  the  winter 
set  in ;  and  after  having,  with  great  difficulty,  crossed  the  mountain  ridge 
which  forms  the  water-shed  between  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  and  the  Polar  Sea, 
they  embarked  on  the  romantic  Iwalojoki,  where  for  three  days  and  nights  the 
rushing  waters  roared  around  them.  In  spite  of  these  dangerous  rapids,  they 
were  obliged  to  trust  themselves  to  the  stream,  which  every  now  and  then 
threatened  to  dash  their  frail  boat  to  pieces  against  the  rocks.  Armed  with 
long  oars,  they  were  continually  at  work  during  the  daytime  to  guard  against 


MATTHIAS   ALEXANDER    CASTll^N.         •  169 

this  peril ;  the  nights  were  spent  near  a  large  fire  kindled  in  the  open  air,  witli- 
out  any  shelter  against  the  rain  and  wind. 

The  Iwalo  River  is,  during  the  greater  part  of  its  course,  encased  between 
high  rocks;  but  a  few  miles  before  it  discharges  itself  into  the  large  Lake  of 
Enara,  its  valley  improves  into  a  fine  grassy  plain.  Small  islands  covered  with 
trees  divide  the  waters,  which  now  flow  more  tranquilly ;  soon  also  traces  of 
culture  appear,  and  the  astonished  traveller  finds  in  the  village  of  Kyro,  not 
Avretched  Lapland  huts,  but  well-built  houses  of  Finnish  settlers,  with  green 
meadows  and  cornfields. 

The  beautiful  Lake  of  Enara,  sixty  miles  long  and  forty  miles  broad,  is  so 
thickly  studded  with  islands  that  they  have  never  yet  been  counted.  After  the 
travellers  had  spent  a  few  days  among  the  Fisher  Lapps  who  sojourn  on  its 
borders,  they  proceeded  northward  to  Utzjoki,  the  limit  of  their  expedition,  and 
one  of  the  centres  of  Lapland  civilization,  as  it  boasts  of  a  church,  which  is 
served  by  a  man  of  high  character  and  of  no  little  ability.  On  accepting  his 
charge,  this  self-denying  priest  had  performed  the  journey  from  Tornea  in  the 
depth  of  winter,  accompanied  by  a  young  wife  and  a  female  relation  of  the  lat- 
ter, fifteen  years  of  age.  He  had  found  the  parsonage,  vacated  by  his  predeces- 
sor, a  wretched  building,  distant  some  fifteen  miles  from  the  nearest  Lapp  habi- 
tation. After  establishing  himself  and  his  family  in  this  dreary  tenement,  he 
had  returned  from  a  pastoral  excursion  to  find  his  home  destroyed  by  a  fire,  from 
which  its  inmates  had  escaped  with  the  loss  of  all  that  they  possessed.  A  miser- 
able hut,  built  for  the  temporary  shelter  of  the  Lapps  who  resorted  thither  for 
divine  service,  afforded  the  family  a  refuge  for  the  winter.  He  had  since  con- 
trived to  build  himself  another  dwelling,  in  which  our  joarty  found  him,  after 
five  years'  residence,  the  father  of  a  family,  and  the  chief  of  a  happy  household. 
Gladly  ^vould  the  travellers  have  remained  some  time  longer  under  his  hospita- 
ble roof,  but  the  birds  of  passage  were  moving  to  the  south,  warning  them  to 
follow  their  example. 

Thus  they  set  out,  on  August  15,  for  their  homeward  voyage,  which  proved 
no  less  difficult  and  laborious  than  the  former.  At  length,  after  Avandering 
through  deserts  and  swamps — frequently  wet  to  the  skin,  and  often  without 
food  for  many  hours — they  arrived  at  Rowaniemi,  where  they  embarked  on  the 
Kemi  River. 

"With  conflicting  feelings,"  says  Castren, "  I  descended  its  stream ;  for  every 
cataract  was  not  only  well-known  to  me  from  the  days  of  my  earliest  childhood, 
but  the  cataracts  were  even  the  only  acquaintances  which  death  had  left  me  in 
the  place  of  my  birth.  Along  with  the  mournful  impressions  which  the  loss  of 
beloved  relations  made  upon  my  mind,  it  was  delightful  to  renew  my  inter- 
course with  the  rapid  stream  and  its  waterfalls — those  boisterous  playfel- 
lows, which  had  often  brought  me  into  peril  when  a  boy.  Now,  as  before,  it 
was  a  pleasant  sport  to  me  to  be  hurried  along  by  their  tumultuous  waters, 
and  to  be  wetted  by  their  spra3%  The  boatmen  often  tried  to  persuade 
me  to  land  before  passing  the  most  dangerous  waterfalls,  and  declared  that 
they  could  not  be  answerable  for  my,  safety.  But,  in  spite  of  all  their  remon- 
strances, I  remained  in  the  boat,  nor  had  I  reason  to  repent  of  my  boldness,  for 


170  •  THE   POLAR   WOULD. 

He  who  is  the  steersman  of  all  boats  granted  us  a  safe  arrival  at  Kenii,  where 
our  Lapland  journey  terminated."* 

In  1841  Castren  published  a  metrical  translation,  into  the  Swedish  language, 
bf  the  "  Kalewala,"  a  cycle  of  the  oldest  poems  of  the  Fins  ;  and  at  the  end  of 
the  same  year  proceeded  on  his  first  great  journey  to  the  land  of  the  European 
Samoiedes,  and  from  thence  across  the  northern  Ural  Mountains  to  Siberia.  In 
the  famous  convent  of  Solovetskoi,  situated  on  a  small  island  in  the  White  Sea, 
he  hoped  to  find  a  friendly  teacher  of  the  Samolede  language  in  the  Archiman- 
drite Wenjamin,  who  had  labored  as  a  missionary  among  that  savage  people, 
but  the  churlish  dignitary  jealously  refused  him  all  assistance;  and  as  the  tun- 
dras of  the  Samoiedes  are  only  accessible  during  the  winter,  he  resolved  to  turn 
the  intei-val  to  account  by  a  journey  among  the  Terski  Lapps,  who  inhabit  the 
western  shores  of  the  White  Sea.  With  this  view,  in  an  evil  hour  of  the  27th 
June,  1842,  though  suffering  at  this  time  from  illness  severe  enough  to  have  de- 
tained any  less  persevering  traveller,  he  embarked  at  Archangel  in  a  large  corn- 
laden  vessel,  with  a  reasonable  prospect  of  being  landed  at  Tri  Ostrowa  in  some 
twenty-four  hours ;  but  a  dead  calm  detained  him  eight  days,  during  which  he 
had  no  choice  but  to  endure  the  horrible  stench  of  Russian  sea-stores  in  the 
cabin  or  the  scorching  sun  on  deck.  At  length  a  favorable  wind  arose,  and 
after  a  few  hours'  sailing  nothing  was  to  be  seen  but  water  and  sky.  Soon  the 
Terski  coast  came  in  view,  with  its  white  ice-capped  shore,  and  Castren  hoped 
soon  to  be  released  from  his  floating  prison,  when  suddenly  the  wind  changed, 
and,  increasing  to  a  storm,  threatened  to  dash  them  on  the  cliffs  of  the  Solovet- 
skoi Islands. 

"  Both  the  captain, and  the  ship's  company  began  to  despair  of  their  lives; 
and  prayers  hilving  been  resorted  to  in  vain,  to  conjure  the  danger,  general 
drunkenness  was  the  next  resource.  The  captain,  finding  his  own  braydy  too 
weak  to  procure  the  stupefaction  he  desired,  left  me  no  peace  till  I  had  given 
him  a  bottle  of  rum.  After  having  by  degrees  emptied  its  contents,  he  at  length 
obtained  his  end,  and  fell  asleep  in  the  cabin.  The  crew,  following  his  example, 
dropped  down  one  by  one  into  their  cribs,  and  the  ship  was  left  without  guidance 
to  the  mercy  of  the  winds  and  waves.  I  alone  remained  on  deck,  and  gloomily 
awaited  the  decisive  moment.  But  I  soon  discovered  that  the  wind  was  veer- 
ing to  the  east,  and,  awaking  the  captain  from  his  drunken  lethargy,  sent  him  on 
deck,  and  took  possession  of  his  bed.  Exhausted  by  the  dreadful  scenes  of  the 
day,  I  soon  fell  into  a  deep  slumber  ;  and  when  I  awoke  the  following  morning, 
I  found  myself  again  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  White  Sesj,  at  the  foot  of  a 
high  sheltering  rock-wall." 

Continued  bad  weather  and  increasing  illness  now  forced  Castren  to  give  up 
his  projected  visit  to  the  Lapps,  and  when  he  returned  to  Archangel,  both  his 
health  and  his  purse  were  in  a  sad  condition.  He  had  but  fifteen  roubles  in  his 
pocket,  but  fortunately  found  some  Samoiede  beggars  still  pooi-er  than  himself, 
one  of  whom,  for  the  reward  of  an  occasional  glass  of  brandy,  consented  to  be- 
come at  once  his  host,  his  servant,  and  his  private  tutor  in  the  Samoiede  lan- 

*  Reisen  in  Lappland,  etc. 


MATTHIAS  ALEXANDER  GASTRIN.  171 

o-uao-e.  In  the  hut  and  society  of  this  savage  ho  passed  the  remainder  of  tlie 
summer,  his  health  improved,  and  soon  also  his  finances  changed  wonderfully 
for  the  better — the  Government  of  Finland  having  granted  him  a  thousand  sil- 
ver roubles  for  the  prosecution  of  his  travels.  With  a  light  heart  he  continued 
his  Unguistic  studies  until  the  end  of  November,  when  he  started  with  renewed 
enthusiasm  for  the  land  of  the  European  Samoiedes.  These  immense  tundras 
extend  from  the  White  Sea  to  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  are  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Polar  Sea,  and  on  the  south  by  the  region  of  forests,  which  here 
reaches  as  high  as  the  latitudes  of  66°  and  67°. 

The  large  river  Petschora  divides  these  dreary  wastes  into  two  unequal 
halves,  whose  scanty  population,  as  may  easily  be  imagined,  is  sunk  in  the  deep- 
est barbarism.  It  consists  of  nomadic  Samoiedes,  and  of  a  few  Russians,  who 
inhabit  some  miserable  settlements  along  the  great  stream  and  its  tributary 
rivers. 

To  bury  himself  for  a  whole  year  in  these  melancholy  deserts,  Castren  left 
Archangel  in  November,  1842,  As  far  as  Mesen.  345  versts  north  of  Archan- 
gel, the  scanty  population  is  Russ  and  Christian.  At  Mesen  civilization  ceases, 
and  farther  north  the  Samoiede  retains  for  the  most  part,  with  his  primitive 
habits  and  language,  his  heathen  faith— having,  in  fact,  borrowed  nothing  from 
occasional  intercourse  with  civilized  man  but  the  means  and  practice  of  drunk- 
enness. Castren's  first  care,  on  his  arrival  at  Mesen,  was  to  look  for  a  Samoiede 
interpreter  and  teacher ;  but  he  was  as  unsuccessful  here  as  at  Somsha,  a  village 
some  forty  versts  farther  on,  Avhere  drunkenness  was  the  order  of  the  day.  He 
took  the  most  temperate  person  he  could  find  in  all  Somsha  into  his  service, 
but  even  this  moderate  man  would,  according  to  our  ideas,  have  been  accounted 
a  perfect  drunkard.  He  now  resolved  to  try  the  fair  sex,  and  engaged  a  female 
teacher,  but  she  also  could  not  remain  sober.  At  length  a  man  was  introduced 
to  him  as  the  most  learned  person  of  the  tundra,  and  at  first  it  seemed  afe  if  he 
had  at  length  found  what  he  wanted ;  but  after  a  few  hours  the  Samoiede  be- 
gan to  get  tired  of  his  numerous  questions,  and  declared  himself  ill.  He  threw 
himself  upon  the  floor,  wailed  and  lamented,  and  begged  Castren  to  have  pity 
on  him,  until  at  length  the  incensed  philologist  turned  him  out-of-doors.  Soon 
after  he  found  him  lying  dead  drunk  in  the  snow  before  the  "  Elephant  and 
Castle  "  of  the  place. 

Thus  obliged  to  look  for  instruction  elsewhere,  Castren  resolved  to  travel,  in 
the  middle  of  winter,  to  the  Russian  village  of  Pustosersk,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Petschora,  where  the  fair  annually  attracts  a  number  of  Samoiedes.  During 
this  sledge-journey  of  700  versts,  he  had  to  rest  sometimes  in  the  open  air  on  the 
storm-beaten  tundra,  and  sometimes  in  the  rickety  tent  of  the  Samoiede,  or  in 
the  scarcely  less  wretched  hut  of  the  Russian  colonist — where  the  snow  pene- 
trated through  the  crevices  of  the  wall,  where  the  flame  of  the  light  flickered  in 
the  wind,  and  a  thick  cloak  of  wolf-skin  afforded  the  only  protection  against  the 
piercing  cold  of  the  Arctic  winter. 

For  this  arduous  tour,  two  sledges,  with  four  reindeer  attached  to  each,  were 
employed — the  traveller's  sledge,  which  was  covered,  being  attached  to  an  un- 
covered one  occupied  by  the  guide.     The  Kanin  Tundra  stretched  out  before 


173  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

them,  as  they  flew  along,  almost  as  naked  as  the  sea,  of  which  they  saw  the 
mai-o-in  in  the  east ;  and  liad  not  the  wind  here  and  there  driven  away  the  snow 
which  Heaven  in  its  mercy  strews  over  this  gloomy  land,  tliey  might  have  been 
in  doubt  on  which  element  they  were  travelling.  Daily,  from  time  to  time,  some 
dwarf  firs  made  their  appearance,  or  clumps  of  low  willows,  which  generally  de- 
note the  presence  of  some  little  brook  slowly  winding  through  the  flat  tundra. 
The  village  of  Ness,  on  the  north  coast,  was  the  first  halting-place,  and  here 
Castren  flattered  himself  he  had  at  length  found  what  his  heart  desired,  in  the 
person  of  a  Samo'iede  teacher  who  knew  Russian,  and  was  gifted  with  a  clear- 
er head  than  is  usually  possessed  by  his  race. 

"  The  man  was  conscious  of  his  superiority,  and  while  acting  as  a  professor 
looked  down  with  contempt  upon  his  weaker  brethren.  Once,  some  other  Samo- 
iedes  venturing  to  correct  one  of  his  translations,  he  commanded  them  to  be  si- 
lent, telhng  them  they  were  not  learned.  I  tried  by  all  possible  means  to  se- 
cure the  services  of  this  Samoiede  phenomenon.  I  spoke  kindly  with  him,  I 
paid  him  well,  gave  him  every  day  his  allowance  of  brandy,  and  never  once  for- 
bade him  to  get  drunk  when  he  felt  inclined  to  do  so.  Yet,  in  spite  of  all  my 
endeavors  to  please,  he  felt  unhappy,  and  sighed  for  the  liberty  of  the  tundra. 
'  Thou  art  kind,  and  I  love  thee,'  said  he  one  day  to  me, '  but  I  can  not  endure 
confinement.     Be  therefore  mei-cif ul,  and  give  me  my  freedom.' 

"  I  now  increased  liis  daily  pay  and  his  rations  of  brandy,  sent  for  his  wife 
and  child,  treated  his  wife  also  with  brandy,  and  did  all  I  could  to  dispel  th(^ 
melancholy  of  the  Samoiede.  By  these  means  I  induced  him  to  remain  a  few 
days  longer  with  me. 

"  While  I  was  constantly  occupying  him,  the  wife  was  busy  sewing  Samoiede 
dresses,  and  sometimes  assisted  her  husband  in  his  translations.  I  often  lieard- 
her  sighing  deeply,  and  having  asked  for  the  reason,  she  burst  into  tears,  and 
answei-ed  that  she  grieved  for  her  husband,  who  was  thus  imprisoned  in  a  room. 
'  Thy  husband,'  was  my  reply,  '  is  not  worse  off  than  thyself.  Tell  me,  what 
do  you  think  of  your  own  position  ?'  '  I  do  not  think  of  myself — I  am  sori-ow- 
ful  for  my  husband,'  w\as  her  ingenuous  reply,  'At  length  both  the  huslxmd 
and  the  wife  begged  me  so  earnestly  to  set  them  at  liberty  that  I  allowed  them 
to  depart." 

On  the  way  from  Pjoscha  to  Pustosersk,  after  Castren  had  once  more  vainly 
endeavored  to  discover  that  vara  avis,  a  Samoiede  teacher,  he  became  thorough-, 
ly  acquainted  with  the  January  snow-storms  of  the  tundra :  "  The  wind  arose 
about  noon,  and  blew  so  violently  that  we  could  not  see  the  reindeer  before  our 
sledges.  The  roof  of  my  vehicle,  which  at  first  had  a:4orded  me  some  protec- 
tion, Avas  soon  carried  away  by  the  gale.  Anxious  about  ray  fate,  I  questioned 
my  guides,  whenever  they  stopped  to  brush  off  the  snow  w^hich  had  accumulated 
upon  me,  and  received  the  invariable  answer, '  We  do  not  know  where  we  are, 
and  see  nothing.'  We  proceeded  step  by  step,  now  folloAving  one  direction, 
now  another,  until  at  length  we  reached  a  river  Avell  known  to  the  guides.  The 
leader  of  the  first  sledge  hurried  his  reindeer  doAvn  the  precipitous  bank,  and 
drove  away  upon  the  ice  to  seek  a  more  convenient  descent;  but  as  lie  did  not 
return,  the  other  guide  likewise  left  me  to  look  after  his  companion,  and  thus  I 


MATTHIAS  ALEXAOT)ER   GASTRIN.  173 

was  kept  waiting  for  several  hours  on  the  tundra,  without  knowing  where  my 
guides  had  gone  to. 

"  At  first  I  did  not  even  know  that  they  had  left  me,  and  when  I  became 
aware  of  the  fact,  I  thought  that  they  had  abandoned  me  to  my  fate.  I  will 
not  attempt  to  describe  my  sensations ;  but  my  bodily  condition  was  such,  that 
when  the  cold  increased  with  the  approach  of  night,  I  was  seized  with  a  violent 
fever.  I  thought  my  last  hour  was  come,  and  prepared  for  my  journey  to  an- 
other world." 

The  re-appearance  of  the  gaides.relieved  Castren  of  his  anxiety,  and  when  the 
little  party  reached  some  Samoiede  huts,  the  eldest  of  the  guides  knelt  down  at 
the  side  of  our  traveller's  sledge  and  expressed  his  joy  ifi  a  prayer  to  God,  beg- 
ging Castren  to  join  him  in  his  thanksgivings,  "  for  He,  and  not  I,  has  this  night 
saved  thee." 

The  next  morning,  as  the  weather  seemed  to  improve,  and  the  road  (along 
the  Indiga  River)  to  the  next  Russian  settlement  was  easy  to  find,  Castren  re- 
solved to  pursue  his  journey.  "  But  the  storm  once  more  arose,  and  became  so 
dreadfully  violent  that  I  could  neither  breathe  nor  keep  my  eyes  open  against 
the  wind.  The  roaring  of  the  gale  stupefied  my  senses.  The  moist  snow 
wetted  me  during  the  day,  and  the  night  converted  it  into  ice.  Half  frozen,  I* 
arrived  after  midnight  at  the  settlement.  The  fatigues  of  the  journey  had  been 
such  that  I  could  scarcely  stand ;  I  had  almost  lost  my  consciousness,  and  my 
sight  had  suffered  so  much  from  the  wind  that  I  repeatedly  ran  with  my  fore- 
head against  the  wall.  The  roaring  of  the  storm  continually  resounded  in  my 
ears  for  many  hours  after." 

A  few  days  later  Castren  arrived  at  Pustosersk,  undoubtedly  one  of  the 
dreariest  places  in  the  world.  With  scarcely  a  trace  of  arboreal  vegetation,  the 
eye,  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  rests  on  an  interminable  waste  of  snow, 
where  the  cold  winds  are  almost  perpetually  raging.  The  storms  are  so  violent 
as  not  seldom  to  carry  away  the  roofs  of  the  huts,  and  to  prevent  the  wretched 
inhabitants  from  fetching  water  and  fuel.  In  this  Northern  Eden  our  inde- 
fatigable ethnologist  tarried  several  months,  as  it  afforded  him  an  excellent  op- 
portunity for  continuing  his  studies  of  the  language,  manners,  and  religion  of  the 
Samoiedes,  who  cerae  to  the  fair  of  Pustosersk  during  the  winter-,  to  barter  their 
reindeer  skins  for  flour  and  other  commodities,  and  at  the  same  time  to  indulge 
in  their  favorite  beverage — brandy.  At  length  the  Samoiedes  retired,  the  busy 
season  of  the  place  was  evidently  at  an  end,  and  Castren,  having  no  further  in- 
ducement to  remain  at  Pustosersk,  left  it  for  the  village  of  LTstsylmsk,  situated 
150  versts  higher  up  the  Petschora,  where  he  hoped  still  to  find  some  straggling 
Samoiedes.  The  road  to  Ustsylrask  leads  through  so  desolate  a  region,  that, 
according  to  the  priests  of  the  neighborhood,  it  can  not  have  been  originally 
created  by  God  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  but  must  have  been  formed  after 
the  Deluge.  Near  Ustsylmsk  (65°  30'  N.  lat.)  the  country  improves,  as  most  of 
the  northern  trees  grow  about  the  place ;  but,  unfortunately,  a  similar  praise 
can  not  be  awarded  to  its  inhabitants,  whom  Castren  found  to  be  the  most 
.brutal  and  obstinate  Raskolniks  (or  sectarians)  he  had  ever  seen.  Without  in 
the  least  caring  for  the  Ten  Commandments,  and  indulging  in  every  vice,  these 


174  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

absurd  fanatics  fancied  themselves  better  than  the  rest  of  mankind,  because  they 
made  the  sio-n  of  the  cross  with  the  thumb  and  the  two  last  fingers,  and  stood 
■for  hours  together  before  an  image  in  stupid  contemplation.  Our  homeless 
traveller  soon  became  the  object  of  their  persecutions;  they  called  him  "wiz- 
ard," "  a  poisoner  of  rivers  and  wells,"  and  insulted  him  during  his  walks.  At 
length  they  even  attempted  to  take  his  life,  so  that  he  thought  best  to  retreat 
to  Ishemsk,  on  the  Ishma,  a  hundred  versts  farther  to  the  south.  But,  unfor- 
tunately, his  bad  reputation  had  preceded  him,  and  although  the  Isprawuik 
(or  parish  official)  and  his  wife  warmly  took  his  part,  the  people  continued  to 
regard  him  with  suspicion. 

Towards  the  end  of  June  Castren  ascended  the  Petschora  and  its  chief  trib- 
utary, the  Uusa,  as  far  as  the  village  of  Kolwa,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of 
the  summer,  deeply  buried  as  usual  in  Samoiede  studies.  Beyond  Kolwa,  which 
he  left  on  September  1 6  for  Obdorsk,  there  is  not  a  single  settlement  along  the 
Uusa  and  its  tributaries. 

As  he  ascended  the  river,  the  meadows  on  its  low  banks  appeared  colored 
with  the  gray  tints  of  autumn.  Sometimes  a  wild  animal  started  from  its  lair, 
but  no  vestige  of  man  was  to  be  seen.  Countless  flocks  of  wild  ducks  and 
geese  passed  over  the  traveller's  head,  on  their  way  southward. 

After  many  a  tedious  delay,  caused  by  storms  and  contrary  winds,  Castren 
reached  (on  September  27)  a  wretched  hut,  about  forty  versts  from  the  Ural, 
where  he  was  obliged  to  wait  a  whole  month,  with  fourteen  other  persons, 
until  the  snow-track  over  the  mountains  became  practicable  for  sledges. 

The  total  want  of  every  comfort,  the  bad  company,  the  perpetual  rain,  and 
the  dreary  aspect  of  the  country,  made  his  prolonged  stay  in  this  miserable  ten- 
ement almost  unbearable.  At  length,  on  October  25,  he  was  able  to  depart,  and 
on  November  3  he  saw  the  Ural  Mountains  raising  their  snow-capped  summits 
to  the  skies.  "  The  weather  is  mild,"  said  his  Samoiede  driver,  "  and  thou  art 
fortunate,  but  the  Ural  can  be  very  different."  He  then  described  the  dreadful 
storms  that  rage  over  the  boundary-chain  which  separates  Europe  from  Asia, 
and  how  they  precipitate  stones  and  rocks  from  the  mountain-tops. 

This  time  the  dreaded  pass  was  crossed  in  safety,  and  on  November  9,  1843, 
Castren  arrived  at  Obdorsk,  on  the  Obi,  exhausted  in  strengtii  and  shattered  in 
health,  but  yet  delighted  to  find  himself  in  Asia,  the  land  of  his  early  dreams. 
Obdorsk— the  most  northerly  colony  in  Western  Siberia,  and,  as  may  easily 
be  imagined,  utterly  deficient  in  all  that  can  be  interesting  to  an  ordinary 
traveller — was  as  mucb  as  a  university  to  the  zealous  student,  for  several 
thousands  of  Samoiedes  and  Ostiaks  congregate  to  its  fair  from  himdreds  of 
versts  around. 

No  better  place  could  possibly  be  found  for  the  prosecution  of  his  research- 
es ;  but  the  deplorable  condition  of  his  health  did  not  allow  him  to  remain  as 
long  as  he  would  have  desired  at  this  fountain-head  of  knowledge.  He  was  thus 
obliged  to  leave  for  Tobolsk,  and  to  return  in  March,  1844,  by  the  shortest  road 
to  Finland. 

In  the  following  summer  (1845)  we  again  find  him  on  the  banks  of  the. 
Irtysch  and  the  Obi,  plunged  in  Ostiak  studies  with  renewed  energy  and  enthn- 


MATTHIAS  ALEXANDER    GASTRIN.  175 

siasm.  After  having  sojourned  for  several  weeks  at  Toropkowa,  a  small  island 
at  the  confluence  of  these  two  mighty  streams,  he  ascended  the  Obi  in  July  as 
far  as  Surgut,  where  he  arrived  in  the  beginning  of  August. 

In  consequence  of  the  overflowing  of  its  waters,  the  river  had  spread  into  a 
boundless  lake,  whose  monotony  was  only  relieved,  from  time  to  time,  by  some 
small  wooded  island  or  some  inundated  village.  The  rising  of  the  stream  had 
spread  misery  far  and  wide,  for  many  Ostiak  families  had  been  obliged  to  aban- 
don their  huts,  and  to  seek  a  refuge  in  the  forests.  Those  who  had  horses 
and  cows  had  the  greatest  difliculty  to  keep  them  alive ;  and  as  all  the  meadows 
were  under  water,  and  the  autumn,  with  its  night-frosts,  was  already  approach- 
ing, there  was  scarcely  any  hope  of  making  hay  for  the  wiutei-. 

As  Castren  proceeded  on  his  journey,  the  low  banks  of  the  river  rose  above 
the  waters,  and  appeared  in  all  their  wild  and  gloomy  desolation.  The  number 
of  inhabitants  along  the  Obi  is  utterly  insignificant  when  compared  with  the 
wide  extent  of  the  country  ;  and  as  hunting  and  fishing  are  their  chief  occupa- 
tions, nothing  is  done  to  subdue  the  w^ilderness.  The  weary  eye  sees  but  a  dull 
succession  of  moors,  wiUow  bushes,  dry  heaths,  and  firs  on  the  higher  gi'ounds. 
Near  every  flourishing  tree  stands  another  bearing  the  marks  of  decay.  The 
young  grass  is  hemmed  in  its  growth  by  that  of  the  previous  year,  which  even 
in  July  gives  the  meadow  a  dull  ash-gray  color.  Ci-anes,  wild  ducks,  and  geese 
are  almost  the  only  Hving  creatures  to  be  seen.  From  Siljarski  to  Surgut,  a 
distance  of  200  versts,  there  are  but  three  Russian  villages ;  and  the  Ostiaks, 
who  form  the  main  part  of  the  population,  generally  live  along  the  tributary 
rivers,  or  erect  their  summer  huts  on  the  smaller  arms  of  the  Obi,  where  they 
can  make  a  better  use  of  their  very  imperfect  fishing  implements  than  on  the 
principal  stream. 

Surgut,  once  a  fortress,  and  the  chief  town  of  the  Cossack  conquerors  of  Si- 
beria, is  now  reduced  to  a  few  miserable  huts,  scattered  among  the  ruins  of  re- 
peated conflagrations. 

Here  Castren  remained  till  September  24,  occupied  Avith  the  study  of  the  va- 
rious dialects  of  the  neighboring  Ostiak  tribes,  and  then  ascended  the  Obi  as  far 
as  Narym,  a  distance  of  800  versts.  Most  of  the  fishermen  had  already  retired 
from  the  banks  of  the  river,  and  a  death-like  stillness,  rarely  interrujited  by  an 
Ostiak  boat  rapidly  shooting  through  the  stream,  reigned  over  its  waters. 

Fortunately  the  weather  was  fine,  at  least  during  the  first  days  of  the  journey ; 
and  the  green  rivei--banks,  the  birds  singing  in  the  trees,  and  the  sunbeams 
glancing  over  the  wide  mirror  of  the  Obi,  somewhat  enlivened  the  monotony 
of  the  scene. 

After  having  enjoyed  at  Narym  a  remarhahly  mild  Siberian  winter,  as  oio 
croios  had  been  frozen  to  death,  and  having  increased  his  knowledge  of  the  Os- 
tiak dialects,  Castren  proceeded  in  the  following  spring,  by  way  of  Tomsk,  to 
Krasnojarsk,  on  the  Jenissei,  where  he  arrived  in  April,  184G,  and  was  welcomed 
in  a  most  agreeable  and  unexpected  manner.  It  will  be  remembered  that  dur- 
ing his  stay  at  Ishemsk,  in  the  tundra  of  the  Samoiedes,  he  found  warm-hearted 
friends  and  protectors  against  the  insane  bigotry  of  the  Raskolniks  in  the  Is- 
prawnik  and  his  young  and  amiable  wife.     Of  the  latter  it  might  truly  be  said 


176  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

tliat  she  was  like  a  flower  born  to  blush  unseen  in  the  desert.  Remarkably  elo- 
quent, she  was  no  less  talented  in  expressing  her  thoughts  by  writing  ;  and  yet 
she  was  only  the  daughter  of  a  serf  who  had  been  exiled  to  Krasnojarsk,  and 
had  spent  a  great  part  of  a  small  property,  acquired  by  industry  and  economy, 
in  the  education  of  his  gifted  daughter.  The  IspraAvnik,  a  young  Pole  of  insin- 
uating manners,  having  gained  her  affections,  she  had  accompanied  him  to  Ish- 
emsk  as  his  wife. 

From  what  Castren  had  told  her  three  years  since  about  liis  future  plans,  she 
knew  that  he  would  probably  arrive  about  this  time  at  Krasnojarsk,  and  had 
written  a  letter,  which  reached  its  destination  only  a  few  hours  before  him.  It 
was  to  her  father,  earnestly  begging  him  to  pay  every  attention  to  the  homeless 
stranger.  The  feelings  of  Castren  may  easily  be  imagined  when  the  old  man 
knocked  at  his  door,  and  brought  him  these  friendly  greetings  from  a  distance 
of  6000  versts.* 

But  his  stay  at  Krasnojarsk  was  not  of  long  duration,  for  he  was  impatient 
to  proceed  northward,  for  the  purpose  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  tribes 
dwelling  along  the  Jenissei,  after  having  studied  their  brethern  of  the  Obi.  From 
June  till  the  end  of  July,  his  literary  pursuits  detained  him  at  Turuchansk, 
where,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Arctic  Circle,' he  had  much  to  suffer  from  the  heat 
and  the  mosquitoes.  In  the  beginning  of  August  the  signs  of  approaching 
winter  made  their  aj)pearance,  the  cold  north  wind  swept  away  the  leaves  from 
the  trees,  the  fishermen  retired  to  the  woods,  and  the  ducks  and  geese  pi*epai-ed 
to  migrate  to  the.  south.  And  now  Castren  also  took  leave  of  Turuchansk — not 
however,  like  the  birds,  for  a  moi'e  sunny  region,  but  to  bury  himself  still  deep- 
er in  the  northern  Avilds  of  the  Jenissei.  Below  Turuchansk  the  river  begins  to 
flow  so  languidly,  that  when  the  wind  is  contrary,  the  boat  must  be  dragged 
along  by  dogs,  and  advances  no  more  than  from  five  to  ten  versts  during  a 
Avhole  day.  Thus  the  traveller  has  full  time  to  notice  the  willows  on  the  left 
l)ank,  and  the  firs  on  the  right ;  the  ice-blocks,  surviving  memorials  of  the  last 
winter,  which  the  spring  inundations  have  left  here  and  there  on  the  banks  of 
the  vast  stream;  and  the  countless  troops  of  wild  birds  that  fly  with  loud 
clamor  over  his  head. 

About  365  versts  below  Turuchansk  is  situated  Plachina,the  fishing-station 
of  a  small  tribe  of  Samoiedes,  among  whom  Castren  tarried  three  weeks.  He 
had  taken  possession  of  the  best  of  the  three  huts  of  which  the  place  consisted, 
but  even  this  would  have  been  perfectly  intolerable  to  any  one  but  our  zealous 
ethnologist.  Into  his  study  the  daylight  penetrated  so  sparingly  through  a 
small  hole  in  the  Avail,  that  he  was  often  obliged  to  write  by  the  light  of  a  resi- 
nous torch  in  the  middle  of  the  day. 

The  flame  flickering  in  the  wind,  which  blew  through  a  thousand  crevices,  af- 
fected his  eyes  no  less  severely  than  the  smoke,  which  at  the  same  time  render- 
ed respiration  difficult.  Although  the  roof  had  been  repaired,  yet  during  every 
strong  rain — and  it  rained  almost  perpetually — he  Avas  obliged  to  pack  up  his 
papers,  and  to  protect  himself  from  the  Avet  as  if  he  had  been  in  the  open  air. 
From  this  delightful  residence,  Castren,  still  pursuing  his  study  of  the  Samoi- 
*  The  verst  is  about  three- fifths  of  a  mile. 


MATTHIAS  ALEXANDER   CASTRl^N.  177 

ede  dialects,  proceeded  down  the  river  to  Budinka,  and  finally,  in  N'ovemhcr,  to 
Tolstoi  Noss,  whose  pleasant  climate  may  be  judged  of  by  the  fact  that  it  is  sit- 
uated in  the  latitude  of  71°.  This  last  voyage  was  performed  in  a  "  balok,"  or 
close  sledge,  covered  with  reindeer  skins.  The  tediousness  of  being  conveyed 
like  a  corpse  in  a  dark  and  narrow  box,  induced  him  to  exchange  the  "  balok  " 
for  an  open  sledge  ;  but  the  freezing  of  his  feet,  of  his  fingers,  and  of  part  of  his 
face,  soon  caused  him  to  repent  of  his  temerity.  As  soon  as  this  accident  was 
discovered  at  the  next  station,  Castren  crept  back  again  into  his  prison,  and  was 
heartily  glad  when,  after  a  nine  days'  confinement,  he  at  length  arrived  at  Tolstoi 
Noss,  which  he  found  to  consist  of  four  Avretched  huts.  Here  again  he  spent 
several  weeks  studying  by  torchlight,  for  the  sun  had  made  his  last  appearance 
in  November,  and  the  day  was  reduced  to  a  faint  glimmering  at  noon.  In  Jan- 
uary we  find  him  on  his  return-voyage  to  Turuchansk,  a  place  which,  though  not 
very  charming  in  itself,  appeared  delightful  to  Castren  after  a  six  months'  resi- 
dence in  the  tundras  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle. 

Turuchansk  can  boast  at  least  of  seeing  some  daylight  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year,  and  this  may  be  enjoyed  even  within-doors,  for  Turuchansk  possesses  no 
less  than  four  houses  with  glass  windows.  Longing  to  reach  this  comparative- 
ly sunny  place,  Castren,  against  his  usual  custom,  resolved  to  travel  day  and 
night  without  stopping,  but  his  impatience  well-nigh  proved  fatal  to  him.  His 
Samo  ede  guide  had  not  perceived  in  the  dark  that  the  Avaters  of  the  Jenissei, 
over  which  they  were  travelling,  had  oozed  through  fissures  in  the  ice,  and  in- 
undated the  surface  of  the  river  far  and  wide.  Thus  he  drove  into  the  w^atei-, 
which  of  course  was  rapidly  congealing ;  the  reindeer  were  unable  to  drag  the 
sledge  back  again  upon  the  land,  and  Castren  stuck  fast  on  the  river,  with  the 
agreeable  prospect  of  being  -frozen  to  death.  From  this  imminent  danger  he 
was  rescued  by  a  wonderfid  circumstance.  Letters  having  arrived  from  the 
Imperial  Academy  of  St.  Petersburg,  a  courier  had  been  dispatched  from  Turu- 
chansk to  convey  tliem  to  Castren.  This  courier  fortunately  reached  him  while 
he  Avas  in  this  perilous  situation,  helped  him  on  land,  and  conducted  him  to  a 
Samoiede  hut,  where  he  was  able  to  warm  his  stiffened  limbs. 

After  such  a  journey,  we  can  not  wonder  that,  on  arriving  at  Turuchansk, 
he  was  so  tormented  with  rheumatism  and  toothache  as  to  be  obliged  to  rest 
there  several  days.  With  sore  joints  and  an  aching  body,  he  slowly  proceeded 
to  Jeniseisk,  where  he  arrived  on  April  3,  1847,  in  a  wretched  state  of  health, 
which  however  had  not  interrupted  his  Ostiak  studies  on  the  way.  I  rapidly 
glance  over  his  subsequent  travels,  as  they  are  but  a  repetition  of  the  same 
privations  and  the  same  hardships,  all  cheerfully  sustained  for  the  love  of  knowl- 
edge. Having  somewhat  recruited  his  strength  at  Jeniseisk,  he  crossed  the 
Sajan  Mountains  to  visit  some  Samoiedes  beyond  the  Russian  frontier— a  jour- 
ney which,  besides  the  usual  fatigues,  involved  the  additional  risk  of  being  ar- 
rested as  a  spy  by  the  Chinese  authorities  ;  and  the  year  after  he  visited  Trans- 
baikalia, to  make  inquiries  among  the  Buriat  priests  about  the  ancient  history 
of  Siberia. 

Having  thus  accomplished  his  task,  and  thoroughly  investigated  the  wild  na- 
tions of  the  Finnish  race  from  the  confines  of  the  Arctic  Sea  to  the  Altai— a  task 

12 


178 


THE   POLAR  WORLD. 


which  cost  him  his  health,  and  the  best  part  of  his  energies — he  longed  to 
breathe  the  air  of  his  native  country.  But  neither  the  pleasures  of  home,  nor 
a  professorship  at  the  University  of  Helsingfors,  richly  earned  by  alniost  super- 
human exertions,  were  able  to  arrest  the  germs  of  disease,  which  journeys  such 
as  these  could  scarcely  fail  to  plant  even  in  his  originally  robust  constitution. 
After  lingering  some  years,  he  died  in  1855,  universally  lamented  by  his  coun- 
trymen, who  justly  mourned  his  early  death  as  a  national  loss. 


i 


THE    SAMOIEDES. 


179 


A   SAMOLEDB   PKIEST. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE   SAMOIEDES. 

Their  Barbarism.— Num,  or  Jilibeambaertje.— Shamanism.— Samo:ede  Idols.— Sjadaei.-Hahe. — The  Ta- 
debtsios,  or  Spirits.— The  Tadibes,  or  Sorcerers.— Their  Dress.— Their  Invocations.— Their  conjiu-ing 
Tricks.— Reverence  paid  to  tlie  Dead.— A  Samolede  Oath.— Appearance  of  the  Samoiedes.— Their 
Dress.— A  Samoiede  Belle.— Character  of  the  Samoiedes.— Their  decreasing  Numbers.— Traditions  of 
ancient  H 


rpHE  Samoiedes,  the  neighbors  of  the  Laplanders,  are  still  farther  removed 
-L  from  civilized  society,  and  plunged  in,  even  deeper  barbarism.  The  wildest 
tundras  and  woods  of  Northern  Russia  and  Western  Siberia  are  the  home  of 
the  Samoiede.  With  his  reindeer  herds  he  wanders  over  the  naked  wastes, 
from  the  eastern  coast  of  the  White  Sea  to  the  banks  of  the  Chatanga,  or  hunts 
in  the  boundless  forests  between  the  Obi  and  the  Jenissei.  His  intercourse  with 
the  Russians  is  confined  to  his  annual  visit  at  the  fairs  of  such  miserable  settle- 
ments as  Obdorsk  and  Pustosersk,  where,  far  from  improving  by  their  compa- 
ny, he  but  too  often  becomes  the  prey  of  their  avarice,  and  learns  to  know  them, 
merely  as  cheats  and  oppressors.  Protestant  missionaries  have  long  since 
brought  instruction  to  the  Laplander's  hut,  but  the  majority  of  the  less  fortu- 
nate Samoiedes  still  adhere  to  the  gross  superstitions  of  their  fathers.  They 
believe  in  a  Supreme  Being — Num,  or  Jilibeambaertje — who  resides  in  the  air, 
and,  like  the  Jupiter  of  old,  sends  down  thunder  and  lightning,  rain  and  snow  ; 
and  as  a  proof  that  something  of  a  poetic  fancy  is  to  be  found  even  among  the 
most  savage  nations,  they  call  the  rainbow  "  the  hem  of  his  garment."  As  this 
deity,  however,  is  too  far  removed  from  them  to  leave  them  any  hope  of  gain- 


180  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

ing  his  favoi',  they  never  think  of  offering  him  either  prayer  or  sacrifice.  But, 
besides  Num,  there  are  a  great  many  inferior  spirits,  or  idols,  who  directly  in- 
terfere in  human  concerns — capricious  beings,  who  allow  themselves  to  be  in- 
fluenced by  offerings,  or  yield  to  magical  incantations ;  and  to  these,  therefore, 
the  Samoiede  has  recourse  when  he  feels  the  necessity  of  invoking  the  aid  or 
averting  the  wrath  of  a  higher  Power. 

The  chief  of  all  Samoiede  idols  is  in  the  island  of  Waygatz — a  cold  and  mel- 
ancholy Delos — where  it  was  already  found  by  old  Barentz.  This  idol  is  a  mere 
block  of  stone,  with  its  head  tapering  to  a  point.  It  has  thus  been  fashioned, 
not  by  a  mortal  artist,  but  by  a  play  of  nature.  After  this  original  the  Samo- 
iedes  have  formed  many  idols  of  stone  or  wood  of  various  sizes,  which  they  call 
"  Sjadffii,"  from  their  possessing  a  human  physiognomy  (sja).  These  idols  they 
dress  in  reindeer  skins,  and  ornament  them  with  all  sorts  of  colored  rags.  But 
a  resemblance  to  the  human  form  is  not  the  necessary  attribute  of  a  Samoiede 
idol ;  any  irregularly-shaped  stone  or  tree  may  be  thus  distinguished.  If  the 
object  is  small,  the  savage  carries  it  everywhere  about  with  him,  carefully  wrap- 
ped up;  if  too  cumbersome  to  be  transported,  it  is  reserved  as  a  kind  of  nation- 
al deity.  As  with  the  Ostiaks,  each  Samoiede  tribe  has  in  its  train  a  peculiar 
sledge — the  Ilahengau — in  which  the  household  idols  (or  Hahe)  are  placed. 
One  of  these  Penates  protects  the  reindeer,  another  watches  over  the  health  of 
his  worshippers,  a  third  is  the  guardian  of  their  connubial  happiness,  a  fourth 
takes  care  to  fill  their  nets  with  fish.  Whenever  his  services  are  required,  the 
Hahe  is  taken  from  his  repository,  and  erected  in  the  tent  or  on  the  pasture- 
ground,  in  the  wood  or  on  the  river's  bank.  His  mouth  is  then  smeared  with 
oil  or  blood,  and  a  dish  with  fish  or  flesh  is  set  before  him,  in  the  full  expecta- 
tion that  his  good  ofiices  will  amply  repay  the  savory  repast.  When  his  aid 
is  no  longer  necessary,  he  is  put  aside  without  any  further  ceremony,  and  as  lit- 
tle noticed  as  the  Madonna  of  the  Neapolitan  fisherman  after  the  storm  has 
ceased. 

The  Hahe,  or  idols,  are  very  convenient  objects  of  reverence  to  the  Samoiede, 
as  he  can  consult  them,  or  ask  their  assistance,  without  being  initiated  in  the 
secrets  of  magic ;  while  the  Tadebtsios,  or  invisible  spirits,  which  everywhere 
hover  about  in  the  air,  and  are  more  inclined  to  injure  than  to  benefit  man,  can 
only  be  invoked  by  a  Tadibe,  or  sorcerer,  who,  like  the  Cumaean  Sibyl,  Avorks 
himself  into  a  state  of  ecstatic  frenzy.  When  his  services  are  required,  the 
first  care  of  the  Tadibe  is  to  invest  himself  with  his  magical  mantle — a  kind  of 
shirt  made  of  reindeer  leather,  and  hemmed  with  red  cloth.  The  seams  are 
covered  in  a  similar  manner,  and  the  shoulders  ai-e  decorated  with  epaulettes  of 
the  same  gaudy  material.  A  piece  of  red  cloth  veils  the  eyes  and  face — for  the 
Tadibe  requires  no  external  organs  of  sight  to  penetrate  into  the  world  of  spirits 
— and  a  plate  of  polished  metal  shines  upon  his  breast. 

Thus  accoutred,  the  Tadibe  seizes  his  magical  drum,  whose  sounds  summon 
the  spirits  to  his  will.  Its  form  is  round,  it  has  but  one  bottom,  made  of  rein- 
deer skin,  and  is  more  or  less  decorated  with  brass  rings  and  other  ornaments, 
according  to  the  wealth  or  poverty  of  its  possessor.  During  the  ceremony  of 
invocation,  the  Tadibe  is  generally  assisted  by  a  disciple,  more  or  less  initiated 


THE   SAMOiEDES.  181 

in  the  magic  art.  They  either  sit  down,  or  walk  about  in  a  circle.  The  chief 
sorcerer  beats  the  drum,  at  first  slowly,  then  with  increasing  violence,  singing  at 
the  same  time  a  few  words  to  a  mystic  melody.  The  disciple  immediately  falls 
in,  and  both  repeat  the  same  monotonous  chant. 

At  length  the  spirits  appear,  and  the  consultation  is  supposed  to  begin ;  the 
Tadibe  from  time  to  time  remaining  silent,  as  if  listening  to  their  answers,  and 
but  gently  beating  his  drum,  while  the  assistant  continues  to  sing.  Finally,  this 
route  conversation  ceases,  the  song  changes  into  a  wild  howling,  the  drum  is 
violently  struck,  the  eye  of  the  Tadibe  glows  with  a  strange  fire,  foam  issues 
from  his  lips — when  suddenly  the  uj^roar  ceases,  and  the  oracular  sentence  is 
pronounced.  The  Tadibes  are  consulted  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  recovering 
a  strange  reindeer,  or  to  preserve  the  herd  from  a  contagious  disorder,  or  to 
obtain  success  in  fishing ;  the  Samoiede,  when  a  prey  to  illness,  seeks  no  otlier 
medical  advice ;  and  the  sorcerei''s  drum  either  scares  away  the  malevolent 
spirits  that  cause  the  malady,  or  summons  others  to  the  assistance  of  his  patient. 

The  ofiice  of  Tadibe  is  generally  hereditary,  but  individuals  gifted  by  nature 
with  excitable  nerves  and  an  ardent  imagination  not  seldom  desire  to  be  initia- 
ted in  these  supernatural  communications.  No  one  can  teach  the  candidate. 
His  morbid  fancy  is  worked  upon  by  solitude,  the  contemplation  of  the  gloomy 
aspect  of  nature,  long  vigils,  fasts,  the  use  of  narcotics  and  stimulants,  until  he 
becomes  persuaded  that  he  too  has  seen  the  apparitions  which  he  has  heard  of 
from  his  boyhood.  He  is  then  received  as  a  Tadibe  with  many  ceremonies, 
which  are  held  in  the  silence  of  the  night,  and  invested  with  the  magic  drum. 
Thus  the  Tadibe  partly  believes  in  the  visions  and  fancies  of  his  own  overheated 
brain.  Besides  dealing  with  the  invisible  world,  he  does  not  neglect  the  usual 
arts  of  an  expert  conjuror,  and  knows  by  this  means  to  increase  his  influence 
over  his  simple-minded  countrymen.  One  of  his  commonest  tricks  is  similar  to 
that  which  has  been  practised  with  so  much  success  by  the  Brothers  Daven- 
port. He  sits  down,  with  his  hands  and  feet  bound,  on  a  reindeer  skin  stretched 
out  upon  the  floor,  and,  the  light  being  removed,  begins  to  summon  the  minis- 
tering spirits  to  his  aid.  •  Strange  unearthly  noises  now  begin  to  be  heard — 
bears  growl,  snakes  hiss,  squirrels  rustle  about  the  hut.  At  length  the  tumult 
ceases,  the  audience  anxiously  awaits  the  end  of  the  spectacle,  when  suddenly 
the  Tadibe,  freed  from  his  bonds,  steps  into  the  hut — no  one  doubting  that  the 
spirits  have  set  him  free. 

As  barbarous  as  the  poor  wretches  who  submit  to  his  guidance,  the  Tadibe 
is  incapable  of  improving  their  moral  condition,  and  has  no  wish  to  do  so. 
Under  various  names — Schamans  among  the  Tungusi,  Angekoks  among  the 
Esquimaux,  medicine-men  among  the  Crees  and  Chepewyans,  etc. — we  find  sim- 
ilar magicians  or  impostors  assuming  a  spiritual  dictatorship  over  all  the  Arc- 
tic nations  of  the  Old  and  the  New  World,  wherever  their  authority  has  not 
been  broken  by  Christianity  or  Buddhism ;  and  this  dreary  faith  still  extends 
its  influence  over  at  least  half  a  million  of  souls,  from  the  White  Sea  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  Asia,  and  from  the  Pacific  to  Hudson's  Bay. 

Like  the  Ostiaks  and  other  Siberian  tribes,  the  Samoiedes  honor  the  memory 
of  the  dead  by  sacrifices  and  other  ceremonies.     They  believe  that  their  de- 


183  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

ceased  friends  have  still  the  same  wants,  and  pursue  the  same  occupations,  as 
when  in  the  land  of  the  living ;  and  thus  they  place  in  or  about  their  graves  a 
sledge,  a  spear,  a  cooking-pot,  a  knife,  an  axe,  etc.,  to  assist  them  in  procuring 
and  preparing  their  food.  At  the  funeral,  and  for  several  years  afterwards,  the 
relations  sacrifice  reindeer  over  the  grave.  When  a  person  of  note,  a  prince,  a 
Starschina,  the  proprietor  of  numerous  herds  of  reindeer,  dies  (for  even  among 
the  miserable  Samoiedes  we  find  the  social  distinctions  of  rich  and  poor),  the 
nearest  relations  make  an  image,  which  is  placed  in  the  tent  of  the  deceased, 
and  enjoys  the  respect  paid  to  him  during  his  lifetime.  At  every  meal  the  im- 
age is  placed  in  his  former  seat,  and  every  evening  it  is  undressed  and  laid 
down  in  his  bed.  During  three  years  the  image  is  thus  honored,  and  then 
buried ;  for  by  this  time  the  body  is  supposed  to  be  decayed,  and  to  have  lost 
all  sensation  of  the  past.  The  souls  of  the  Tadibes,  and  of  those  who  have  died 
a  violent  death,  alone  enjoy  the  privilege  of  immortality,  and  after  their  terres- 
trial life  hover  about  in  the  air  as  unsubstantial  spirits. 

Yet  in  spite  of  this  privilege,  and  of  the  savory  morsels  that  fall  to  their 
share  at  every  sacrificial  feast,  or  of  the  presents  received  for  their  services,  the 
Tadibes  are  very  unhappy  beings.  The  ecstatic  condition  into  which  they  so 
frequently  work  themselves  shatters  their  nerves  and  darkens  their  mind.  Wild 
looks,  bloodshot  eyes,  an  imcertain  gait,  and  a  shy  manner,  are  among  the  ef- 
fects of  this  periodical  excitement. 

Like  the  Ostiaks,  the  Samoiedes  consider  the  taking  of  an  oath  as  an  action 
of  the  highest  religious  importance.  When  a  crime  has  been  secretly  commit- 
ted against  a  Samoiede,  he  has  the  right  to  demand  an  oath  from  the  suspected 
person. 

If  no  wooden  or  stone  Hahe  is  at  hand,  he  manufactures  one  of  earth  or 
snow,  leads  his  opponent  to  the  image,  sacrifices  a  dog,  breaks  the  image,  and 
then  addresses  him  with  the  following  words : — "  If  thou  hast  committed  this 
crime,  then  must  thou  perish  like  this  dog."  The  ill  consequences  of  perjury 
are  so  much  dreaded  by  the  Samoides — who,  though  they  have  but  very  faint 
ideas  of  a  future  state,  firmly  believe  that  crime  will  be  punished  in  this  life, 
murder  with  violent  death,  or  robbery  by  losses  of  reindeer — that  the  true 
criminal,  when  called  upon  to  swear,  hardly  ever  submits  to  the  ceremony,  but 
rather  at  once  confesses  his  guilt  and  pays  the  penalty. 

The  most  effectual  security  for  r.n  oath  is  that  it  should  be  solemnized  over 
the  snout  of  a  bear— an  animal  which  is  highly  revered  by  all  the  Siberian  tribes, 
from  the  Kamchatkans  to  the  Samoiedes,  as  well  as  by  the  Laplanders.  Like 
the  Laplanders,  they  believe  that  the  bear  conceals  under  his  shaggy  coat  a  hu- 
man shape  with  more  than  human  wisdom,  and  speak  of  him  in  terms  of  the 
highest  reverence.  Like  the  Lapps  also,  when  occasion  offers,  they  will  drive 
an  arrow  or  a  bullet  through  his  skin ;  but  they  preface  the  attack  with  so 
many  compliments  that  they  feel  sure  of  disarming  his  anger. 

The  appearance  of  the  Samoiedes  is  as  wild  as  the  country  which  they  in- 
habit. The  dwarfish  stature  of  the  Ostiak,  or  the  Lapp,  thick  lips,  small  eyes, 
a  low  forehead,  a  broad  nose  so  much  flattened  that  the  end  is  nearly  upon  a 
level  with  the  bone  of  the  upper  jaw  (which  is  strong  and  greatly  elevated). 


THE   SAMOIEDES.  183 

raven-black  shaggy  hair,  a  thin  beard,  and  a  yellow-brown  complexion,  arc  their 
characteristic  features,  and  in  general  they  do  nothing  to  improve  a  form  which 
has  but  little  natural  beauty  to  boast  of.  The  Samoiede  is  satisfied  if  his  heavy 
reindeer  dress  affords  him  protection  against  the  cold  and  rain,  and  cares  little 
if  it  be  dirty  or  ill-cut;  some  dandies, however,  wear  furs  trimmed  with  cloth 
of  a  gaudy  color.  The  women,  as  long  as  they  are  unmarried,  take  some  pains 
with  their  persons ;  and  when  a  Samoiede  girl,  with  her  small  and  lively  black 
eyes,  appears  in  her  reindeer  jacket  tightly  fitting  round  the  waist,  and  trim- 
med with  dog-skin,  in  her  scarlet  moccasins,  and  her  long  black  tresses  orna- 
mented with  pieces  of  brass  or  tin,  sTie  may  well  tempt  some  rich  admirer  to 
offer  a  whole  herd  of  reindeer  for  her  hand.  For  among  the  Samoiedes  no 
father  ever  thinks  of  bestowing  a  portion  on  his  daughter :  on  the  contrary,  he 
expects  from  the  bridegroom  an  equivalent  for  the  services  which  he  is  about 
toMose  by  her  marriage.  The  consequence  of  this  degrading  custom  is  that  the 
husband  treats  his  consort  like  a  slave,  or  as  an  inferior  being.  A  Samoiede, 
who  had  murdered  his  wife,  was  quite  surprised  at  being  summoned  before  a 
court  of  justice  for  what  he  considered  a  trifling  offense;  "he  had  honestly 
paid  for  her,"  he  said,  "  and  could  surely  do  what  he  Hked  with  his  own.-" 

The  senses  and  faculties  of  the  Samoiedes  correspond  to  their  mode  of  life 
as  nomads  and  hunters.  They  have  a  piercing  eye,  delicate  hearing,  and  a 
steady  hand  :  they  shoot  an  arrow  with  great  accuracy,  and  are  swift  runners. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  have  a  gross  taste,  generally  consuming  their  fish  or 
their  reindeer  flesh  raw ;  aud  their  smell  is  so  weak  that  they  appear  quite  in- 
sensible to  the  putrefying  odors  arising  from  the  scrapings  of  skins,  stinking 
fish,  and  other  offal  which  is  allowed  to  accumulate  in  and  about  their  huts. 

The  Samoiede  is  good-natured,  melancholy,  and  phlegmatic.  He  has,  in- 
deed, but  indistinct  notions  of  right  and  wrong,  of  good  and  evil ;  but  he  pos- 
sesses a  grateful  heart,  and  is  ready  to  divide  his  last  morsel  with  his  friend. 
Cruelty,  revenge,  the  darker  crimes  that  pollute  so  many  of  the  savage  tribes 
of  the  tropical  zone,  are  foreign  to  his  character.  Constantly  at  war  with  a 
dreadful  climate,  a  prey  to  ignorance  and  poverty,  he  regards  most  of  the 
things  of  this  life  with  supreme  indifference.  A  good  meal  is  of  course  a 
matter  of  importance  in  his  eyes  ;  but  even  the  want  of  a  meal  he  will  bear 
with  stoical  apathy,  when  it  can  only  be  gained  by  exertion,  for  he  sets  a  still 
higher  value  on  repose  and  sleep.  ^ 

A  common  trait  in  the  character  of  all  Samoiedes  is  the  gloomy  view  which 
they  take  of  life  and  its  concerns ; '  their  internal  world  is  as  cheerless  as  that 
which  surrounds  them.  True  men  of  ice  and  snow,  they  relinquish,  without  a 
nfiurmur,  a  life  which  they  can  hardly  love,  as  it  imposes  upon  them  many 
privations,  and  affords  them  but  few  pleasures  in  return. 

They  are  suspicious,  like  all  oppressed  nations  that  have  much  to  suffer  from 
their  more  crafty  or  energetic  neighbors.  Obstinately  attached  to  their  old 
customs,  they  are  opposed  to  all  innovations ;  and  they  have  been  so  often  de- 
ceived by  the  Russians,  that  they  may  well  be  pardoned  if  they  look  with  a 
mistrustful  eye  upon  all  benefits  coming  from  that  source. 

The  wealth  of  the  Samoiedes  consists  in  the  possession  of  herds  of  reindeer. 


184  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

and  P.  von  Krusenst.ern,  in  1845,  calculated  the  number  owned  by  the  Samo- 
iedes  of  the  Lower  Petschora,  near  Pustosersk,  at  40,000  head — a  much  small- 
er number  than  what  they  formerly  had,  owing  to  a  succession  of  misfortunes. 
The  Russian  settlers  along  that  immense  stream  and  its  tributaries  gradually 
obtain  j^ossession  of  their  best  pasture-grounds,  and  force  them  to  recede  within 
narrower  and  narrower  limits.  Thus  many  have  been  reduced  to  the  wretch- 
ed condition  of  the  Arctic  fisherman,  or  have  been  compelled  to  exchange  their 
ancient  independence  for  a  life  of  submission  to  the  will  of  an  imperious  master. 
The  entire  number  of  the  European  and  Asiatic  Samoiedes  is  estimated  at 
no  more  than  about  10,000,  and  this  number,  small  as  it  is  when  compared  to 
the  vast  territory  over  which  they  roam,  is  still  decreasing  from  year  to  year. 
Before  their  subjugation  by  the  Russians,  the  Samoiedes  were  frequently  at  war 
with  their  neighbors,  the  Ostiaks,  the  Woguls,  and  the  Tartars,  and  the  rude 
poems  which  celebrate  the  deeds  of  the  heroes  of  old  are  still  sung  in  the  terfts 
of  their  peaceful  descendants.  The  minstrel,  or  trouhadoiir — if  I  may  be  al- 
lowed to  use  these  names  while  speaking  of  the  rudest  of  mankind — is  seated 
in  the  centre  of  the  hut,  while  the  audience  squat  around.  His  gesticulations 
endeavor  to  express  his  sympathy  with  his  hero.  His  body  trembles,  his  voice 
quivers,  and  during  the  more  pathetic  parts  of  his  story,  tears  start  to  his  eyes, 
and  he  covers  his  face  with  his  left  hand,  while  the  right,  holding  an  arrow,  di- 
rects its  point  to  the  ground.  The  audience  generally  keep  silence,  but  theii' 
groans  accompany  the  hero's  death ;  or  when  he  soars  upon  an  eagle  to  the 
clouds,  and  thus  escapes  the  malice  of  his  enemies,  they  express  their  delight 
by  a  triumphant  shout. 


THE   OSTIAKS. 


185 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE  OSTIAKS. 

What  is  the  Obi? — Inundations. — An  Ostiak  summer  Yourt. — Poverty  of  the  Ostiak  Fishermen.— A 
winter  Yourt. — Attachment  of  the  Ostiaks  to  their  ancient  Customs. — An  Ostiak  Prince. — Archery. 
— Appearance  and  Character  of  the  Ostiaks. — The  Fair  of  Obdorsk. 

WHAT  is  the  Obi  ? — "  One  of  the  most  melancholy  rivers  on  earth,"  say 
th«  few  European  travellers  who  have  ever  seen  it  roll  its  turbid  waters 
through  the  wilderness,  "  its  monotonous  banks  a  dreary  succession  of  swamps 
and  dismal  pine-forests,  and  hardly  a  living  creature  to  be  seen,  but  cranes, 
wild  ducks,  and  geese."  If  you  address  the  same  question  to  one  of  the  few 
Russians  who  have  settled  on  its  banks,  he  answers,  with  a  devout  mien,  "  Obi 
is  our  mother ;"  but  if  you  ask  the  Ostiak,  he  bursts  forth,  in  a  laconic  but  en- 
ergetic phrase,  "  Obi  is  the  god  A\diom  we  honor  above  all  our  other  gods." 

To  him  the  Obi  is  a  source  of  life.  With  its  salmon  and  sturgeon  he  pays 
his  taxes  and  debts,  and  buys  his  few  luxin-ies ;  while  the  fishes  of  inferior 
quality  which  get  entangled  in  his  net  he  keeps  for  his  own  consumption  and 
that  of  his  faithful  dog,  eating  them  mostly  raw,  so  that  the  perch  not  seldom 
feels  his  teeth  as  soon  as  it  is  pulled  out  of  the  water.  In  spring,  when  the 
Obi  and  its  tributaries  burst  their  bonds  of  ice,  and  the  floods  sweep  over  the 
plains,  the  Ostiak  is  frequently  driven  .into  the  woods,  Avhere  he  finds  but  little 
to  appease  his  hunger;  at  length,  however,  the  waters  subside,  the  flat  banks 


186  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

of  the  river  appear  above  their  surface,  and  the  savage  erects  his  summer  hut 
close  to  its  stream.  This  hovel  has  generally  a  quadrangular  form,  low  walls, 
and  a  high  pointed  roof,  made  of  willow-branches  covered  with  large  pieces  of 
bark.  These,  having  first  been  softened  by  boiling,  are  sewn  together,  so  as  to 
form  large  mats  or  carpets,  easily  rolled  up  and  transported.  The  hearth,  a 
mere  hole  inclosed  by  a  few  stones,  is  in  the  centre,  and  the  smoke  escapes 
through  an  aperture  at  the  top.  Close  to  the  hut  there  is  also,  generally,  a 
small  store-house  erected  on  high  poles,  as  in  Lapland ;  for  the  provisions  must 
be  secured  against  the  attacks  of  the  glutton,  the  wolf,  or  the  owner's  dogs. 

Although  the  Obi  and  its  tributaries — the  Irtysch,  the  Wach,  the  Wasju- 
gan — abundantly  provide  for  the  wants  of  the  Ostiaks,  yet  those  who  are  ex- 
clusively fishermen  vegetate  in  a  state  of  the  greatest  poverty,  in  indolence, 
drunkenness,  and  vice.  The  wily  Russian  settlers  have  got  them  completely 
in  their  power,  by  advancing  them  goods  on  credit,  and  thus  securing  the  prod- 
uce of  their  fisheries  from  year  to  year.  During  the  whole  summer  Russian 
speculators  from  Obdorsk,  Beresow,  and  Tobolsk  sail  about  on  the  Obi,  to  re- 
ceive from  their  Ostiak  debtors  the  salmon  and  sturgeon  which  they  have 
caught,  or  to  fish  on  their  own  account,  which,  as  having  better  nets  and  more 
assistance,  they  do  with  much  greater  success  than  the  poor  savages. 

The  Russian  Government  has,  indeed,  confirmed  the  Ostiaks  in  the  posses- 
sion of  almost  all  the  land  and  water  in  the  territories  of  the  Lower  Obi  and 
Irtysch,  but  the  Russian  traders  find  means  to  monopolize  the  best  part  of  the 
fisheries  ;  for  ignorance  and  stupidity,  in  spite  of  all  law§  in  their  favor,  are 
nowhere  a  match  for  mercantile  cunning. 

At  the  beginning  of  winter  the  Ostiaks  retire  into  the  woods,  where  they 
find  at  least  some  protection  against  the  Arctic  blasts,  and  are  busy  hunting 
the  sable  or  the  squirrel ;  but  as  fishing  affords  them  at  all  times  their  chief 
food,  they  take  care  to  establish  their  winter  huts  on  some  eminence  above  the 
reach  of  the  spring  inundations,  near  some  small  river,  which,  through  holes 
made  in  the  ice,  affords  their  nets  and  anglers  a  precarious  supply.  Their 
winter  yourt  is  somewhat  more  solidly  constructed  than  their  summer  resi- 
dence, as  it  is  not  removed  every  year.  It  is  low  and  small,  and  its^walls  are 
plastered  with  clay.  Light  is  admitted  through  a  piece  of  ice  inserted  in  the 
wall  or  on  the  roof.  In  the  better  sort  of  huts,  the  space  along  one  or  several 
of  the  walls  is  hung  with  mats  made  of  sedges,  and  here  the  family  sits  or 
sleeps.  Sometimes  a  small  antechamber  serves  to  hang  up  the  clothes,  or  is 
used  as  a  repository  for  household  utensils.  Besides  those  who  live  solely  upon 
fishes  and  birds  of  passage,  there  are  other  Ostiaks  who  possess  reindeer  herds, 
and  wander  in  summer  to  the  border  of  the  Polar  sea,  where  they  also  catch 
seals  and  fish.  When  winter  approaches,  they  slowly  return  to  the  woods. 
Finally,  in  the  more  southerly  districts,  there  are  some  Ostiaks  who,  having 
entirely  adopted  the  Russian  mode  of  life,  cultivate  the  soil,  keep  cattle,  or  earn 
their  livelihood  as  carriers. 

In  general,  however,  the  Ostiak,  like  the  Samoiede,  obstinately  withstands 
all  innovations,  and  remains  true  to  the  customs  of  his  forefathers.  He  has 
been  so  often  deceived  by  the  Russians  that  he  is  loth  to  receive  the  gifts  of 


THE   OSTIAKS.  187 

civilization  from  their  hands.  He  fears  that  if  his  chihlrcn  learn  to  read  and 
write,  they  will  no  longer  be  satisfied  to  live  like  their  parents,  and  that  the 
school  will  deprive  him  of  the  support  of  his  age.  He  is  no  less  obstinately  at- 
tached to  the  religion  of  his  fathers,  which  in  all  essential  points  is  identical 
with  that  of  the  Samoiedes.  In  some  of  the  southern  districts,  along  the  Ir- 
tysch,  at  Surgut,  he  has  indeed  been  baptized,  and  hangs  up  the  image  of  a 
saint  in  his  hut,  as  his  Russian  pope  or  priest  has  instructed  him  to  do  ;  but 
his  Christianity  extends  no  farther.  Along  the  tributaries  of  the  Obi,  and  be- 
low Obdorsk,  he  is  still  plunged  in  Schamanisra. 

Like  the  Samoiedes,  the  Ostiaks,  whose  entire  number  amounts  to  about 
25,000,  are  subdivided  into  tribes,  reminding  one  of  the  Highland  clans.  Each 
tribe  consists  of  a  number  of  families,  of  a  common  descent,  and  sometimes 
comprising  many  hundred  individuals,  who,  however  distantly  related,  con- 
sider it  a  duty  to  assist  each  other  in  distress.  The  fortunate  fisherman  di- 
vides the  spoils  of  the  day  with  his  less  fortunate  clansman,  who  hardly  thanks 
him  for  a  gift  which  he  considers  as  his  due.  In  cases  of  dispute  the  Star- 
schina,  or  elder,  acts  as  a  judge ;  if,  however,  the  parties  are  not  satisfied  with 
his  verdict,  they  appeal  to  the  higher  authority  of  the  hereditaiy  chieftain  or 
prince — a  title  which  has  been  conferred  by  the  Empress  Catherine  II.  on  the 
Ostiak  magnates,  who,  from  time  immemorial,  have  been  considered  as  the 
heads  of  their  tribes.  These  princes  are,  of  course,  subordinate  to  the  Russian 
officials,  and  bound  to  appear,  with  the  Starschinas,  at  the  fairs  of  Beresow  or 
Obdorsk,  as  they  are  answerable  for  the  quantity  and  quajity  of  the  various 
sorts  of  furs  which  the  Ostiaks  are  obliged  to  pay  as  a  tribute  to  Government. 
Their  dignity  is  hereditary,  and,  in  default  of  male  descendants,  passes  to  the 
nearest  male  relation.  It  must,  however,  not  be  supposed  that  these  princes 
are  distinguished  from  the  other  Ostiaks  by  their  riches  or  a  more  splendid 
appearance  ;  for  their  mode  of  life  differs  in  no  way  from  that  of  their  inferiors 
in  rank,  and,  like  them,  they  are  obliged  to  fish  or  to  hunt  for  their  daily  sub- 
sistence. 

On  entering  the  hut  of  one  of  these  dignitaries,  Castren  found  him  in  a 
ragged  jacket,  while  the  princess  had  no  other  robe  of  state  but  a  shirt.  The 
prince,  having  liberally  helped  himself  from  the  brandy-bottle  which  the  trav- 
eller offered  him,  became  very  communicative,  and  complained  of  the  suffer- 
ings and  cares  of  the  past  winter.  He  had  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost,  but 
without  success.  Far  from  giving  way  to  indolence  in  his  turf-hut,  he  had  been 
out  hunting  in  the  forest,  after  the  first  snow-fall,  but  rarely  pitching  his  bark- 
tent,  and  frequently  sleeping  in  the  open  air.  Yet,  in  spite  of  all  his  exertions, 
he  had  often  not  been  able  to  shoot  a  single  ptarmigan.  His  stores  of  meal 
and  frozen  fishes  were  soon  exhausted,  and  sometimes  the  princely  family  had 
been  reduced  to  eat  the  flesh  of  wolves. 

The  Ostiaks  are  excellent  archers,  and,  like  all  the  other  hunting  tribes  of 
Siberia,  use  variously  constructed  arrows  for  the  different  objects  of  their  chase. 
Smaller  shafts,  with  a  knob  of  wood  at  the  end,  are  destined  for  the  squirrels 
and  other  small  animals  whose  fur  it  is  desii-able  not  to  injure;  while  large  ar- 
rows, with  strong  triangular  iron  points,  bring  down  the  wolf,  the  bear,  and 


188 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


sometimes  the  fugitive  exile.  For,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  criminals  sentenced 
to  banishment  in  Siberia,  the  Russian  Government  allows  the  Ostiaks  to  shoot 
any  unknown  person,  not  belonging  to  their  race,  whom  they  may  meet  with  on 
their  territory.  Although  well  aware  of  this  danger,  several  exiles  have  at- 
tempted to  escape  to  Archangel  along  the  border  of  the  Arctic  sea ;  but  they 
either  died  of  liunger,  or  were  devoured  by  wild  beasts,  or  shot  by  the  Ostiaks. 
There  is  but  one  instance  known  of  an  exile  who,  after  spending  a  whole  year 
on  the  journey,  at  length  reached  the  abodes  of  civilized  man,  and  he  was  par- 
doned in  consideration  of  the  dreadful  sufferings  he  had  undergone. 

The  Ostiaks  are  generally  of  a  small  stature,  aud  most  of  them  are  dark-com- 
plexioned, with  raven-black  hair  like  the  Samoiedes ;  some  of  them,  however, 
have  a  fairer  skin  and  light-colored  hair.  They  have  neither  the  oblique  eyes 
nor  the  broad  projecting  cheek-bones  of  the  Mongols  and  Tungus,  but  bear  a 
ijreater  resemblance  to  the  Finnish,  Samoiede,  and  Turkish  cast  of  countenance. 
They  are  a  good-natured,  indolent,  honest  race ;  and  though  they  are  extremely 
dirty,  yet  their  smoky  huts  are  not  more  filthy  than  those  of  tlie  Norwegian  or 
Icelandic  fisherman.  As  among  the  Samoiedes,  the  women  are  in  a  very  de- 
graded condition,  the  father  always  giving  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  the 
liighest  bidder.  The  price  is  very  different,  and  rises  or  falls  according  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  parent ;  for  while  the  rich  man  asks  fifty  reindeer  for  his 
child,  the  poor  fisherman  is  glad  to  part  with  his  daughter  for  a  few  squirrel- 
skins  and  dried  sturgeon. 

Before  taking  lefive  of  the  Ostiaks,  we  will  still  tarry  a  moment  at  the  small 
town  of  Obdorsk,  which  may  be  considered  as  the  capital  of  their  country,  and 
entirely  owes  its  existence  to  the  trade  carried  on  between  them  and  the  Rus- 
sians. Formerly  the  merchants  from  Beresow  and  Tobolsk  used  merely  to  visit 
the  spot,  but  the  difiiculties  of  the  journey  soon  compelled  them  to  establish 
permanent  dwellings  in  that  dreary  region.  A  certain  number  of  exiles  serves 
to  increase  the  scanty  population,  which  consists  of  a  strange  medley  of  various 
nations,  among  whom  Castren  found  a  Calmuck,  a  Kirghis,  and  a  Polish  cook, 


GKOUP   OF   KIKGHIS. 


THE    OSTIAKS.  189 

who  bitterly  complained  that  he  had  but  few  opportunities  of  showing  his  skill 
in  a  town  where  people  lived  d  la  Ostiak.  In  fact,  most  of  the  Russian  in- 
habitants of  the  place  have  in  so  far  adopted  the  Ostiak  mode  of  life,  as  to 
deem  the  cooking  of  their  victuals  superfluous.  When  Castren,  on  his  arrival 
at  Obdorsk,  paid  a  visit  to  a  Tobolsk  merchant,  who  had  been  for  some  time 
settled  in  the  place,  he  found  the  whole  family  lying  on  the  floor,  regaling  on 
raw  fish,  and  the  most  civilized  person  he  met  with  told  him  that  he  had  tasted 
neither  boiled  nor  roast  flesh  or  fish  for  half  a  year.  Yet  fine  shawls  and 
dresses,  and  now  no  doubt  the  crinoline  and  the  chignon,  are  found  amidst  all 
this  barbarism.  Edifices  with  the  least  pretensions  to  architectural  beauty  it 
would  of  course  be  vain  to  look  for  in  Obdorsk,  The  houses  of  the  better  sort 
of  Russian  settlers  are  two-storied,  or  consisting  of  a  ground-floor  and  garrets ; 
but  as  they  are  built  of  wood,  and  are  by  no  means  wind-tight,  the  half-fam- 
ished Ostiaks,  who  have  settled  in  the  town,  are  probably  more  comfortably 
house'd  in  their  low  turf-huts  than  the  prosperous  Russian  inhabitants  of 
the  place.  The  latter  make  it  their  chief  occupation  to  cheat  the  Ostiaks  in 
every  possible  way ;  some  of  them,  however,'  add  to  this  profitable,  if  not 
praiseworthy  occupation,  the  keeping  of  reindeer  herds,  or  even  of  cows  and 
sheep. 

The  fair  lasts  from  the  beginning  of  winter  to  February,  and  during  this 
time  the  Ostiaks  who  assemble  at  Obdorsk  pitch  their  bark-tents  about  the 
town.  With  their  arrival  a  new  life  begins  to  stir  in  the  wretched  place. 
Groups  of  the  wild  sons  and  daughters  of  the  tundra,  clothed  in  heavy  skins, 
make  their  appearance,  and  stroll  slowdy  through  the  sti'eets,  admii'ing  the  high 
wooden  houses,  which  to  them  seem  palaces.  But  nothing  is  to  be  seen  of  the 
animation  and  activity  which  usually  characterize  a  fair.  Concealing  some  cost- 
ly fur  under  his  wide  skin  mantle,  the  savage  pays  his  cautious  visit  to  the  trad- 
er, and  makes  his  bargain  amidst  copious  libations  of  brandy.  He  is  well  aware 
that  this  underhand  way  of  dealing  is  detrimental  to  his  interests  ;  that  his  tim- 
orous disposition  shrinks  from  public  sales,  and  frequently  he  is  not  even  in  the 
situation  to  profit  by  competition ;  for  among  the  thousands  that  flock  to  the 
fair,  there  are  but  very  few  who  do  not  owe  to  the  traders  of  Obdorsk  much 
more  than  they  possess,  or  can  ever  hope  to  repay.  Woe  to  the  poor  Ostiak 
whose  creditor  should  find  him  dealing  with  some  other  trader  ! — for  the  seizure 
of  all  his  movable  property,  of  his  tent  and  household  utensils,  would  be  the 
least  punishment  which  the  wretch  turned  adrift  into  the  naked  desert  would 
have  to  expect.  The  fair  is  not  opened  before  Government  has  received  the 
furs  which  are  due  to  it,  or  at  least  a  guarantee  for  the  amount  from  the  mer- 
chants of  the  place.  Then  the  magazines  of  the  traders  gradually  fill  with  furs 
— with  clothes  of  reindeer  skin  ready  made,  with  feathers,  reindeer  flesh,  frozen 
sturgeon,  mammoth  tusks,  etc.  For  these  goods  the  Ostiaks  receive  flour, 
baked  bread,  tobacco,  pots,  kettles,  knives,  needles,  brass  buttons  and  rings,  glass 
pearls,  and  other  trifling  articles.  An  open  trade  in  spirits  is  not  allowed  ;  but 
brandy  maybe  sold  as  a  medicine,  and  thus  many  an  Ostiak  takes  advantage  of 
the  fair  for  undergoing  a  cure  the  reverse  of  that  which  is  recommended  by  hy- 
dropathic doctors. 


190 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


Towards  the  end  of  February,  when  the  Ostiaks  have  retired  into  the  M^oods 
— where  they  himt  or  tend  their  reindeer  herds  until  the  opening  of  the  fishing- 
season  recalls  them  to  the  Obi — the  trader  prepares  for  his  journey  to  Irbit, 
where  he  hopes  to  dispose  of  his  furs  at  an  enormous  profit,  and  Obdorsk  is 
once  more  left  until  the  following  winter  to  its  death-like  solitude. 


CONQUEST   OF   SIBERIA   BY  THE   RUSSIANS. 


191 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

CONQUEST  OF  SIBERIA  BY  THE  RUSSIANS— THEIR  VOYAGES  OF  DISC0\T:RY  ALONG 
THE  SHORES  OF  THE  POLAR  SEA. 

Ivan  the  Terrible. — Strogonoff. — Yermak,  the  Robber  and  Conqueror. — His  Expeditions  to  Siberia. — 
Battle  of  Tobolsk. — Yermak's  Death. — Progress  of  the  Russians  to  Ochotsk. — Semen  Deshnew. — 
Condition  of  the  Siberian  Natives  under  the  Russian  Yoke. — Voj'ages  of  Discover}-  in  the  Reign  of 
the  Empress  Anna. — Prontschischtschew. — Chariton  and  Demetrius  Laptew. — An  Arctic  Heroine. 
— Schalaurow. — Discoveries  in  the  Sea  of  Bering  and  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. — The  Lachow  Islands. — 
Fossil  Ivor}'. — New  Siberia. — The  wooden  Mountains. — The  past  Ages  of  Siberia. 

TN"  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  centui'y,  the  now  huge  Empire  of  Russia 
-*-  was  confined  to  part  of  her  present  European  possessions,  and  divided  into 
several  independent  principalities,  the  scene  of  disunion  and  almost  perpetual 
warfare.  Thus  when  the  country  was  invaded,  in  1236,  by  the  Tartars,  under 
Baaty  Khan,  a  grandson  of  the  famous  Gengis  Khan,  it  fell  an  easy  prey  to  its 
conquerors.  The  miseries  of  a  foreign  yoke,  aggravated  by  intestine  discord, 
lasted  about  250  years,  until  Ivan  Wasiljewitsch  I.  (1462-1505)  became  the 
deliverer  of  his  country,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  her  future  greatness.  This 
able  prince  subdued,  in  1470,  the  Great  Novgorod,  a  city  until  then  so  powerful 
as  to  have  maintained  its  independence,  both  against  the  Russian  grand  princes 
and  the  Tartar  khans  ;  and,  ten  years  later,  he  not  only  threw  off  the  yoke  of  the 
Khans  of  Khipsack,  but  destroyed  their  empire.  The  conquest  of  Constanti- 
nople by  the  Turks  placed  the  spiritual  diadem  of  the  ancient  Ciesars  on  his 


193  THE   POLAR    WORLD. 

head,  and  caused  him,  as  chief  of  the  Greek  orthodox  Church,  to  exchange  his 
old  title  of  Grand  Prince  for  the  more  significant  and  imposing  one  of  Czar. 

His  grandson,  Ivan  Wasiljewitsch  II.,  a  cruel  but  energetic  monarch,  con- 
quered Kasan  in  1552,  and  thus  completely  and  permanently  overthrew  the  do- 
minion of  the  Tartars.  Two  years  later  he  subdued  Astrakhan,  and  planted  the 
Greek  cross  on  the  borders  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  whei-e  until  then  only  the  Cres- 
cent had  been  seen. 

In  spite  of  the  inhuman  cruelty  that  disgraced  his  character,  and  earned  for 
him  the  name  of  Terrible,  Ivan  sought,  like  his  illustrious  successor,  Peter  the 
Great,  to  introduce  the  arts  and  sciences  of  Westei-n  Europe  into  his  barbarous 
realm,  and  to  improve  the  Russian  manufactures  by  encouraging  German  artists 
and  mechanics  to  settle  in  the  country.  It  was  in  his  reign  that  Chancellor  dis- 
covered the  passage  from  England  to  the  White  Sea,  and  Ivan  gladly  seized 
the  o])portunity  thus  afforded.  Soon  after  this  the  port  of  Archangel  was  built, 
and  thus  a  new  seat  was  opened  to  civilization  at  .the  northern  extremity  of 
Europe. 

After  the  conquest  of  Kasan,  several  Russians  settled  in  that  province ;  among 
others,  a  merchant  of  the  name  of  Strogonoff,  who  established  some  salt-works 
on  the  banks  of  the  Kama,  and  opened  a  trade  with  the  natives.  Among  these 
he  noticed  some  strangers,  and  having  heard  that  they  came  from  a  country 
ruled  by  a  Tartar  Khan,  who  resided  in  a  capital  called  Sibir,  he  sent  some  of 
his  people  into  their  land.  These  agents  returned  with  the  finest  sable  skins, 
which  they  had  purchased  for  a  trifling  sum ;  and  Strogonoff,  not  so  covetous 
as  to  wish  to  keep  all  the  advantage  of  his  discovery  to  himself,  immediately  in- 
formed the  Government  of  the  new  trade  he  had  opened.  He  was  rewarded 
with  the  gift  of  considerable  estates  at  the  confluence  of  the  Kama  and  Tschin- 
sova,  and  his  descendants,  the  Counts  Strogonoff,  are,  as  is  well  known,  reckoned 
among  the  richest  of  the  Russian  nobility. 

Soon  after  Ivan  sent  some  troops  to  Siberia,  whose  prhice,  Jediger,  acknowl- 
edged his  supremacy,  and  promised  to  pay  him  an  .annual  tribute  of  a  thousand 
sable  skins.  But  this  connection  was  not  of  long  duration,  for  a  few  years  after 
Jediger  was  defeated  by  another  Tartar  prince,  named  Kutchum  Khan ;  and 
thus,  after  Russian  influence  had  taken  th§  first  step  to  establish  itself  beyond  the 
Ural,  it  once  more  became  doubtful  whether  Northern  Asia  was  to  be  Christian 
or  Mohammedan.     The  question  was  soon  after  decided  by  a  fugitive  robber. 

The  conquests  of  Ivan  on  the  Caspian  Sea  had  called  into  life  a  considerable 
trade  w^ith  Bokhara  and  Persia,  which,  however,  was  greatly  disturbed  by  the 
depredations  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  who  made  it  their  practice  to  plunder  the 
caravans.  But  Ivan,  not  the  man  to  be  trifled  with  by  a  horde  of  freebooters, 
immediately  sent  out  a  body  of  troops  against  the  Don  Cossacks,  Avho,  not  ven- 
turing to  meet  them,  sought  their  safety  in  flight.  At  the  head  of  the  fugitives, 
whose  number  amounted  to  no  less  than  6000  men,  was  Yermak  Timodajeff, 
a  man  who,  like  Cortez  orPizarro,  was  destined  to  lay  a  new  empire  at  the  feet 
of  his  master.  But  while  the  troops  of  the  Czar  were  following  his  track,  Yer- 
mak was  not  yet  dreaming  of  future  conquests ;  his  only  aim  was  to  escape  the 
executioner ;  and  he  considered  himself  extremely  fortunate  when,  leaving  his 


CONQUEST   OF    SIBERIA   BY   THE   RUSSIANS.  193 

pursuers  far  behind,'  he  at  length  arrived  on  the  estates  of  Strogonoff.  Here  he 
was  well  received — better,  no  doubt,  than  if  he  had  come  single-handed  and  de- 
fenseless ;  and  Strogonoff  having  made  him  acquainted  with  Siberian  affairs, 
he  at  once  resolved  to  try  his  fortunes  on  this  new  scene  of  action.  As  the  tyr- 
anny of  Kutchum  Khan  had  rendered  him  odious  to  his  subjects,  he  hoped  it 
would  be  an  easy  task  to  overthrow  his  power ;  the  prospect  of  a  rich  booty  of 
sable  skins  was  also  extremely  attractive ;  and,  finally,  there  could  be  no  doubt 
that  the  greatest  dangers  were  in  his  rear,  and  that  any  choice  was  better  than 
to  fall  into  the  hands  of  Ivan  the  Terrible.  Strogonoff,  on  his  part,  had  excel- 
lent reasons  for  encouraging  the  adventure.  If  it  succeeded,  a  considerable 
part  of  the  profits  was  likely  to  fall  to  his  share ;  if  not,  he  at  least  was  rid  of 
his  unbidden  guest. 

Thus  Yermak,  in  the  summer  of  1578,  advanced  with  his  Cossacks  along  the 
banks  of  the  Tschinsova  into  Siberia.  But,  either  from  a  want  of  knowledge 
of  the  country,  or  from  not  having  taken  the  necessary  precautions,  he  was 
overtaken  by  winter  before  he  could  make  any  progress ;  and  when  spring  ap- 
peared, famine  compelled  him  to  return  to  his  old  quarters,  where,  as  may  easi- 
ly be  imagined,  his  reception  was  none  of  the  most  cordial.  But,  far  from  losing 
courage  from  this  first  disappointment,  Yermak  was  firmly  resolved  to  perse- 
vere. He  had  gained  experience — ^his  self-confidence  was"  steeled  by  adversity ; 
and  when  Strogonoff  attempted  to  refuse  him  further  assistance,  he  pointed  to 
his  Cossacks  with  the  air  of  a  man  who  has  the  means  of  enforcing  obedience 
to  his  ordej-s.  This  time  Yermak  took  better  measures  for  insuring  success; 
he  compelled  Strogonoff  to  furnish  him  with  an  ample  supply  of  provisions  and 
ammunition,  and  in  the  June  of  the  following  year  we  again  find  him,  with 
his  faithful  Cossacks,  on  the  march  to  Siberia.  But  such  were  the  impediments 
which  the  pathless  swamps  and  forests,  the  severity  of  the  climate,  and  the  hos- 
tility of  the  natives  opposed  to  his  progress,  that  towards  the  end  of  1580  his 
force  (now  reduced  to  1500  men)  had  reached  no  farther  than  the  banks  of  the 
Tara.  The  subsequent  advance  of  this  little  band  was  a  constant  succession 
of  hardships  and  skirmishes,  which  caused  it  to  melt  away  like  snow  in  the 
sunshine ;  so  that  scarcely  500  remained  when,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Tobol 
and  the  Irtysch,  they  at  length  reached  the  camp  of  Kutchum  Khan,  whose  over- 
whelming numbers  seemed  to  mock  their  audacity. 

But  Yermak  felt  as  little  fear  at  sight  of  the  innumerable  tents  of  the  Tar- 
tar host,  as  the  wolf  when  meeting  a  herd  of  sheep.  He  knew  that  his  Cossacks, 
armed  with  their  matchlocks,  had  long  since  disdained  to  count  their  enemies, 
and,  fully  determined  to  conquer  or  to  die,  he  gave  the  order  to  attack.  A 
dreadful  battle  ensued,  for  though  the -Tartars  only  fought  with  their  bows  and 
arrows,  yet  they  were  no  less  brave  than  their  adversaries,  and  their  vast  supe- 
riority of  numbers  made  up  for  the  inferior  quality  of  their  weapons.  The 
struggle  was  long  doubtful — the  Tartars  repeating  attack  upon  attack  like  the 
waves  of  a  storm-tide,  and  the  Cossacks  receiving  their  assaults  as  firmly  and 
immovably  as  rocks  ;  until,  finally,  the  hordes  of  Kutchum  Khan  gave  way  to 
their  stubborn  obstinacy,  and  his  camp  and.  all  its  treasures  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  conquerors, 

13 


194  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

The  subsequent  conduct  of  Yermak  proved  that  he  had  all  the  qualities  of 
a  general  and  a  statesman,  and  that  his  talents  were  not  unequal  to  his  fortunes. 
Without  losing  a  single  moment,  he,  immediately  after  this  decisive  battle,  sent 
part  of  his  small  band  to  occhpy  the  capital  of  the  vanquished  Kutchum,  for  he 
well  knew  that  a  victory  is  but  half  gained  if  one  delays  to  reap  its  fruits. 
The  Cossacks  found  the  place  evacuated,  and  soon  after  Yermak  made  his  tri- 
umphal entry  into  Sibir.  His  weakness  now  became  a  source  of  strength,  for, 
daunted  by  the  wonderful  success  of  this  handfnl  of  strangers,  the  people  far 
and  wide  came  to  render  him  homage.  The  Ostiaks  of  the  Soswa  fi-eely  con- 
sented to  yield  an  annual  tribute  of  280  sable  skins,  and  other  tribes  of  the  same 
nation,  who  were  more  backward  in  their  submission,  were  compelled  by  his 
menaces  to  pay  him  a  tax,  or  jassak,  of  eleven  skins  for  every  archer. 

It  was  not  without  reason  that  Yermak  thus  sought  to  collect  as  many  of 
these  valuable  furs  as  he  possibly  could,  for  his  aim  was  to  obtain  from  Ivan  a 
pardon  of  his  former  delinquencies,  by  presenting  him  with  the  richest  spoils 
of  his  victories,  and  he  well  knew  that  it  would  be  impossible  for  him  to  main- 
tain his  conquests  without  further  assistance  from  the  Czar.  Great  was  Ivan's 
astonishment  when  an  envoy  of  the  fugitive  robber  brought  him  the  welcome 
gift  of  2400  sable  skins,  and  informed  him  that  Yermak  had  added  a  new  prov- 
ince to  his  realm.  He  at  once  comprehended  that  the  hero  who  with  small 
means  had  achieved  such  great  successes,  was  the  fittest  man  to  consolidate  or 
enlarge  his  acquisitions ;  he  consequently  not  only  pardoned  all  his  former  of- 
fenses, but  confirmed  him  in  the  dignity  of  governor  and  commander-in-chief 
in  the  countries  which  he  had  subdued.  Thus  Yermak's  envoy,  having  been 
received  with  the  greatest  distinction  at  Moscow,  returned  to  his  fortunate  mas- 
ter with  a  robe  of  honor  which  had  been  worn  by  the  Czar  himself,  and  the 
still  more  welcome  intelligence  that  re-enforcements  were  on  the  march  to  join 
him. 

Meanwhile  Yermak  had  continued  to  advance  into  the  valley  of  the  Obi  be- 
yond its  confluence  with  the  Irtysch ;  and  when  at  length  his  force  was  aug- 
mented by  the  arrival  of  500  Russians,  he  pursued  his  expeditions  with  increas- 
ing audacity.  On  his  return  from  one  of  these  forays,  he  encamped  on  a  small 
island  in  the  Irtysch.  The  night  Avas  dark  and  rainy,  and  the  Russians,  fatigued 
by  their  march,  relied  too  much  upon  the  badness  of  the  weather  or  the  terror 
of  their  name.  But  Kutchum  Khan,  having  been  informed  by  his  spies  of  their 
want  of  vigilance,  crossed  a  ford  in  the  river,  and  falling  upon  the  unsuspecting 
Russians,  killed  them  all  except  one  single  soldier,  who  brought  the  fatal  intel- 
ligence to  Sibir.  Yermak,  when  he  saw  his  warriors  fall  around  him  like  grass 
before  the  scythe,  without  losing  his  presence  of  mind  for  a  moment,  cut  his 
way  through  the  Tartars,  and  endeavored  to  save  himself  in  a  boat.  But  in 
the  medley  he  fell  into  the  water  and  was  drowned. 

By  the  orders  of  Kutchum,  the  body  of  the  hero  was  exposed  to  every  indig- 
nity which  the  rage  of  a  barbarian  can  think  of ;  but  after  this  first  explosion 
of  impotent  fury,  his  followers,  feeling  ashamed  of  the  ignoble  conduct  of  their 
chief,  buried  his  remains  with  princely  pomp,  and  ascribed  miraculous  powers 
to  the  grave  in  which  they  were  deposited.     The  Russians  h^tve  also  erected  a 


CONQUEST   OF   SIBERIA   BY  THE   RUSSIANS.  195 

monument  to  Yermak  in  the  town  of  Tobolsk,  which  was  built  on  the  very  spot 
where  he  gained  his  first  decisive  victory  over  Kutchum.  It  is  inscribed  with 
the  dates  of  that  memorable  event,  and  of  the  unfortunate  day  when  he  found 
his  death  in  the  floods  of  the  Irtysch.  His  real  monument,  however,  is  all  Sibe- 
ria from  the  Ural  to  the  Pacific;  for  as  long  as  the  Russian  nation  continues 
to  exist,  it  will  remember  the  name  of  Yermak  Timodajeff".  The  value  of  the 
man  became  at  once  apparent  after  his  death,  for  scarcely  had  the  news  of  the 
disaster  arrived,  when  the  Russians  immediately  evacuated  Sibir,  and  left  the 
country.  But  they  well  knew  that  this  retreat  was  to  be  but  temporary,  and 
that  the  present  ebb  of  their  fortunes  would  soon  be  followed  by  a  fresh  tide 
of  success.  After  a  few  years  they  once  more  returned,  as  the  definitive  masters 
of  the  country.  Their  first  settlement  was  Tjumen,  on  the  Tara,  and  before 
the  end  of  1587  Tobolsk  was  founded.  They  had,  indeed,  still  many  a  conflict 
with  the  Woguls  and  Tartars,  but  every  effort  of  the  natives  to  shake  off  the 
yoke  proved  fruitless. 

As  gold  had  been  the  all-powerful  magnet  which  led  the  Spaniards  from  His- 
paniola  to  Mexico  and  Peru,  so  a  small  f  ur-beai'ing  animal  (the  sable)  attracted 
the  Cossacks  farther  and  farther  to  the  east;  and  although  the  possession  of 
fire-arms  gave  them  an  immense  advantage  over  the  wild  inhabitants  of  Sibe- 
ria, yet  it  is  as  astonishing  with  what  trifling  means  they  subdued  whole  nations, 
and  perhaps  history  affords  no  other  example  of  such  a  vast  extent  of  territory 
having  been  conquered  by  so  small  a  number  of  adventurers. 

As  they  advanced,  small  wooden  forts  (or  ostrogs)  were  built  in  suitable 
places,  and  became  in  their  turn  the  starting-posts  for  new  expeditions.  The 
following  dates  give  the  best  proof  of  the  uncommon  rapidity  with  which  the 
tide  of  conquest  rolled  onward  to  the  east.  Tomsk  was  founded  in  1604  ;  and 
the  ostrog  Jeniseisk,  where  the  neighboring  nomads  brought  their  sable  skins 
to  market,  in  1621.  The  snow-shoes  of  the  Tunguse,  whicji  they  sometimes 
saw  ornamented  with  this  costly  fur,  induced  the  Cossacks  to  follow  their 
hordes,  of  which  many  had  come  from  the  middle  and  inferior  Tunguska,  and 
thus,  in  1630,  Wassiljew  reached  the  banks  of  the  Lena.  _  In  1636  Jelissei  Busa 
was  commissioned  to  ascend  that  mighty  river,  and  to  im^o^e  jassak  on  all  the 
natives  of  those  quarters.  He  reached  the  western  mouth  of  the  Lena,  and 
after  navigating  the  sea  for  twenty-four  hours  came  to  the  Olekma,  which  he 
ascended.  In  1638  he  discovered  the  Tana,  on  whose  banks  he  spent  another 
winter;  and  in  1639,  resuming  his  voyage  eastward  by  sea,  he  reached  the 
Tchendoma,  and  wintering  for  two  years  among  the  Jukahirs,  made  them  also 
tributary  to  Russia. 

In  that  same  year  another  party  of  Cossacks  crossed  the  Altai  Mountains, 
and,  traversing  forests  and  swamps,  arrived  at  the  coasts  of  the  inhospitable 
Sea  of  Ochotsk-;  while  a  third  expedition  discovered  the  Amoor,  and  built  a 
strong  ostrog,  called  Albasin,  on  its  left  bank.  The  report  soon  spread  that  the 
river  rolled  over  gold-sand,  and  colonists  came  flocking  to  the  spot,  both  to  col- 
lect these  treasures,  and  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  a  milder  climate  and  of  a  more 
fruitful  soil.  But  the  Chinese  destroyed  the  fort  in  1680,  and  carried  the  gar- 
rison prisoners  to  Peking. 


196 


THE   POLAR  WORLD. 


Albasin  was  soon  after  rebuilt ;  but  as  Russia  at  that  time  had  no  inclina- 
tion to  engage  in  constant  quarrels  with  the  Celestial  Empire  about  the  posses- 
sion of  a  remote  desert,  all  its  pretensions  to  the  Amoor  were  given  up  by  the 
treaty  of  Nertschinsk  (1689).  This  agreement,  however,  like  so  many  others, 
was  doomed  to  last  no  longer  than  it  pleased  the  more  powerful  of  the  con- 
tracting parties  to  keep  it,  and  came  to  nothing  as  soon  as  the  possession  of  the 
Amoor  territoiy  became  an  object  of  importance,  and  the  increasing  weakness 
of  China  was  no  longer  able  to  dispute  its  possession.  Thus,  when  Count 
Nicholas  MourawiefE  was  appointed  Governor-general  of  Eastei-n  Siberia  in 
1847,  one  of  his  first  cares  was  to  appropriate  or  annex  the  Amoor.  He  imme- 
diately sent  a  siirveying  expedition  to  the  mouth  of  the  river,  where,  in  1851, 
regardless  of  the  remonstrances  of  the  Chinese  Government,  he  ordered  the  sta- 


>,-©l^r" 


THE  BEACH   AT  NICOLATEVSK. 


tions  of  Nicolayevsk  and  Mariinsk  to  be  built;  and  in  1854  he  himself  sailed 
down  the  Amoor,  with  a  numerous  flotilla  of  boats  and  rafts,  for  the  purpose 
of  personally  opening  this  new  channel  of  intercourse  with  the  Pacific.  Other 
expeditions  soon  followed,  and  the  Chinese,  finding  resistance  hopeless,  ceded  to 
Russia  in  the  year  1858,  by  the  treaty  of  Aigun,the  left  bank  of  the  Amoor  as 
far  as  the  influx  of  the  Ussuri,  and  both  its  banks  below  the  latter  river.  Thus 
the  Czar  found  some  consolation  for  the  losses  of  the  Crimean  campaign  in  the 
acquisition  of  a  vast  territory  in  the  distant  East,  which,  though  at  present  a 
mere  wilderness,  may  in  time  become  a  flourishing  colony. 

In  1644,  a  few  years  after  the  discovery  of  the  Amoor,  the  Cossack  Michael 
Staduchin  formed  a  winter  establishment  on  the  delta  of  the  Kolyma,  which  has 


CONQUEST   OF   SIBERIA  BY   THE  RUSSIANS. 


197 


ON    iUl      \M001i 


expanded  into  the  town  of  Nishnei-Kolymsk,  and  afterwards  navigated  the  sea 
eastward  to  Cape  Schelagskoi,  which  may  be  considered  as  the  north-eastern 
cape  of  Siberia. 

In  1648  Semen  Deschnew  sailed  from  the  Kolyma  with  the  intention  of 
reaching  the  Anadyr  by  sea,  and  by  this  remarkable  voyage — which  no  one  else, 
either  before  or  after  him,  has  ever  performed — discovered  and  passed  through 
the  strait,  which  properly  should  bear  his  name,  instead  of  Bering's,  who,  sailing 
from  Kamchatka  northward  in  1728,  did  not  go  beyond  East  Cape,  being  sat- 
isfied with  the  westerly  trending  of  the  cape  beyond  the  promontory.  Some 
of  Deschnew's  companions  subsequently  reached  Kamchatka,  and  were  put  to 
death  by  the  people  of  that  peninsula,  which  was  conquered,  in  1699,  by  Atlas- 
soff,  a  Cossack  officer  wlio  came  from  Jakutsk. 

After  having  thus  rapidly  glanced  at  the  progress  of  the  Russian  dominion 
from  the  Ural  to  the  Sea  of  Ochotsk,  it  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  inquire 
whether  the  natives  had  reason  to  bless  the  arrival  of  their  new  masters,  or  to 
curse  the  day  when  they  were  first  made  to  understand  the  meaning  of  the 
word  jassak,  or  tribute.     Unfortunately,  history  tells  us   that,  while  the  con- 


198 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


querors  of  Siberia  were  fully  as  bold  and  persevering  as  the  companions  of 
.  Cortez  and  Pizarro,  they  also  equalled  them  in  avarice  and  cruelty.  Under  their 
iron  yoke  whole  nations,  such  as  the  Schelagi,  Aniujili,  and  Omoki,  melted  away ; 
others,  as  the  Woguls,  Jukahires,  Koriaks,  and  Itiilmenes,  were  reduced  to  a 
scanty  remnant. 

The  history  of  the  subjugation  of  the  Italmenes,  or  natives  of  Kamchatka, 
as  described  by  Steller,  may  suffice  to  show  how  the  Cossacks  made  and  how 
they  abused  their  conquests. 

When  Atlassoff,  with  only  sixteen  men,  came  to  the  river  of  Kamchatka, 
the  Italmene  chieftain  inquired,  through  a  Koriak. interpreter,  what  they  want- 
ed, and  whence  they  came ;  and  received  for  answer  that  the  powerful  sove- 
reign, to  whom  the  whole  land  belonged,  had  sent  them  to  levy  the  tribute  which 
they  owed  him  as  his  subjects.  The  chieftain  was  naturMly  astonished  at  this 
information,  and  offering  the  strangei'S  a  present  of  costly  furs,  he  requested 
them  to  leave  the  country,  and  not  to  repeat  their  visit.  But  the  Cossacks 
thought  proper  to  remain,  and  built  a  small  wooden  fort,  Verchnei  Ostrog, 
whence  they  fell  on  the  neighboring  villages,  robbing  or  destroying  all  they 
could  lay  bauds  upon.  Exasperated  by  these  acts,  the  Italmenes  resolved  to 
attack  the  fort ;  but  as  the  wary  Cossacks  had  kept  up  a  friendly  intercourse 
with  some  of  them,  and  had  moreover  ingratiated  themselves  with  the  women, 
the  plans  of  their  enemies  were  always  revealed  to  them  in  proper  time,  an<i 
led  to  a  still  greater  tyranny.  At  length  the  savages  appeared  before  the  os- 
trog  in  such  overwhelming  numbers  that  the  Cossacks  began  to  lose  courage ; 


AAW^ 


VILLAGE   ON   TUE   AMOOK. 


CONQUEST   OF   SIBERIA  BY   THE  RUSSIANS. 


190 


KORIAK  YOUKT. 


yet  by  their  superior  tactics  they  finally  managed  to  gain  a  complete  victory, 
and  those  who  escaped  their  bullets  were  either  drowned  or  taken  prisoners, 
and  then  put  to  death  in  the  most  cruel  manner. 

Convinced  that  a  lasting  security  was  impossible  as  long  as  the  natives  re- 
tained their  numbers,  the  Cossacks  lost  no  opportunity  of  goading  them  to  re- 
volt, and  then  butchering  as  many  of  them  as  they  could.  Thus,  in  less  than 
forty  years,  the  Kamchatkans  were  reduced  to  a  twelfth  part  of  their  original 
numbers  ;  and  the  Cossacks,  having  made  a  solitude,  called  it  peace. 

In  former  times  the  nomads  of  the  North  used  freely  to  wander  with  their 
reindeer  herds  over  the  tundra,  but  after  the  conquest  they  Avere  loaded  with 
taxes,  and  confined  to  certain  districts.  The  consequence  was  that  their  rein- 
deer gradually  perished,  and  that  a  great  number  of  wandering  herdsmen  were 
now  compelled  to  adopt  a  fisherman's  life — a  change  fatal  to  many. 

It  Avould,  however,  be  unjust  to  accuse  the  Russian  Governm'ent  of  having 
willfully  sought  the  ruin  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  has  con- 
stantly endeavored  to  protect  them  against  the  exactions  of  the  Cossacks,  and 
in  order  to  secure  their  existence,  has  even  granted  them  the  exclusive  posses- 
sion of  the  districts  assigned  to  them.  Thus  the  Ostiaks  and  Samoiedes,  the 
Koriaks  and  the  Jakuts,  have  their  own  land,  their  own  rivers,  forests,  and  tun- 
dri.  But  if  it  is  a  common  saying  in  European  Russia  "  that  heaven  is  high, 
and  the  Czar  distant,"  it  may  easily  be  imagined  that  beyond  the  Ural  the  weak 
indigenous  tribes  found  the  law  but  a  very  inefticient  barrier  against  the  rapac- 
ity of  their  conquerors. 

Thus,  in  spite  of  the  Government,  the  jassak  was  not  unf requently  raised, 
under  various  pretenses,  to  six  or  ten  times  its  original  amount ;  and  the  natives 
were,  besides,  obliged  to  bring  the  best  of  their  produce,  from  considerable  dis- 
tances, to  the  ostroG:. 


t 

300  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

Nor  could  the  Government  prevent  the  accumulation  of  usurious  debts,  nor 
the  leasing  of  the  best  pasturages  or  fishing-stations  for  a  trifling  sum  quite  out 
of  proportion  to  their  value  ;  so  that  the  natives  no  longer  had  the  means  of 
feeding  their  herds,  and  sank  deeper  and  deeper  into  poverty. 

And  if  we  consider,  finally,  of  what  elements  Yermak's  band  was  originally 
composed,  we  can  easily  conceive  that,  under  such  masters,  the  lot  of  the  Sibe- 
rian natives  was  by  no  means  to  be  envied. 

The  year  1734  opens  a  new  epoch  in  the  history  of  Siberian  discoveries. 
Until  then  they  had  been  merely  undertaken  for  purposes  of  traffic ;  bold  Cos- 
sacks and  Promyschlcnniki  (or  fur-hunters)  had  gradually  extended  their  ex- 
cursions to  the  Sea  of  Bering  ;  but  now,  for  the  first  time,  scientific  expeditions 
were  sent  out,  for  the  more  (|ccurate  investigation  of  the  northern  coasts  of 
Siberia. 

Prontschischtschevv,  who  sailed  westward  from  the  Lena  to  circumnavigate 
the  icy  capes  of  Taimurland,  was  accompanied  by  his  youthful  wife,  who  win- 
tered with  him  at  the  Olenek,  in  12°  54'  of  latitude,  and  in  the  following  sum- 
mer took  part  in  his  fruitless  endeavors  to  double  those  most  northerly  points 
of  Asia.  He  died  in  consequence  of  the  fatigues  he  had  to  undergo,  and  a  few 
days  after  she  followed  him  to  the  grave.  A  similar  example  of  female  devo- 
tion is  not  to  be  met  with  in  the  annals  of  Arctic  discovery. 

After  Prontschischtschew's  death,  Lieutenant  Chariton  Laptew  was  ap- 
pointed to  carry  out  the  project  in  which  the  former  had  failed.  Having  been 
repulsed  by  the  drift-ice,  he  was  obliged  to  winter  on  the  Chatanga  (1739-40) ; 
but  renewed  the  attempt  in  the  following  summer,  which  however  exposed  him 
to  still  severer  trials.  The  vessel  was  wrecked  in  the  ice ;  the  crew  reached 
the  shore  with  difficulty,  and  many  of  them  perished  from  fatigue  and  famine 
before  the  rivers  were  sufficiently  frozen  to  enable  the  feeble  survivors  to  return 
to  their  former  winter-station  at  Chatanga.  Notwithstanding  the  hardships 
wliich  he  and  his  party  had  endured,  Laptew  prosecuted  the  survey  of  the 
promontory  in  the  following  spring. 

Setting  out  with  a  sledge-party  across  the  Tundra  on  April  24,  1741,  he 
reached  Taimur  Lake  on  the  30th  ;  and  following  the  Taimur  River,  as  it  flows 
from  the  lake,  ascertained  its  mouth  to  be  situated  in  lat.  75°  36'  N.  On  Au- 
gust 29  he  safely  returned  to  Jeniseisk,  after  one  of  the  most  difficult  voyages 
ever  performed  by  man.  The  resolution  with  which  he  overcame  difficulties, 
and  his  perseverance  amid  the  severest  distresses,  entitle  him  to  a  high  rank 
among  Arctic  discoverers. 

While  Chariton  Laptew  was  thus  gaining  distinction  in  the  wilds  of  Tai- 
murland, his  brother,  Dimitri  Laptew,  was  busy  extending  geographical  knowl- 
edge to  the  east  of  the  Lena.  He  doubled  the  Sviatoi-noss,  wintered  on  the 
banks  of  the  Indigirka,  surveyed  the  Bear  Islands,  passed  a  second  winter  on 
the  borders  of  the  Kolyma,  and  in  a  fourth  season  extended  his  survey  of  the 
coast  to  the  Baranow  Rock,  which  he  vainly  endeavored  to  double  during  two 
successive  summers.  After  having  passed  seven  years  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Polar  Ocean,  he  returned  to  Jakutsk  in  1743. 


CONQUEST   OF   SIBERIA   BY   THE   RUSSIANS.  201 

Fourteen  years  later,  Schalaurow,  a  merchant  of  Jakutsk,  who  sailed  from 
the  Jana  in  a  vessel  built  at  his  own  expense,  at  length  succeeded  in  doubling 
the  Baranow  Rock,  and  proceeded  eastward  as  far  as  Cape  Schelagskoi,  which 
prevented  his  farther  progress.  After  twice  wintering  on  the  dreary  Kolyma, 
he  resolved,  with  admirable  perseverance,  to  make  a  third  attempt,  but  his  crew 
would  no  longer  follow  him.  From  a  second  sea-journey,  which  he  undertook 
in  1764  to  that  cape,  he  did  not  return.  "  His  unfortunate  death  is  the  more  to 
be  lamented,"  says.Wrangell,  "as  he  sacrificed  his  property  and  life  to  a  disin- 
terested aim,  and  united  intelligence  and  energy  in  a  remarkable  degree."  On 
his  map,  the  whole  coast  from  the  Jana  to  Cape  Schelagskoi  is  marked,  Avith 
an  accuracy  which  does  him  the  greatest  honor.  In  1785  Billings  and  Sa- 
rytchew  were  equally  unsuccessful  in  the  endeavor  to  sail  round  the  cape 
which  had  defeated  all  Schalaurow's  endeavors ;  nor  has  the  voyage  been  ac- 
complished to  tli|j  present  day. 

As  the  sable  had  gradually  led  the  Russian  fur-hunters  to  Kamchatka,  so 
the  still  more  valuable  sea-otter  gave  the  chief  impulse  to  the  discovery  of 
the  Aleutic  chain  and  the  opposite  con- 
tinent of  America.      When  Atlassow  _>.   -^^^^ 
and  his  band  arrived  at  Kamchatka  by           -  ^«=^^ 
the  end  of   the   seventeenth  century,  ^^^' 
they  found  the  sea-otter  abounding  on 
its  coasts ;  but  the  fur-hunters  chased 
it  so  eagerly  that,  before  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  they  had  entire- 
ly extirpated  it  in  that  country.     On 
Bering's   second  voyage  of  discovery 
(1741-42),  it  was  again  found  in  con- 
siderable numbers.     Tschirigowis  said          ^,  ,,  i,-  ,  ..    ,  ,       ^  _,.        ,  .,,,^^«^ 
to  have  brought  back  900  skins,  and             ^^^-^^j^^^^^^^^f^^i^gst 
on  Bering's   Island  700   sea -otters — 

^  _  _  KAMCHATKA   SABLES. 

whose  skins,  according  to  present  pri- 
ces, would  be  worth  about  £20,000 — were  killed  almost  without  trouble.     These 
facts,  of  course,  encouraged  the  merchants  of  Jakutsk  and  Irkutsk  to  undertake 
new  expeditions. 

Generally,  several  of  them  formed  an  association,  which  fitted  out  some 
hardly  seaworthy  vessel  at  Ochotsk,  where  also  the  captain  and  the  crew,  con- 
sisting of  fur-hunters  and  other  adventurers,  Avere  hired.  The  expenses  of  such 
an  expedition  amounted  to  the  considerable  sum  of  aflbout  30,000  roubles,  as 
pack-horses  had  to  transport  a  great  part  of  the  necessary  outfit  all  the  dis- 
tance from  Jakutsk,  and  the  vessel  generally  remained  four  or  five  years  on  the 
voyage.  Passing  through  one  of  the  Kurile  Straits,  these  expeditions  sailed  at 
first  along  the  east  coast  of  Kamchatka,  bartering  sables  and  sea-otters  for  rein- 
deer skins  and  other  articles  ;  and  as  the  precious  furs  became  more  rare,  ven- 
tured out  farther  into  the  Eastern  Ocean.  Thus  Michael  Nowodsikoff  discovered 
the  Western  Aleuts  in  1745  ;  Paikoff  the  Fox  Islands  in  1759  ;  Adrian  Tolstych 
almost  all  the  islands  of  the  central  group,  which  still  bear  his  name,  in  1700; 


203  THE   POLAE  WORLD. 

Stephen  Glottoff  the  island  of  Kadiak  in  1763,  and  Krenitzin  the  peninsula  of 
Aljaska  in  1768.  When  we  consider  the  scanty  resources  of  these  Russian 
navigators,  tlie  bad  condition  of  their  miserable  barks,  their  own  imperfect  nau- 
tical knowledge,  and  the  inhospitable  nature  of  the  seas  which  they  traversed, 
we  can  not  but  admire  their  intrepidity. 

In  the  Polar  Sea  there  are  neither  sables  nor  otters,  and  thus  the  islands  ly- 
ing to  the  north  of  Siberia  might  have  remained  unknown  till  the  present  day, 
if  the  search  after  mammoth-teeth  had  not,  in  a  similar  manner,  led  to  their  dis- 
covery. 

In  March,  1770,  while  a  merchant  of  the  name  of  Liichow  was  busy  collect- 
ing fossil  ivory  about  Cape  Sviatoinoss,  he  saw  a  large  herd  of  deer  coming  over 
the  ice  from  the  north.  Resolute  and  courageous,  he  at  once  resolved  to  follow 
their  tracks,  and  after  a  sledge-journey  of  seventy  versts,  he  came  to  an  island, 
and  twenty  versts  farther  reached  a  second  island,  at  which,  o\^ig  to  the  rough- 
ness of  the  ice,  his  excursion  terminated.  He  saw  enough,  however,  of  the  rich- 
ness of  the  two  islands  in  mammoth-teeth,  to  show  him  that  another  visit  would 
be  a  valuable  speculation ;  and  on  making  his  report  to  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment, he  obtained  an  exclusive  privilege  to  dig  for  mammoth-bones  on  the  isl- 
ands which  he  had  discovered,  and  to  which  his  name  had  been  given.  In  the 
summer  of  1773  he  consequently  returned,  and  ascertained  the  existence  of  a 
third  island,  much  larger  than  the  others,  mountainous,  and  having  its  coasts 
covered  with  drift-wood.  He  then  went  back  to  the  first  island,  wintered  there, 
and  returned  to  TJstjansk  in  spring  with  a  valuable  cargo  of  mammoth-tusks. 

There  hardly  exists  a  more  remarkable  article  of  commerce  than  these  re- 
mains of  an  extinct  animal.  In  North  Siberia,  along  the  Obi,  the  Jenissei,  the 
Lena,  and  their  tributaries,  from  lat.  58°  to  70°^  or  along  the  shores  of  the  Polar 
Ocean  as  far  as  the  American  side  of  Bering  Strait,  the  remains  of  a  species  of 
elephant  are  found  imbedded  in  the  frozen  soil,  or  become  exposed,  by  the  an- 
nual thawing  and  crumbling  of  the  river-banks.  Dozens  of  tusks  are  frequently 
found  together,  but  the  most  astonishing  deposit  of  mammoth-bones  occurs  in 
the  Liichow  Islands,  where,  in  some  localities,  they  are  accumulated  in  such 
quantities  as  to  form  the  chief  substance  of  the  soil.  Year  after  year  the  tusk- 
hunters  work  every  summer  at  the  cliffs,  without  producing  any  sensible  dim- 
inution of  the  stock.  The  solidly-frozen  matrix  in  which  the  bones  lie  thaws 
to  a  certain  extent  annually,  allowing  the  tusks  to  drop  out  or  to  be  quarried. 
In  1821,  20,000  lbs.  of  the  fossil  ivory  were  procured  from  the  islaftd  of  New 
Siberia. 

The  ice  in  which  the  mammoth  remains  are  imbedded  sometimes  preserves 
their  entire  bodies,  in  spite  of  the  countless  ages  which  must  have  elapsed  since 
they  walked  on  earth.  In  1799  the  carcass  of  a  mammoth  was  discovered  so 
fresh  that  the  dogs  ate  the  flesh  for  two  summers.  The  skeleton  is  preserved 
at  St.  Petersburg,  and  specimens  of  the  woolly  hair— proving  that  the  climate 
of  Siberia,  though  then  no  doubt  much  milder  than  at  present,  still  required 
the  protection  of  a  warm  and  shaggy  coat— were  presented  to  the  chief  muse- 
ums of  Europe. 

The  remains  of  a  rhinoceros,  very  similar  to  the  Indian  species,  are  likewise 


CONQUEST   OF   SIBERIA  ]|Y  THE   RUSSIANS.  203 

found  in  great  numbers  along  the  shores,  or  on  the  steep  and  sandy  river-banks 
of  Northern  Siberia,  along  with  those  of  fossil  species  of  the  horse,  the  musk- 
ox,  and  the  bison,  which  have  now  totally  forsaken  the  Arctic  wilds. 

The  Archipelago  of  New  Siberia,  situated  to  the  north  of  the  Lachow  Isl- 
ands, was  discovered  by  Sirowatsky  in  1806,  and  since  then  scientifically  ex- 
plored by  Hedenstrom  in  1808,  and  Anjou  in  1823.  These  islands  are  remark- 
able no  less  for  the  numerous  bones  of  horses,  buffaloes,  oxen,  and  sheep  scat- 
tered over  their  desolate  shores,  than  for  the  vast  quantities  of  fossil-wood  im- 
bedded in  their  soil.  The  hills,  which  rise  to  a  considerable  altitude,  consist 
of  horizontal  beds  of  sandstone,  alternating  with  bituminous  beams  or  trunks 
of  trees.  On  ascending  them,  fossilized  charcoal  is  everywhere  met  with,  in- 
crusted  with  an  ash-colored  matter,  which  is  so  hard  that  it  can  scarcely  be 
scraped  off  with  a  knife.  On  the  summit  there  is  a  long  row  of  beams  resem- 
bUng  the  former,  but  fixed  perpendicularly  in  the  sandstone.  The  ends,  which 
project  from  seven  to  ten  inches,  are  for  the  most  part  broken,  and  the  whole 
has  the  appearance  of  a  ruinous  dike.  Thus  a  robust  forest  vegetation  once 
flourished  where  now  only  hardy  lichens  can  be  seen ;  and  many  herbivorous 
animals  feasted  on  grasses  where  now  the  reindeer  finds  but  a  scanty  supply  of 
moss,  and  the  polar  bear  is  the  sole  lord  of  the  dreary  waste. 


lOi 


THE  PttLAR  WORLD. 


TAKTAI.   i.^LAMl  ^^ 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

SIBERIA— FUK-TKADE  AND  GOLD-DIGGINGS. 

Siberia.— Its  immense  Extent  and  Capabilities.— The  Exiles.— Mentschikoff.—Dolgoronky.—Miinicli.—  • 
The  Criminals.- The  free  Siberian  Peasant.— Extremes  of  Heat  and  Cold.— Fur-bearing  Animals.— 
The  Sable.— The  Ermine.— The  Siberian  Weasel.— The  Sea-otter.— The  black  Fox.— The  Lynx.— 
The  Squirrel. — The  varTi-ing  Hare. — The  Suslik. — Importance  of  the  Fur-trade  for  the  Northern 
Provinces  of  the  Russian  Empire.— The  Gold-diggings  of  Eastern  Siberia.— The  Taiga.— Expenses 
and  Difficulties  of  searching  Expeditions. — Costs  of  Produce,  and  enormous  Profits  of  successful 
Speculators. — Their  senseless  Extravagance. — First  Discovery  of  Gold  in  the  Ural  Mountains.— 
Jakowlew  and  Demidow. — Nishne-TagHsk. 

SIBERIA  is  at  least  thirty  times  more  extensive  than  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, but  its  scanty  population  forms  a  miserable  contrast  to  its  enormous 
size.  Containing  scarcely  three  millions  of  inhabitants,  it  is  comparatively 
three  hundred  times  less  peopled  than  the  British  Islands.  This  small  popula- 
tion is,  moreover,  very  unequally  distributed,  consisting  chiefly  of  Russians  and 
Tartars,  who  have  settled  in  the  south  or  in  the  milder  west,  along  the  rivers 
and  the  principal  thoroughfares  which  lead  from  the  territory  of  one  large 
stream  to  the  other.  In  the  northern  and  eastern  districts,  as  far  as  they  are 
occupied,  the  settlements  are  likewise  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  river- 
banks  ;  and  thus  the  greater  part  of  the  enormous  forest-lauds,  and  of  the  in- 
terminable tundras,  are  either  entirely  uninhabited  by  man,  or  visited  only  by 
the  huntsman,  the  gold-digger,  or  the  migratory  savage. 

And  yet  Siberia  has  not  been  so  niggardly  treated  by  Nature  as  not  to  be 


SIBERIA— FUR-TRADE   AND   GOLD-DIGGIXGS.  20r, 

able  to  sustain  a  far  more  considerable  population.  In  the  south  there  are 
thousands  of  square  miles  fit  for  cultivation;  the  numbers  of  the  herds  and 
flocks  might  be  increased  a  hundred-fold,  and  even  the  climate  would  become 
milder  after  the  labor  of  man  had  subdued  the  chilUng  influences  of  the  forest 
and  the  swamp.  But  it  is  easier  to  express  than  to  realize  .the  wish  to  see  Si- 
beria more  populous,  for  its  reputation  is  hardly  such  as  to  tempt  the  free  col- 
onists to  settle  within  its  limits ;  and  thus  the  Russian  Government,  which 
would  willingly  see  its  more  temperate  regions  covered  with  flourishing  towns 
and  villages,  can  only  expect  an  increase  of  population  from  the  slow  growth 
of  time,  aided  by  the  annual  influx  of  the  involuntary  emigrants  which  it  sends 
across  the  Ural  to  the  East. 

Many  a  celebrated  personage  has  already  been  doomed  to  trace  this  mel- 
ancholy path,  particularly  during  the  last  century,  when  the  all-powerful  favor- 
ite of  one  jDcriod  was  not  seldom  doomed  to  exile  by  the  next  palace  revolu- 
tion. This  fate  befell,  among  others,  the  famous  Prince  Mentschikoff.  In  a 
covered  cart,  and  in  the  €lress  of  a  peasant,  the  confidential  minister  of  Peter 
the  Great,  the  man  who  for  years  had  ruled  the  vast  Russian  Empire,  was  con- 
veyed into  perpetual  banishment.  His  dwelling  was  now  a  simple  hut,  and 
the  spade  of  the  laborer  replaced  the  pen  of  the  statesman.  Domestic  misfor- 
tunes aggravated  his  cruel  lot.  His  wife  died  from  the  fatigues  of  the  jour- 
ney ;  one  of  his  daughters  soon  after  fell  a  victim  to  the  smallpox ;  his  two 
other  children,  who  were  attacked  by  the  same  malady,  recovered.  He  him- 
self died  in  the  year  1729,  and  was  buried  near  his  daughter  at  Beresow,  the 
seat  of  his  exile.  Like  Cai'dinal  Wolsey,  after  his  fall  he  remembered  God, 
whom  he  had  forgotten  during  the  swelling  tide  of  his  prosperity.  He  con- 
sidered his  punishment  as  a  blessing,  which  showed  him  the  way  to  everlasting 
happiness.  He  built  a  chapel,  assisting  in  its  erection  with  his  own  hands, 
and  after  the  services  gave  instruction  to  the  congregation.  The  inhabitants 
of  Beresow  still  honor  his  memory,  and  revere  him  as  a  saint.  They  were 
confirmed  in  this  belief  by  the  circumstance  that  his  body,  having  been  disin- 
terred in  1821,  was  found  in  a  state  of  perfect  preservation,  after  a  lapse  of 
ninety-two  years. 

One  day,  as  his  daughter  walked  through  the  village,  she  was  accosted  by 
a  peasant  fi-om  the  window  of  a  hut.  This  peasant  was  Prince  Dolgorouky, 
her  father's  enemy — the  man  Avho  had  caused  his  banishment,  and  was  now,  in 
his  turn,  doomed  to  taste  the  bitterness  of  exile.  Soon  after  the  princess  and 
her  brother  were  pardoned  by  the  Empress  Anna,  and  Dolgorouky  took  pos- 
session of  their  hut.  Young  Mentschikoff  was  finally  reinstated  in  all  the  hon- 
ors and 'riches  of  his  father,  and  from  him  descends,  in  a  direct  line,  the  fa- 
mous defender  of  Sebastopol. 

Marshal  Munich,  the  favorite  of  the  Empress  Anna,  was  doomed,  in  his  six- 
tieth year,  to  a  Siberian  exile,  when  Elizabeth  ascended  the  throne.  His  prison 
consisted  of  three  rooms — one  for  his  guards  or  jailers,  the  second  for  their 
kttchen,  the  third  for  his  oa\ti  use.  A  wall  twenty  feet  high  prevented  him 
from  enjoymg  the  view  even  of  the  sky.  Tfle  man  who  had  once  governed 
Russia  had  but  half  a  rouble  daily  to  spend ;  but  the  love  of  his  wife — who, 


206  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

although  fifty-five  years  old,  had  the  courage  and  the  self-denial  to  accompany 
him  in  his  banishment — alleviated  the  ^sorrows  of  his  exile.  The  venerable 
couple  spent  twenty-one  years  in  Siberia,  and  on  their  return  from  exile,  fifty- 
two  children,  grandchildren,  and  great-grandchildren,  were  assembled  to  meet 
them  at  Moscow.  The  revolution  which  placed  Catherine  the  Second  on  the 
throne  had  nearly  once  more  doomed  the  octogenarian  statesman  to  banish- 
ment, but  he  fortunately  weathered  the  storm,  and  died  as  governor  of  St. 
Petersburg. 

In  this  century,  also,  many  an  unfortunate  exile,  guiltless  at  least  of  ignoble 
crimes,  has  been  doomed  to  wander  to  Siberia.  There  many  a  soldier  of  the 
grande  armee  has  ended  his  life ;  there  still  lives  many  a  patriotic  Pole,  ban- 
ished for  having  loved  his  country  "  not  wisely  but  too  well ;"  there  also  the 
conspirators  who  marked  with  so  bloody  an  episode  the  accession  of  Nicholas, 
have  had  time  to  reflect  on  the  dangers  of  plotting  against  the  Czar. 

Most  of  the  Siberian  exiles  are,  however,  common  criminals — such  as  in  our 
country  would  be  hung  or  transported,  or  sentenced  to  the  treadmill :  the  as- 
sassin, the  robber — to  Siberia ;  the  smuggler  on  the  frontier,  whose  free-trade 
principles  injure  the  imperial  exchequer — to  Siberia;  even  the  vagabond  who 
is  caught  roaming,  and  can  give  no  satisfactory  account  of  his  doings  and  in- 
tentions, receives  a  fi-esh  passport — to  Siberia. 

Thus  the  annual  number  of  the  exiles  amounts  to  about  12,000,  who,  ac- 
cording to  the  gravity  of  their  offenses,  are  sent  farther  and  farther  eastward. 
On  an  average,  every  week  sees  a  transport  of  about  300  of  these  "  unfortu- 
nates," as  they  are  termed  by  popular  compassion,  pass  through  Tobolsk. 
About  one-sixth  are  immediately  pardoned,  and  the  others  sorted.  Murderers 
and  burglars  are  sent  to  the  mines  of  Nertschinsk,  after  having  been  treated  in 
Russia,  before  they  set  out  on  their  travels,  with  fifty  lashes  of  the  knout.  In 
former  times  their  nostrils  used  to  be  torn  off,  a  barbarity  which  is  now  no 
longer  practised. 

According  to  Sir  George  Simpson's  "  Narrative  of  a  Journey  Round  the 
World  "  (1847),  Siberia  is  the  best  penitentiary  in  the  world.  Every  exile  who 
is  not  considered  bad  enough  for  the  mines — those  black  abysses,  at  whose  en- 
trance, as  at  that  of  Dante's  hell,  all  hope  must  be  left  behind — receives  a  piece 
of  land,  a  hut,  a  horse,  two  cows,  the  necessary  agricultural  implements,  and 
provisions  for  a  year.  The  first  three  years  he  has  no  taxes  to  pay,  and,  dur- 
ing the  following  ten,  only  the  half  of  the  usual  assessment.  Thus,  if  he  choose 
to  exert  himself,  he  has  every  reason  to  hope  for  an  improvement  in  his  condi- 
tion, and  at  the  same  time  fear  contributes  to  keep  him  in  the  right  path ;  for 
'he  well  knows  that  his  first  trespass  would  infallibly  conduct  him  to  the  mines, 
a  by  no  means  agreeable  prospect.  Under  the  influence  of  these  stimulants, 
many  an  exile  attains  a  degree  of  prosperity  Avhich  would  have  been  quite  be- 
yond his  reach  had  he  remained  in  European  Russia. 

Hofmann  gives  a  less  favorable  account  of  the  Siberian  exiles.  In  his  opin- 
ion, the  prosperity  and  civilization  of  the  country  has  no  greater  obstacle  thftn 
the  mass  of  criminals  sent  to  swell  its  population.  In  the  province  of  Tomsk, 
which  seems  to  be  richly  stocked  with  culprits  of  the  worst  description,  all  the 


SIBERIA— FUR-TRADE   AND   GOLD-DIGGINGS.  207 

wagoners  belong  to  this  class.  They  endeavored  to  excite  his  compassion  by 
hypocrisy.  "  It  was  the  will  of  God  !"  is  their  standing  phrase,  to  which  they 
tried  to  give  a  greater  emphasis  by  turning  up  the  whites  of  „their  eyes;«  But, 
in  spite  of  this  pious  resignation  to  the  Divine  will,  Ilofmann  never  met  with  a 
worse  set  of  drunkards,  liars,  and  thieves. 

As  to  thjl  free  Siberian  peasant,  who  is  generally  of  pxile  extraction,  all 


SIBERIAN   PEASANT. 


travellers  are  agreed  in  his  praise,  "  As  soon  as  one  crosses  the  Ural,"  says 
Wrangell,  "  one  is  surprised  by  the  extreme  friendliness  and  good-nature  of 
the  inhabitants,  as  much  as  by  the  rich  vegetation,  the  well-cultivated  fields, 
and  the  excellent  state  of  the  roads  in  the  southern  part  of  the  government  of 
Tobolsk.  Our  luggage  could  be  left  without  a  guard  in  the  open  air,  '  Ne- 
boss  !'  '  Fear  not !'  was  the  answer  when  we  expressed  some  apprehension  ; 


208  .  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

'  there  are  no  thieves  among  us.'  This  may  appear  strange,  but  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  Tomsk  wagoners,  described  above,  are  located  far  more  to 
the  ea£t,  and  that  every  exiled  criminal  has  his  prescribed  circuit,  the  bounds 
of  which  he  may  not  pass  without  incurring  the  penalty  of  being  sent  to  the 
mines. 

According  to  Pi;ofessor  Hansteen,  the  Siberian  peasants  ai-e  4m  finest  men 
of  all  Russia,  with  constitutions  of  iron.  With  a  sheepskin  over  their  shirt, 
and  their  thin  linen  trowsers,  they  bid  defiance  to  a  cold  of  30°  and  more.  They 
have  nothing  of  the  dirty  avarice  of  the  European  Russian  boor ;  they  have  as. 
much  land  as  they  choose  for  cultivation,  and  the  soil  f ui-nishes  all  they  require 
for  their  nourishment  and  clothing.  Their  cleanliness  is  exemplary.  Within 
the  last  thirty  years  the  gold-diggings  have  somewhat  spoilt  this  state  of  prim- 
itive simplicity,  yet  even  Ilofmann  allows  that  the  West-Siberian  peasant  has 
retained  much  of  the  honesty  and  hospitality  for  which  he  was  justly  celebrated. 
Besides  agriculture,  mining,  fishing,  and  hunting,  the  carriage  of  merchan- 
dise is  one  of  the  chief  occupations  of  the  Siberians,  and  probably,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  population,  no  other  country  employs  so  large  a  number  of  wagon- 
ers and  carriers.  The  enormous  masses  of  copper,  lead,  iron,  and  silver  pro- 
duced by  the  Altai  and  the  Nertschinsk  mountains,  have  to  be  conveyed  from 
an  immense  distance  to  the  Russian  markets.  The  gold  from  the  East-Siberian 
diggings  is  indeed  easier  to  transport,  but  the  provisions  required  by  the  thou- 
sands of  w<».-kmen  employed  during  the  summer  in  working  the  auriferous 
sands,  have  to  be  brought  to  them,  frequently  from  a  distance  of  many  hundred 
versts. 

The  millions  of  furs,  from  the  squirrel  to  the  bear,  likewise  require  consider- 
able means  of  transport ;  and,  finally,  the  highly  important  caravan-trade  with 
China  conveys  thousands  of  bales  of  tea  from  Kiachta  to  Irbit.  Siberia  has  in- 
deed many  navigable  rivers,  but  a  glance  at  the  map  show^s  us  at  once  that  they 
are  so  situated  as  to  afford  far  less  facilities  to  commerce  than  would  be  tlie 
case  in  a  more  temperate  climate.  They  all  flow  northw^ard  into  an  inhospita- 
ble sea,  which  is  forever  closed  to  navigation,  and  are  themselves  ice-bound  dur- 
ino-  the  o-reater  part  of  the  year.  Enormous  distances  separate  them  from  each 
other,  and  there  are  no  navigable  canals  to  unite  them. 

On  some  of  the  larger  rivers  steam-boats  have  indeed  been  introduced,  and 
railroads  are  talked  of;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  for  many  a  year  to 
come,  the  cart  and  the  sledge  will  continue  to  be  the  chief  means  of  transport 
in  a  country  Avhich,  in  consequence  of  its  peculiar  geographical  position,  is  even 
in  its  more  southern  parts  exposed  to  all  the  rigors  of  an  Arctic  winter. 

Tlius  at  Jakutsk  (62°  N.  lat.),  which  is  situated  but  six  degrees  farther  to 
the  north  than  Edinburgh  (55°  58'),  the  mean  temperature  of  the  coldest  month 
is  —40°,  and  mercury  a  solid  body  during  one-sixth  part  of  the  year;  while  at 
Irkutsk  (52°  16'  N.  lat.),  situated  but  little  farther  to  the  north  than  Oxford 
(51°  46'),  the  thermometer  frequently  falls  to  -30°,  or  even  -40°  ;  tempera- 
tures which  are  of  course  quite  unheard  of  on  the  banks  of  the  Isis.  For  these 
dreadful  winters  in  the  heart  of  Siberia,  and  under  comparatively  low  degrees 
of  latitude,  there  are  various  causes.     The  land  is,  in  the  first  place,  an  immense 


SIBERIA— FUR-TRADE   AND   GOLD-DIGGINGS. 


I 


phiin  slanting  to  the  north ;  moreover,  it  is  situated  at  such  a  distance  from  the 
Atlantic,  that  beyond  the  Ural  the  western  sea-winds,  which  bring  warmth  to 
our  winters,  assume  the  character  of 
cold  land-winds ;  and,  finally,  it  merges 
in  the  south  into  the  high  Mongoli- 
an plateau,  which,  situated  4000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  has  of 
course  but  little  warmth  to  impart 
to  it  in  winter ;  so  that,  from  what- 
ever side  the  wind  may  blow  at  that 
season,  it  constantly  conveys  cold. 
But  in  summer  the  scene  undergoes 
a  total  change.  Under  the  influence 
of  the  sun  circling  for  months  round 
the  North  Pole,  floods  of  warmth  are 
poured  into  Central  Siberia,  and  rap- 
idly cause  the  thermometer  to  rise; 

no  neighboring  sea  refreshes  the  air  ;i  iiiSff-  ,  I 

with  a  cooling  breeze;  whether  the 
wind  come  from  the  heated  Mongolian 
deserts,  or  sweep  over  the  Siberian 
plains,  it  imbibes  warmth  on  every 
side.  Thus  the  terrible  winter  of  Ja- 
kutsk  is  followed  by  an  equally  im- 
moderate summer  (58°  3'),  so  that  rye 
and  barley  are  able  to  ripen  on  a  soil  ,  i^    ii  ^^ 

which  a  few  feet  below  the  surface  is  i  'i'  If         ,  I 

perpetually  frozen.  ||,  w 

The  boundless  woods  of  Siberia 
harbor  a  number  of  fur-bearing  an- 
imals whose  skins  form  one  of  the  il  i 
chief  products  of  the  country.  Among  •  i 
these  persecuted  denizens  of  the  for-  ,1 
est,  the  sable  {JIartes  zibeUina),\Yhich 
closely  resembles  the  pine -marten  i|l 
{Martes  abietum)  in  shape  and  size,  \\\ 
deserves  to  be  particularly  noticed,  ' 
both  for  the  beauty  of  its  pelt,  and  its  \ 
importance  in  the  fur-trade.  Sleeping  i 
by  day,  the  sable  hunts  his  prey  by  j 
night ;  but  though  he  chiefly  relish- 
es animal  food,  such  as  hares,  young 
birds,  mice,  and  eggs,  he  also  feeds  on 
berries,  and  the  tasteful  seeds  of  the  Pinus  cemhra.  His  favorite  abode  is  near 
the  banks  of  some  river,  in  holes  of  the  earth,  or  beneath  the  roots  of  trees.  In- 
cessant persecution  has  gradually  driven  him  into  the  most  inaccessible  forests  ; 

14 


210  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

the  days  are  no  more  when  the  Tunguse  hunter  willingly  gave  for  a  copper 
kettle  as  many  sable  skins  as  it  Avould  hold,  or  when  the  Kamchatkan  trapper, 
could  easily  catch  seventy  or  eighty  sables  in  one  winter ;  but  Von  Baer  still  esti- 
mates the  annual  produce  of  all  Siberia  at  45,000  skins.  The  finest  are  caught 
in  the  forests  between  the  Lena  and  the  Eastern  Sea,  but  Kamchatka  furnishes  the 
greater  number.  A  skin  of  the  finest  quality  is  worth  about  forty  roubles  on 
the  spot,  and  at  least  twice  as  much  in  St.  Petersburg  or  Moscow,  particularly 
when  the  hair  is  long,  close,"  and  of  a  deep  blackish-brown,  with  a  thick  brown 
underwool.  Skins  with  long  dark  hair  tipped  with  white  are  highly  esteemed, 
but  still  more  so  those  which  are  entirely  black — a  color  to  which  the  Russians 
give  the  preference,  Avhile  Ae  Chinese  have  no  objection  to  reddish  tints.  In 
consequence  of  this  difference  of  taste,  the  sables  from  the  Obi,  which  are  gen- 
erally larger  but  of  a  lighter  color,  are  sent  to  Kiachta,  while  the  darker  skins, 
from  Eastern  Siberia,  are  directed  to  St.  Petersburg  and  Leipsic. 

The  chase  of  the  sable  is  attended  with  many  hardships  and  dangers.  The 
skins  are  in  the  highest  perfection  at  the  commencement  of  the  winter ;  accord- 
ino-ly,  towards  the  end  of  October,  the'  hunters  assemble  in  small  companies,  and 
proceed  along  the  rivers  in  boats,  or  travel  in  sledges  to  the  place  of  rendez- 
vous— taking  with  them  provisions  for  three  or  four  montlis.  In  the  deep  and 
solitary  forest  they  erect  their  huts,  made  of  branches  of  trees,  and  bank  up  the 
snow  round  them,  as  a  further  protection  against  the  piercing  wind.  They  now 
roam  and  seek  everywhere  for  the  traces  of  the  sable,  and  lay  traps  or  snares 
for  his  destruction.  These  are  generally  pitfalls,  with  loose  boards  placed  over 
th^,  baited  with  fish  or  flesh  ;  fire-arms  or  cross-bows  are  more  rarely  used,  as 
they  daniage  the  skins.  The  traps  must  be  frequently  visited,  and  even  then 
the  hunter  often  finds  that  a  fox  has  preceded  him,  and  left  but  a  few  worth- 
less remnants  of  the  sable  in  the  snare.  Or  sometimes  a  snow-storm  over- 
takes him,  and  then  his  care  must  be  to  save  his  own  life.  Thus  sable-hunt- 
ing is  a  continual  chain  of  disappointments  and  perils,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
season  it  is  frequently  found  that  the  expenses  are  hardly  paid.  Until  now 
the  sable  has  been  but  rarely  tamed.  One  kept  in  the  palace  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Tobolsk  was  so  perfectly  domesticated,  that  it  was  allowed  to  stroll 
about  the  town  as  it  liked.  It  was  an  arch-enemy  of  cats,  raising  itself  furi- 
ously on  its  hind-legs  as  soon  as  it  saw  one,  and  showing  the  greatest  desire 

to  fight  it. 

In  former  times  the  ermine  {Mustela  erminea)  ranked  next  to  the  sable  as 
the  most  valuable  fur-bearing  animal  of  the  Siberian  woods ;  at  present  the  skni 
is  worth  no  more  than  from  five  to  eight  silver  kopeks  at  Tobolsk,  so  that  the 
whole  produce  of  its  chase  hardly  amounts  to  200,000  roubles.  This  little  am- 
mal  resembles  in  its  general  appearance  the  weasel,  but  is  considerably  larger, 
as  it  attains  a  length  of  from  twelve  to  fourteen  inches.  Its  color,  which  is  red- 
dish-brown in  summer,  becomes  milk-white  during  the  winter  in  the  northern 
reo-ions,with  the  exception  of  the  tip  of  the  tail,  which  always  remains  black. 
Its  habits  likewise  greatly  resemble  those  of  the  weasel;  it  is  equally  alert  in 
all  its  movements,  and  equally  courageous  in  defending  itself  when  attacked. 
It  lives  on  birds,  poultry,  rats,  rabbits,  leverets,  and  all  kinds  of  smaller  animals, 


SIBERIA— FUR-TRADE  AND    GOLD-DIGGINGS.  211 

and  will  not  hesitate  to  attack  a  i^rey  of  much  greater  size  than  itself.  Althouii;h 
various  species  of  ermine  are  distributed  over  the  whole  forest  region  of  the 
north,  yet  Siberia  produces  the  finest  skins.  The  largest  come  from  the  Kolyma, 
or  are  brought  to  the  fair  of  Ostrownoje  by  the  Tchutchi,  who  obtain  them 
from  the  coldest  regions  of  America. 

The  Siberian  weasel  (Viverra  siberica), ^vhich  is  much  smaller  than  the  er- 
mine, is  likewise  hunted  for  its  soft  and  perfectly  snow-white  winter  dress — the 
ti])  of  the  tail  not  being  black,  as  in  the  latter. 

The  sea-otter,  or  kalan  {Enhydris  hitris),  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  Rus- 
sian fur-bearing  animals,  as  110  silver  roubles  is  the  average  price  of  a  sino-le 
sldn,  is  nearly  related  to  the  weasel  tribe.  The  enormous  value  set  upon  the 
ulossy,  jet-black,  soft,  and  thick  fur  of  the  kalan  sufficiently  explains  how  the 
ivussian  hunters  have  followed  his  traces  from  Kamchatka  to  America,  and 
almost  entirely  extirpated  him  on  many  of  the  coasts  and  islands  of  Berino-'s 
:Sea  and  the  Northern  Pacific,  where  he  formerly  abounded.  His  habits  very 
much  resemble  those  of  the  seal ;  he  haunts  sea-washed  rocks,  lives  mostly  in 
the  water,  and  loves  to  bask  in  the  sun.  His  hind  feet  have  a  membrane  skirt- 
ing the  outside  of  the  exterior  toCj  like  that  of  a  goose,  and  the  elongated  form 
of  his  flexible  body  enables  him  to  swim  with  the  greatest  celerity.  Tlie  love 
of  the  sea-otters  for  their  young  is  so  great  that  they  reckon  their  own  lives  as 
nothing  to  protect  them  from  danger ;  and  Steller,  who  had  more  opportunities 
than  any  other  naturalist  for  observing  their  habits,  affirms  that,  when  deprived 
of  their  offspring,  their  grief  is  so  strong  that  in  less  than  a  fortnight  they  waste 
away  to  skeletons.  On  their  flight  they  carry  their  young  in  their  mouths,  or 
drive  them  along  before  them.  If  they  succeed  in  reaching  the  sea,  they  l)egin 
to  mock  their  baffled  pursuer,  and  express  their  joy  by  a  variety  of  antics. 
Sometimes  they  raise  themselves  upright  in  the  water,  rising  and  falling  with 
the  waves,  or  holding  a  fore  paw  over  their  eyes,  as  if  to  look  sharply  at  him ; 
or  they  throw  themselves  on  their  back,  rubbing  their  breast  with  their  fore 
paws  ;  or  cast  their  young  into  the  water,  and  catch  them  again,  like  a  mother 
playing  with  her  infant.  The  sea-otter  not  only  surpasses  the  fish-otter  by  the 
beauty  of  his  fur,  but  also  in  size,  as  he  attains  a  length  of  from  three  to  four 
feet,  exclusive  of  the  tail.  His  food  consists  of  small  fishes,  molluscs,  and  crus- 
taceous  animals,  whose  hard  calcareous  covering  his  broad  grinders  are  well 
adapted  to  crush. 

Next  to  the  sea-otter,  the  black  fox,  whose  skin  is  of  a  rich  and  shining 
black  or  deep  brown  color,  with  the  longer  or  exterior  hairs  of  a  silvery-white, 
furnishes  the  most  costly  of  all  the  Siberian  furs.  The  average  price  of  a  sin- 
gle skin  amounts  to  60  or  70  silver  roubles,  and  rich  amateurs  will  Avillingly 
pay  300  roubles,  or  even  more,  for  those  of  first-rate  quality.  The  skin  of  the 
Siberian  red  fox,  which  ranks  next  in  value,  is  worth  no  more  than  20  roubles ; 
the  steel-gray  winter  dress  of  the  Siberian  crossed  fox  (thus  named  from  the 
black  cross  on  his  shoulders),  from  10  to  12  roubles;  and  that  of  the  Arctic 
fox,  though  very  warm  and  close,  no  more  than  6  or  8. 

The  boar  family  likewise  furnishes  many  skins  to  the  Siberian  furrier.  That 
of  the  young  brown  bear  ( L-rsus  arctos)  is  highly  esteemed  for  the  trimming 


212  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

of  pelisses ;  but  that  of  the  older  animal  has  little  value,  and  is  used,  like  that 
of  the  polar  bear,  as  a  rug  or  a  foot-cloth  in  sledges. 

The  lynx  is  highly  prized  for  its  very  thick,  soft,  rust-colored  winter  dress, 
striped  with  darker  brown.  It  attains  the  size  of  the  wolf,  and  is  distinguished 
from  all  other  members  of  the  cat  tribe,  by  the  pencils  of  long  black  hair  Avhich 
tip  its  erect  and  pointed  ears.  It  loves  to  lie  in  ambush  for  the  passing  rem- 
deer  or  elk,  on  some  thick  branch  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  ground. 
With  one  prodigious  bound  it  leaps  upon  the  back  of  its  victim,  strikes  its  tal- 
ons into  its  flesh,  and  opens  with  its  sharp  teeth  the  arteries  of  its  neck. 

Though  singly  of  but  little  value,  as  a  thousand  of  its  skins  are  worth  no 
more  than  one  sea-otter,  the  squirrel  plays  in  reality  a  far  more  important  part 
in  the  Siberian  fur-trade  than  any  of  the  before-mentioned  animals,  as  the  total 
value  of  the  gray  peltry  which  it  furnishes  to  trade  is  at  least  seven  times 
greater  than  that  of  the  sable.  Four  millions  of  gray  squirrel  skins  are,  on  an 
average,  annually  exported  to  China,  from  two  to  three  millions  to  Europe, 
and  the  home  consumption  of  the  Russian  Empire  is  beyond  all  do^^bt  stiU 
more  considerable,  as  it  is  the  fur  most  commonly  used  by  the  middle  classes. 
The  European  squirrels  are  of  inferior  value,  as  the  hair  of  their  winter  dress 
is  still  a  mixture  of  red  and  gray ;  in  the  territory  of  the  Petschora,  the  gray 
first  becomes  predominant,  and  increases  in  beauty  on  advancing  towards  the 
east.  The  squirrels  are  caught  in  snares  or  traps,  or  shot  with  blunted  arrows. 
Among  the  fur-bearing  animals  of  Siberia^  we  have  further  to  notice  the  vary- 
ing hare,  whose  winter  dress  is  entirely  white,  except  the  tips  of  the  ears, 
which  are  black ;  the  Baikal  hare ;  the  ground-squirrel,  whose  fur  has  fine 
longitudinal  dar^brown  stripes,  alternating  with  four  light-yellow  ones ;  and 
the  suslik,  a  species  of  marmot,  whose  brown  fur,  with  white  spots  and  stripes, 
fetches  a  high  price  in  China.  It  occurs  over  all  Siberia  as  far  as  Kamchatka. 
Its  burrows  are  frequently  nine  feet  deep ;  this,  however,  does  not  prevent  its 
being  dug  out  by  the  hunters,  who  likewise  entrap  it  in  spring  when  it  awakes 
from  its  winter  sleep. 

Summing  together  the  total  amount  of  the  Russian  fur-trade.  Von  Baer  es- 
timates the  value  of  the  skins  annually  brought  to  the  market  by  the  Russian 
American  Fur  Company  at  half  a  million  of  silver  roubles,  the  produce  of  Eu- 
ropean Russia  at  a  million  and  a  half,  and  that  of  Siberia  at  three  millions.  As 
agriculture  decreases  on  advancing  to  the  north,  the  chase  of  the  fur-bearing 
animals  increases  in  impoi'tance.  Thus,  in  the  most  northern  governments  of 
European  Russia — Wjatka,  Wologda,  Olonez,  and  Archangel — it  is  one  of  the 
chief  occupations  of  the  inhabitants.  In  Olonez  about  four  hundred  bears  are 
killed  every  year,  and  the  immense  forests  of  Wologda  furnish  from  one  liun- 
dred  to  two  hundred  black  foxes,  three  hundred  bears,  and  three  millions  of 
squirrels. 

Although  the  sable  and  the  sea-otter  are  not  so  numerous  as  in  former  times, 
yet,  upon  the  whole,  the  Russian  fur-trade  is  in  a  very  flourishing  condition ; 
nor  is  there  any  fear  of  its  decreasing,  as  the  less  valuable  skins — such  as  those 
of  the  squirrels  and  hares,  which  from  their  numbers  weigh  most  heavily  in 
the  balance  of  trade — are  furnished  by  rodents,  which  multiply  very  rapidly, 


SIBERIA— FUR-TRADE  ^ND   GOLD-DIGGINGS.  313 

aud  find  au  inexhaustible  sui)ply  of  food  in  the  forests  and  pasture-grounds  of 
Siberia. 

The  chase  of  the  fur-bearing  animals  affords  the  North-Siberian  nomads — 
such  as  the  Ostiaks,  Jakuts,  Tungusi,  and  Samoiedes — the  only  means  of  pro- 
curing the  foreign  articles  they  require ;  hence  it  taxes  all  their  ingenuity,  and 
takes  up  a  great  deal  of  their  time.  On  the  river-banks  and  in  the  forests 
they  lay  innumerable  snares  and  traps,  all  so  nicely  adapted  to  the  size,  strength, 
and  peculiar  habits  of  the  various  creatures  they  are  intended  to  capture,  that 
it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  improve  them.  An  industrious  Jakut  will 
lay  about  five  hundred  various  traps  as  soon  as  the  first  snow  has  fallen  ;  these 
he  visits  about  five  or  six  times  in  the  course  of  the  winter,  and  generally  finds 
some  animal  or  other  in  every  eighth  or  tenth  snare. 

The  produce  of  his  chase  he  brings  to  the  nearest  fair,  where  the  tax-gath- 
erer is  waiting  for  the  jassak,  which  is  now  generally  paid  in  money  (five  pa- 
per roubles = four  shillings).  With  the  remainder  of  his  gains  he  purchases 
iron  kettles,  red  cloth  for  hemming  his  garments,  powder  and  shot,  rye-meal, 
glass  pearls,  tobacco,  and  brandy — which,  though  forbidden  to  be  sold  publicly, 
is  richly  supplied  to  him  in  private  —  and  then  retires  to  his  native  wilds. 
From  the  smaller  fairs,  the  furs  are  sent  by  the  Russian  merchants  to  the 
larger  staple  places,  such  as  Jakutsk,  Nertschinsk,  Tobolsk,  Kiachta,  Irbit, 
Nishne-jSTovgorod,  and  finally  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow ;  for  by  repeatedly 
sorting  and  matching  the  size  and  color  of  the  skins,  their  value  is  increased. 

About  thirty  years  ago  firs  were  still  the  chief  export  article  of  Siberia — to 
China,  European  Russia,  and  Western  Europe — but  since  then  the  discovery 
of  its  rich  auriferous  deposits  has  made  gold  its  most  important  produce.  The 
precious  metal  is  found  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Ural  chain  and  in  West 
Siberia ;  but  the  most  productive  diggings  are  situated  in  East  Siberia,  where 
they  give  occupation  to  many  thousands  of  workmen,  and  riches  to  a  few  suc- 
cessful speculators. 

The  vast  territory  drained  by  the  Upper  Jenissei  and  its  tributaries,  the  Su- 
perior and  the  Middle  Tunguska,  consists  for  the  greater  part  of  a  dismal  and 
swampy  primeval  forest,  which  scarcely  thirty  years  since  was  almost  totally 
unknown.  A  few  wretched  nomads  and  fur-hunters  wei'e  the  only  inhabitants 
of  the  Taiga — as  those  sylvan  deserts  are  called — and  squirrel  skins  seemed  all 
they  were  ever  likely  to  produce.  A  journey  through  the  Taiga  is  said  to  be 
one  of  the  most  fatiguing  and  tedious  tours  which  it  is  possible  to  make.  Up- 
hill and  down-hill,  a  narrow  path  leads  over  a  swampy  ground,  into  Avhich  the 
horses  sink  up  to  their  knees.  The  rider  is  scarcely  less  harassed  than  the 
patient  animal  which  carries  him  over  this  unstable  soil.  No  bird  enlivens  the 
solitary  forest  with  its  song ;  the  moaning  of  the  wind  in  the  crowns  of  the 
trees  alone  interrupts  the  gloomy  silence.  The  eternal  sameness  of  the  scene 
— day  after  day  one  constant  succession  of  everlasting  larches  and  fii'-trees — is 
as  wearying  to  the  mind  as  the  almost  impassable  road  to  the  body. 

But  suddenly  the  sound  of  the  axe  or  the  creaking  of  the  water-wheel  is 
heard ;  the  forest  opens,  a  long  row  of  huts  extends  along  the  banks  of  a  riv- 
ulet, and  hundreds  of  workmen  are  seen  moving  about  as  industrious  as  a  hhc 


214  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

of  bees.  What  is  the  cau.se  of  all  this  activity — of  this  sudden  change  from  a 
death-like  quiet  to  a  feverish  life  ?  These  are  the  gold-fields  ;  the  sands  of 
these  swampy  grounds  are  mixed,  like  those  of  the  Pactolus,  with  gold,  and 
their  fortunate  possessors  would  not  exchange  them  for  the  finest  meadows, 
cornfields,  or  vineyards. 

Fedor  Popow,  a  hunter  of  the  province  of  Tomsk,  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  discoverer  of  gold  in  Siberia ;  and  Government  having  granted  per- 
mission to  private  persons  to  search  for  the  precious  metal,  a  few  enterprising 
men  directed  their  attention  to  the  wild  spurs  of  the  Sajan  Mountains.  A  bril- 
liant success  rewarded  their  endeavors.  In  the  year  1836  an  exploring-party, 
sent  out  by  a  merchant  named  Jakin  Resanow,  discovered  a  rich  deposit  of 
auriferous  sand  near  the  banks  of  the  Great  Birussa ;  and  in  1839-40,  similar 
deposits  were  found  along  several  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Upper  Tunguska, 
and  still  farther  to  the  north,  on  the  Oktolyk,  a  rivulet  that  flows  into  the  Pit. 
The  expenses  of  a  searching-party  amount,  on  an  average,  to  3000  silver 
roubles  (£600) ;  and  as  very  often  no  gold  whatever  is  found,  these  hazardous 
explorations  not  seldom  put  both  the  purse  and  the  perseverance  of  their  under- 
takers to  a  severe  trial.  Thus  Nikita  Maesnikow  had  spent  no  less  than  260,000 
silver  roubles  (£52,000)  in  fruitless  researches,  when  he  at  length  discovered  the 
rich  gold-field  on  the  Peskin,  which,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  amply  remuner- 
ated him  for  his  previous  losses. 

Of  the  difiiculties  which  await  the  gold-searchers,  a  faint  idea  may  be  formed, 
on  considering  that  the  whole  of  the  auriferous  region,  which  far  surpasses  in 
size  most  of  the  European  kingdoms,  consists  of  one  vast  forest  like  that  above 
described.  Patches  of  grass-land  on  which  horses  can  feed  are  of  very  rare  oc- 
currence, and  damp  moss  is  the  only  bed  the  Taiga  affords.  As  the  gold-search- 
ers are  very  often  at  work  some  hundreds  of  versts  from  the  nearest  village,  they 
are  obliged  to  carry  all  their  provisions  along  with  them.  Their  clothes  are 
almost  constantly  Avet,  from  their  sleeping  in  the  damp  forest,  from  the  frequent 
rains  to  which  they  are  exposed,  and  from  their  toiling  in  the  swampy  ground. 
Scarcely  have  they  dug  a  few  feet  deep  when  the  pit  fills  with  Avater,  which 
they  are  obliged  to  pump  out  as  fast  as  it  gathers,  and  thus  standing  up  to  their 
knees  in  the  mud,  they  work  on  until  they  reacli  the  solid  rock,  for  then  only 
can  they  be  certain  that  no  auriferous  layer  has  been  neglected  in  their  search. 
When  we  consider,  moreover,  that  all  this  labor  is  very  often  totally  useless, 
their  perseverance  can  not  but  be  admired  ;  nor  is  it  to  be  wondered  at  that 
exploring-parties  have  sometimes  encamped  on  the  site  of  rich  gold-deposits 
without  examining  the  spot,  their  patience  having  been  exhausted  by  repeated 
failures  in  the  vicinity.  When  the  winter,  with  its  deep  snowfalls,  suddenly 
breaks  in  upon  the  searchers,  their  hardships  become  dreadful.  The  frost  and 
want  of  food  kill  their  horses,  their  utensils  have  to  be  left  behind ;  and  drag- 
ging their  most  indispensable  provisions  along  with  them  on  small  sledges,  they 
are  not  seldom  obliged  to  wade  for  weeks  through  the  deep  snow  before  they 
reach  some  inhabited  place. 

But  even  the  severity  of  a  Siberian  winter  does  not  prevent  the  sending  out 
of  ex})1oring-parties.     Such  winter  explorations  are  only  fitted  out  for  the  more 


SIBERIA— FUR-TRADE   AND    GOLD-DIGGINGS.  215 

accurate  examination  of  very  swampy  auriferous  grounds  that  have  been  dis- 
covered in  the  previous  year,  and  where  it  is  less  difficult  to  work  in  the  frozen 
soil  than  to  contend  Avith  the  water  in  summer.  A  winter-party  travels  with- 
out horses,  the  workmen  themselves  transporting  all  that  they  require  on  liglit 
sledo-es.  They  are  obliged  to  break  up  the  obdurate  soil  with  pickaxes,  and  the 
sand  thus  loosened  has  to  be  thawed  and  washed  in'  warm  water.  After  their 
day's  work,  they  spend  the  night  in  huts  made  of  the  branches  of  trees,  where 
they  sleep  on  the  hard  ground.  It  requires  the  iron  constitution  of  a  Siberian 
to  bear  such  hardships,  to  which  many  fall  a  prey,  in  spite  of  their  vigorous 
health. 

A  gold-deposit  having  been  found,  the  fortunate  discoverer  obtains  the  grant 
of  a  lot  of  ground,  100  sashens  (600  feet)  broad,  and  2500  sashens  (or  5  versts) 
long.  Two  adjoining  lots  are  never  granted  to  the  same  person,  but  a  subse- 
quent purchase  or  amalgamation  is  permitted.  At  first  Government  was  satis- 
fied with  a  moderate  tax  of  15  percent,  of  the  produce;  subsequently, however, 
this  was  doubled,  until  within  the  last  few  years,  when,  the  gold  production 
haying  been  found  to  decrease,  the  primitive  impost  was  returned  to,  or  even 
reduced  to  5  per  cent,  for  the  less  productive  mines.  Besides  this  tax,  from  four 
to  eight  gold  roubles  per  pound  of  gold,  according  to  the  richness  of  the  dig- 
gings, have  to  be  paid  for  police  expenses.  Only  a  twelve  years'  lease  is  granted, 
after  which  the  digging  reverts  to  the  crown,  and  a  new  lease  has  to  be  pur- 
chased. As  the  severe  climate  of  the  Taiga  limits  the  working-time  to  four 
months  (from  May  to  September),  the  period  of  the  concession  is  thus  in  reality 
not  more  than  four  years. 

The  first  care  of  the  lessee  is,  of  course,  to  collect  the  necessary  provisions 
and  working  apparatus.  The  distant  steppe  of  the  Kirghese  furnishes  him 
with  dried  or  salted  meat ;  his  iron  utensils  he  purchases  in  the  factories  of  the 
Ural ;  the  fairs  of  Irbit  and  Nishne-lSTovgorod  supply  him  with  every  other  arti- 
cle; and  rye-meal  and  fishes  he  easily  obtains  from  the  Siberian  peasants  or 
traders.  By  water  and  by  land,  all  these  various  stores  have  to  be  transported 
in  summer  to  the  residence  or  establishment  of  the  gold-digger  on  the  border 
of  the  Taiga.  The  transport  through  the  Taiga  itself  takes  place  during  the 
winter,  on  sledges,  at  a  very  great  cost ;  and  the  expense  is  still  more  increased 
if  time  has  been  lost  through  inattention,  as  then  all  that  may  still  be  wanting 
has  to  be  conveyed  to  the  spot  on  the  backs  of  horses. 

Most  of  the  men  that  are  hired  for  working  in  the  diggings  are  exiles — the 
remainder  generally  free  peasants,  who  have  been  reduced  in  their  circum- 
stances by  misfortunes  or  misconduct.  The  procuring  of  the  necessary  Avork- 
men  is  an  affair  of  no  small  trouble  and  expense.  Before  every  summer  cam- 
paign the  agents  of  the  gold-diggers  travel  about  the  country  like  recruiting- 
sergeants,  and  after  giving  many  fair  words  and  some  hand-money,  they  take 
the  passport  of  the  man  engaged  as  a  security  for  his  appearance.  But  although 
a  passport  is  an  indispensable  document  in  Siberia,  yet  it  not  seldom  happens 
that  the  workman  finds  means  to  obtain  a  new  one  iinder  soiBe  other  name, 
and,  engaging  himself  to  a  new  master,  defrauds  the  first  of  his  hand-money. 

It  may  be  easily  imagined  that,  as  the  workmen  only  consist  of  the  refuse 


316  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

of  society,  the  greatest  discipline  is  necessary  to  keep  them  in  order.  The  sys- 
tem of  a  secret  police,  so  cherished  by  all  arbitrary  governments,  is  here  ex- 
tended to  its  utmost  limits ;  scarcely  has  a  suspicious  word  fallen  among  the 
workmen,  when  the  director  is  immediately  informed  of  it,  and  takes  his  meas- 
ures accordingly.  Every  man  knows  that  he  is  watched,  and  is  himself  a  spy 
upon  his  companions, 

Hofmann  relates  an  instance  of  a  jilot  singularly  nipped  in  the  bud.  In  one 
of  the  gold-diggings  on  the  Noiba,  the  workmen,  at  the  instigation  of  an  under- 
overseer,  had  refused  to  perform  a  task  assigned  to  them.  It  was  to  be  feared 
that  the  spirit  of  insubordination  would  gain  ground,  and  extend  over  all  the 
neighboring  diggings.  The  director,  consequently,  sent  at  once  for  military  as- 
sistance ;  this,  however,  proved  to  be  imnecessary,  for  when  the  Cossacks  arrived 
at  the  Noiba,  a  thunder-storm  arose,  and  at  the  very  moment  they  came  riding 
up  to  the  digging  a  flash  of  lightning  killed  the  ringleader  in  the  midst  of  the 
nmtineers.  As  soon  as  the  men  recovered  from  the  first  shock  of  their  surprise 
and  terror,  they  all  exclaimed,  "  This  is  the  judgment  of  God!"  and,  without 
any  further  hesitation,  at  once  returned  to  their  duty. 

Besides  free  rations,  the  ordinary  wages  of  a  common  workman  are  15  rou- 
bles banco,  or  12  shillings  a  month,  but  more  experienced  hands  receive  50  or 
even  GO  roubles.  The  pay  dates  from  the  day  when  the  workman  makes  his 
appearance  at  the  residence,  and  thenceforward,  also,  his  rations  are  served  out 
to  him.  They  consist  of  a  pound  of  fresh  or  salt  meat,  or  an  equivalent  portion 
of  fish  on  fasting-days,  cabbage  and  groats  for  soup,  besides  fresh  rye-bread 
and  quas  (the  favorite  national  beverage)  ad,  libitum.  The  whole  number  of 
workmen  employed  in  a  gold-digging  subdivide  themselves  into  separate  socie- 
ties, or  artells.  Each  of  these  elects  a  chief,  or  head-man,  to  whom  the  provis- 
ions for  his  artell  are  weighed  out,  and  to  whom  all  the  other  common  interests 
are  intrusted.  The  sale  of  spirituous  liquor  is  strictly  forbidden,  for  its  use  woiild 
render  it  impossible  to  maintain  order ;  and,  according  to  law,  no  gin-shop  is 
allowed  to  be  opened  within  60  versts  of  a  digging. 

The  pay  and  the  liberal  rations  received  would  alone  be  insufficient  to  allure 
workmen  to  the  diggings,  for,  as  we  have  seen,  the  voyage  there  and  back  is 
extremely  irksome,  and  the  labor  very  fatiguing.  An  excellent  plan  has  conse- 
quently been  devised  for  their  encouragement.  The  contract  of  each  workman 
distinctly  specifies  the  quantity  of  his  daily  work,  consisting  of  a  certain  number 
of  wheelbarrows  of  sand— from  100  to  120,  according  to  the  distance  from  the 
spot  where  it  is  dug  to  the  place  where  it  is  washed  out— each  reckoned  at  three 
ponds,*  which  one  party  has  to  fill,  another  to  convey  to  the  wash-stands,  and 
a  third  to  wash. 

The  task  is  generally  completed  by  noon,  or  early  in  the  afternoon.  For  the 
labor  they  perform  during  the  rest  of  the  day,  or  on  Sundays  and  holidays, 
they  receive  an  extra  pay  of  two  or  three  roubles  for  every  solotnik  of  gold 
they  wash.  Every  evening  the  workmen  come  with  the  produce  of  their  free 
labor  to  the  office,  the  gold  is  weighed  in  their  presence,  and  the  artell  credited 
for  the  amount  of-  its  share.     This  free-work  is  as  advantageous  for  the  mas- 

*  The  poud  is  equal  to  40  pounds.      The  poud  is  divided  into  96  solotniks. 


^SIBERIA— FUR-TRADE  AND   GOLD-DIGGINGS.  217 

tevs  as  the  laborers.  The  former  enjoy  a  net  profit  of  eight  or  ten  roubles  per 
solotnik,  and  all  the  working  expenses  are  of  course  put  to  the  charge  of  the 
contract  labor ;  and  the  latter  earn  a  great  deal  of  money,  according  to  their  in- 
dustry or  good-luck,  for  when  fortune  favors  an  artell,  its  share  may  amount  to 
a  considerable  sum.  During  Hofmann's  stay  at  the  Birussa,  each  workman  of 
a  certain  artell  earned  in  one  afternoon  72  roubles,  and  the  Sunday's  work  of 
another  of  these  associations  gave  to  each  of  its  members  105  roubles,  or  £4. 
The  artisans — who,  though  employed  in  a  gold-mine,  are  not  engaged  in  dig- 
ging or  washing  the  auriferous  sand — are  also  rewarded  from  time  to  time 
by  a  day's  free-labor  in  places  which  are  known  to  be  rich.  On  one  of  these 
occasions  a  Cossack  on  the  Oktolyk  received  300  roubles  for  liis  share  of  the 
gold  that  was  washed  out  of  49  wheelbarrows  of  sand.  These  of  course  are 
extraordinary  cases,  but  they  show  how  much  a  workman  may  gain ;  and  be- 
ing of  course  exaggerated  by  report,  are  the  chief  inducements  which  attract 
the  workmen,  and  keep  them  to  their  duty. 

If  the  free-labor  is  unproductive,  many  of  the  workmen  desert  or  give  up 
free-labor  altogether,  and  in  both  cases  the  master  is  a  loser.  To  prevent  this, 
it  is  customary,  in  many  of  the  diggings,  to  pay  the  workmen  a  fixed  sum  for 
their  extra  work. 

At  the  end  of  the  season  the  workmen  are  paid  off,  and  receive  provisions 
for  their  home-journey.  Generally,  the  produce  of  their  summer's  labor  is 
spent,  in  the  first  villages  they  reach,  in  drinking  and  gambling  ;  sb  that,  to  be 
able  to  return  to  their  families,  they  are  obliged  to  bind  themselves  anew  for 
the  next  season,  and  to  receive  hand-money  from  the  agent,  who,  knowing  their 
weakness,  is  generally  on  the  spot  to  take  advantage  of  it.  After  spending  a 
long  winter  full  of  want  and  privations,  they  return  to  the  Taiga  in  spring,  and 
thus,  through  their  own  folly,  their  life  is  spent  in  constant  misery  and  hard 
labor. 

During  the  winter  the  digging  is  deserted,  except  by  an  under-overseer  and 
a  few  workmen,  who  make  the  necessary  preparations  for  the  next  campaign, 
receive  and  warehouse  the  provisions  as  they  arrive,  and  guard  the  property 
against  thieves  or  wanton  destruction.  The  upper-overseer  or  director,  mean- 
while, is  fully  occupied  at  the  residence  in  forwarding  the  provisions  and  stores 
that  have  arrived  there  during  the  summer  to  the  mine,  in  making  the  neces- 
sary purchases  for  the  next  year,  in  sending  his  agents  about  the  country  to 
engage  new  workmen ;  and  thus  the  winter  is,  in  fact,  his  busiest  time.  With 
the  last  sledge  transport  he  returns  to  the  digging,  to  receive  the  workmen  as 
they  arrive,  and  to  see  that  all  is  ready  for  the  summer.  As  his  situation  is 
one  of  great  trust  and  responsibility,  he  enjoys  a  considerable  salary.  Maes- 
nikow,  for  instance,  paid  his  chief  director  40,000  roubles  a  year  ;  and  COOO  or 
8000  roubles,  besides  free  station,  and  a  percentage  of  the  gold  produced,  is 
the  ordinary  emolument. 

It  is  thus  evident  that  the  expenses  of  a  Siberian  gold-mine  are  enormous, 
but  when  fortune  favors  tlie  undertaker  he  is  amply  reAvarded  for  his  outlay ; 
an  annual  produce  of  10,  15,  or  20  pouds  of  gold  is  by  no  means  uncommon. 
In  the  year  1845,  458  workmen  employed  in  the  gold-mine  of  Mariinsk,  be- 


218  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

.longing  to  Messrs.  Golubdow  and  Kusnezow,  produced  81  pouds  19^  lbs,  of 
tlie  much-coveted  metal;  in  the  year  1843  the  mine' of  Olginsk,  belonging  to 
Lieutenant  Malewinsky,  yielded  82  pouds  37:j  lbs.;  and  in  1844,  the  labor  of 
1014  workmen,  emj^loyed  in  the  mine  of  Kresdowosdwishensk,  belonging  to 
Messrs.  Kusnezow  and  Schtschegolow,  produced  no  less  than  87  pouds  14  lbs. 
of  gold.  But  even  Kresdowosdwishensk  has  been  distanced  by  the  mine  of 
Spasky,  situated  near  the  sources  of  the  Peskin,  which,  in  the  year  1842, 
yielded  its  fortunate  possessor,  the  above-mentioned  Counsellor  Nikita  Maes- 
nikow  (one  of  the  few  men  who  were  already  extremely  rich  before  the  Sibe- 
rian auriferous  deposits  were  discovered),  the  enormous  quantity  of  100  pouds 
of  gold!  From  1840  to  1845,  Maesnikow  extracted  from  this  mine  no  less 
than  348  pouds  6  lbs.  of  gold,  worth  4,135,174  silver  roubles,  or  about  £640,000. 
Still  more  recently,  in  1860,  the  Gawrilow  mine,  belonging  to  the  house  of  Rja- 
sanow,  produced  102|^  pouds  of  pure  gold. 

But  in  Siberia,  as  elsewhere,  mining  operations  are  frequently  doomed  to 
end  in  disappointment,  particularly  if  the  space  destined  to  be  worked  in  the 
following  summer  has  not  been  carefully  examined  beforehand,  as  the  ore  is 
often  very  unequally  distributed.  A  speculator,  having  discovered  a  gold-mine, 
examined  four  or  five  samples  of  the  sand,  which  gave  a  highly  satisfactory  re- 
sult. Delighted  with  his  good-fortune,  he  made  his  arrangements  on  a  grand 
scale,  and  collected  provisions  for  500  workmen ;  but  when  operations  began, 
it  was  founfl  that  he  had,  unfortunately,  hit  upon  a  small  patch  of  auriferous 
sand,  the  vicinity  of  Avhich  was  totally  void  of  gold,  so  that  his  500  workmen 
l^roduced  no  more  than  a  few  pounds  of  ore,  and  he  lost  at  least  £10,000  by 
his  adventure. 

The  entire  gold  produce  of  East  Siberia  amounted,  in  1845,  to  848  pouds 
36  lbs.,  and  in  1856  to  about  1100  pouds  ;  but  latterly,  in  consequence  of  the 
increasing  wages  and  dearness  of  provisions,  which  has  caused  many  of  the 
less  productive  mines  to  be  abandoned,  it  has  somewhat  diminished.  In  1860, 
31,796  men,  919  women,  and  8751  horses  and  oxen,  Avere  employed  in  the  Si- 
berian gold-mines. 

As  may  easily  be  imagined,  the  discovery  of  these  sources  of  wealth  in  the 
desert  has  caused  a  great  revolution  in  'the  social  state  of  Siberia.  The  riches 
so  suddenly  acquired  by  a  few  favorites  of  fortune,  have  raised  luxury  to  an 
unexampled  height,  and  encouraged  a  senseless  prodigality.  Some  sterlets^ 
having  been  offered  for  300  roubles  to  a  miner  suddenly  raised  from  penury 
to  wealth,  "  Fool !"  said  the  upstart,  with  the  superb  mien  of  a  conquering 
hero,  to  the  fish-dealer,  "  wilt  thou  sell  me  these  excellent  sterlets  so  cheap  ? 
Here  are  a  thousand  roubles ;  go,  and  say  that  thou  hast  dealt  with  me  ,^" 

The  small  town  of  Krasnojarsk,  romantically  situated  on  the  Jenissei,  is  the 
chief  seat  of  the  rich  miners.  Here  may  be  seen  the  choicest  toilettes,  the 
most  showy  equipages,  and  champagne  (which  in  Siberia  costs  at  least  £l  a 
bottle)  is  the  daily  beverage  of  the  gold  aristocracy.  Unfortunately,  Krasno- 
jarsk had,  until  very  recently,  not  a  single  bookseller's  shop  to  boast  of;  and 

*  A  species  of  sturgeon  highly  esteemed  by  epiau'es. 


SIBERIA— FUR-TRADE   AND    GOLD-DIGGINGS.  219 

while  thousands  were  lavished  on  vanity  and  sensual  enjoyments,  not  a  rouble 
Avas  devoted  to  the  improvement  of  the  mind. 

Less  rich  in  gold  than  the  province  of  Jeniseisk,  but  richer  in  copper  and 
iron,  and  above  all  in  platina,  is  the  Ural,  where  raining  industry  was  first  intro- 
duced by  Peter  the  Great,  in  the  last  years  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  has 
since  acquired  a  colossal  develojiment.  Though  gold  was  discovered  in  the  Ura- 
lian  province  of  Permia  as  early  as  1745,  yet  its  production  on  a  large  scale  is  of 
more  modern  date.  In  the  year  1816  the  whole  quantity  of  gold  furnished  by 
the  Ural  amounted  only  to  5  pouds  35  lbs.,  while  in  1834  it  had  increased  to 
405  pouds. 

The  discovery  of  the  precious  metals  on  the  estates  of  tlie  large  mine-propri- 
etors of  the  Ural,  who  already  before  that  time  were  among  the  wealthiest  men 
of  the  empire,  has  increased  their  riches  to  an  enormous  extent,  and  given  a 
European  celebrity  to  the  names  of  Jakowlew  and  Demidoff.  Werch  Issetsk 
and  Werchne  Tagilsk,  in  the  province  of  Permia,  belonging  to  the  Jakowlew 
family,  have  an  extent  of  more  than  three  millions  of  acres,  Avith  a  population 
of  11,000  souls.  Besides  iron  and  coj^per,  their  chief  produce,  these  estates 
yielded,  in  1834,  58  pouds  of  gold. 

Nishne-Tagilsk,  belonging,  since  1725,  to  the  Demidoffs,,  is  a  still  more  mag- 
nificent possession  ;  for  it  may  truly  be  said,  that  perhaps  nowhere  in  the  world 
are  greater  mineral  riches  congregated  in  one  spot  than-here,  where,  besides 
vast  quantities  of  iron  and  copper,  the  Avashing  of  the  sands  produced,  in  1834 
no  less  than  29  pouds  of  gold,  and  113  pouds  3  lbs.  of  platina.  The  estate  ex- 
tends over  four  millions  of  acres,  and  its  population,  in  1834,  amounted  to 
20,000  souls. 

The  towai  of  Nishne-Tagilsk  has  about  15,000  inhabitants,  and  Ilelmersen 
("  Travels  in  the  Ural ")  praises  the  Demidoffs  for  their  zeal  in  carrying  the 
civilization  of  Europe  to  the  Avilds  of  the  Ural.  In  an  excellent  elementary 
school,  150  boys  are  clothed,  fed,  and  educated  at  their  expense.  Those  pupils 
who  distinguish  themselves  by  their  abilities  are  then  sent  to  a  higher  school, 
such  as  the  DemidofE  Lyceum  in  Jaroslaw,  or  the  University  of  Moscow,  and 
after  the  termination  of  their  studies  obtain  a  situation  on  the  estates  of  the 
family.  The  palace  of  the  Demidoffs  has  a  fine  collection  of  paintings  by  the 
first  Italian  masters ;  but  it  is  seldom  if  ever  inhabited  by  the  proprietors,  Avho 
prefer  Florence  and  Paris  to  the  Ural.  The  founder  of  the  family  was  an  em- 
inent gunsmith  of  the  town  of  Tula,  whose  abilities  gained  him  the  favor  of 
Peter  the  Great,  and  the  gift  of  the  mines  on  which  the  colossal  fortune  of  his 
descendants  has  been  raised. 


230  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


CHAPTER  XYIII. 

MIDDENDORFF'S  ADVENTURES  IN  TAIMURLAND. 

For  what  Purpose  was  Middendorff's  Voyage  to  Taimurland  undertaken  ?— Difficulties  and  Obstacles.— 
Expedition  down  the  Tainiur  River  to  the  Polar  Sea.— Storm  on^aimur  Lake.— Loss  of  the  Boat.— 
Middendorff  ill  and  alone  in  75°  N.  Lat.— Saved  by  a  grateful  Samoiede.— Climate  and  Vegetation  of 
Taimurland. 

ON  following  the  contours  of  the  Siberian  coast,  we  find  to  the  east  of  Nova 
Zembla  a  vast  tract  of  territory  projecting  towards  the  Pole,  and  extend- 
ing its  promontories  far  into  the  icy  sea.  This  country — w^hich,  irom  its  prin- 
cipal river,  may  be  called  Taimurland— is  the  most  northern,  and,  I  need  hardly 
add,  the  most  inhospitable  part  of  the  Old  World.  The  last  huts  of  the  Rus- 
sian fishermen  are  situated  about  the  mouth  of  the  Jenissei,  but  the  whole  terri- 
tory of  the  Taimur  River,  and  the  regions  traversed  by  tlie  lower  course  of  the 
Chatanga  and  the  Pasina,  are  completely  uninhabited. 

Even  along  the  upper  course  of  these  two  last-named  rivers,  the  population 
is  exceedingly  scanty  and  scattered  ;  and  the  few  Samoiedes  who  migrate  dur- 
ing the  summer  to  the  banks  of  the  Taimur,  gladly  leave  them  at  the  approach 
of  winter,  the  cold  of  which  no  thermometer  has  ever  measured.  As  may  easi- 
ly be  imagined,  Taimurland  has  but  few  attractions  for  the  trader  or  the  fur- 
hunter,  but  for  the  naturalist  it  is  by  no  means  without  interest. 

We  have  seen  in  a  former  chapter  hoAv  Von  Baer,  prompted  by  the  disinter- 
ested love  of  science,  travelled  to  Nova  Zembla  to  examine  the  productions  of 
a  cold  insular  summer  beyond  the  VOth  degree  of  latitude.  The  instructive  re- 
sults of  his  journey  rendered  it  doubly  desirable  to  obtain  information  about 
the  effects  of  summer  in  a  continental  climate,  situated  if  possible  still  farther 
to  the  north  ;  and  as  no  region  could  be  better  suited  to  this  purpose  than  the 
interior  of  the  broad  mass  of  Taimurland,  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  St.  Peters- 
burg resolved  to  send  thither  a  scientific  expedition.  Fortunately  for  the  suc- 
cess of  the  undertaking.  Von  Middendorff,  the  eminent  naturalist,  whose  offer 
of  service  was  gladly  accepted,  was  in  every  respect  the  right  man  in  the  right 
place  ;  for  to  the  most  untiring  scientific  zeal,  and  an  unwavering  determination, 
he  joined  a  physical  strength  and  a  manual  dexterity  rarely  found  united  with 
learning.  In  the  Lapland  moors  he  had  learned  to  bivouac  for  nights  together, 
while  chasing  the  waterfowl,  and  on  foot  he  was  able  to  tire  the  best-trained 
walrus-hunter.  He  understood  how  to  construct  a  boat,  and  to  steer  it  with  las 
own  hand,  and  every  beast  or  bird  was  doomed  that  came  within  reach  of  his 
unerring  ball.  In  one  word,  no  traveller  ever  plunged  into  the  Arctic  Avilds 
more  independent  of  baggage,  followers,  or  the  means  of  transport. 

On  April  4  we  find  Middendorff,  accompanied  by  Mr.  Brandt,  a  Danish  for- 
ester and  a  sin^de  servant,  on  the  ice  of  the  Jenissei  between  Turuchansk  and 


MIDDENDORFF'S  ADVENTURES    IN   TAIMURLAND.  221 

Dudino.  Here  his  companions  were  attacked  by  measles ;  but  as  it  was  high 
time  to  reach  the  Chatanga  before  the  melting  of  the  snow,  the  patients  were 
carefully  packed  up  in  boxes  lined  with  skins,  and  the  whole  party — whose  num- 
bers, meanwhile,  had  been  increased  by  the  addition  of  a  topographer  and  of 
three  Cossacks — emerged  from  the  region  of  forests  on  April  13,  having  to  face 
a  cold  of  —36°,  and  a  storm  that  almost  overturned  their  sledges.  With 
Tunguse  guides  they  traversed  the  tundra  in  a  north-easterly  direction  as  far  as 
the  Pasina,  and  thence  passing  on  from  one  Samoiede  horde  to  another,  at  length 
reached  Koronnoie  Filippowskoi  (71°  5'  lat.)  on  the  Boganida,an  affluent  of  the 
Cheta,  which  is  itself  a  tributary  of  the  Chatanga.  Here  a  halt  was  made, 
partly  because  all  the  party  except  Middendorff  were  by  this  time  attacked  with 
the  reigning  epidemic,  and  partly  to  wait  for  the  Samoiedes,  whom  they  intend- 
ed to  join  on  their  summer  migration  to  the  north.  During  this  interval  Mid- 
dendorff made  an  excursion  to  the  Chatanga,  for  the  purpose  of  gathering  in 
formation  about  the  voyage  down  that  river,  and  to  make  the  necessary  prepara- 
tions. In  the  village  of  Chatangsk, however,  he  found  nearly  all  the  inhabitants 
suffering  from  the  measles  ;  and  as  no  assistance  was  to  be  expected  from  them, 
he  resolved  to  alter  his  route,  and  to  proceed  as  soon  as  possible  to  the  River 
Taimur,  which  would  in  all  probability  afford  him  the  best  means  for  penetrat- 
ing to  the  extreme  confines  of  continental  Asia.  As  this  most  northerly  river 
of  the  Old  World  lies  far  beyond  the  boundaries  of  arboreal  growth,  a  boat-frame 
of  twelve  feet  on  the  keel  had  to  be  made  at  Koronnoie  before  setting  out. 
Brandt  was  left  behind  with  part  of  the  company,  to  make  a  prolonged  series 
of  meteorological  observations,  and  to  gather  as  complete  a  collection  as  possible 
of  the  animals  and  plants  of  the  country,  while  Middendorff  started  on  his  ad- 
venturous tour  (May  19)  with  sixty-eight  reindeer,  under  the  guidance  of  a  few 
Samoiedes  on  their  progress  to  the  north,  and  accompanied  only  by  the  topog- 
rapher, an  interpreter,  and  two  Cossacks.  The  difficulties  of  this  journey,  since 
a  boat-frame,  fuel,  provisions,  physical  instruments,  apparatuses  for  the  preser- 
vation of  objects  of  natural  history,  forming  altogether  a  load  for  many  sledges, 
had  to  be  transported  along  with  the  travellers,  would  have  been  great  at  all 
times,  but  were  now  considerably  increased  by  the  epidemic  having  also  seized 
the  tribe  of  Samoiedes  which  Middendorff  expected  to  find  near  the  small  River 
Nowaia,  and  which  was  to  guide  him  farther  on  to  the  Taimur.  At  length, 
after  a  search  of  three  days,  he  found  the  remnant  of  the  horde,  which  had  been 
decimated  and  reduced  to  a  deplorable  condition  by  the  epidemic.  In  vain  he 
sought  for  the  well-known  faces  of  the  chief  personages  of  the  horde,  with  whom 
he  had  negotiated  on  the  Boganida — "  they  were  all  dead."  Of  thirty-five  per- 
sons, one  only  was  completely  healthy;  a  second  could  hardly  crawl  about ;  but 
the  others  lay  prostrate  in  their  tents,  coughing  and  gi-oaning  under  their  skin 
coverings.  Leaving  seven  corpses  on  the  road,  they  had  advanced  by  slow  jour- 
neys to  join  Middendorff,  until  they  broke  down,  so  that  instead  of  receiving 
aid  at  their  hands,  he  was  now  obliged  to  help  them  in  their  distress — an  assist- 
ance which  they  amply  repaid,  as  Ave  shall  see  in  the  sequel. 

Unfortunately  the  illness  had  prevented  the  Samoiede  women  from  sewing 
together,  as  they  had  promised,  the  skins  that  were  necessary  to  complete  the 


223  THE    POLAR   WORLD. 

covering  of  the  travellers'  tent,  so  that  they  had  much  to  suffer  durmg  a  violent 
snow-storm,  which  raged  from  May  27  to  30.  Thus  after  another  long  delay 
and  an  irreparable  loss  of  time,  considering  the  extreme  shortness  of  the  sum- 
mer, Middendorff  was  not  able  to  start  from  the  Nowaia  before  May  31,  The 
softening  of  the  snow  rendered  the  advance  of  the  sledges  extremely  difficult, 
so  that  it  was  not  before  June  14  that  he  reached  the  Taimur  at  a  considerable 
distance  above  the  point  where  the  river  discharges  its  waters  into  the  lake. 
Encamping  on  a  steep  declivity  of  its  bank,  Middendorff  now  set  about  build- 
ing his  boat.  On  June  30  the  ice  on  the  river  began  to  break  up,  and  on  July 
5  the  navigation  of  the  stream  was  free.  By  the  light  of  the  midnight  sun  the 
boat  was  launched,  and  christened  "  The  Tundra,"  to  commemorate  the  diffi- 
culties of  its  construction  in  the  deserts  of  74°  N,  lat.  Constant  north  winds 
retarded  the  voyage  down  the  river  and  over  the  lake,  beyond  which  the  Taimur, 
traversing  a  hilly  country,  is  inclosed  within  steep  and  picturesque  rocks.  The 
increasing  rapidity  of  the  stream  now  favored  the  travellers,  and  the  storms 
were  less  troublesome  between  the  mighty  rock-walls ;  but  unfortunately  Mid- 
dendorff, instead  of  being  able,  as  he  had  expected,  to  fill  his  nets  with  fish  as 
he  advanced,  and  to  establish  depots  for  his  return  journey,  found  himself 
obliged  to  consume  the  provisions  he  had  taken  with  him  in  the  boat.  On  Au- 
gust 6  the  first  night-frost  took  place,  and  from  that  time  Avas  regularly  repeat- 
ed. Yet  in  spite  of  these  warnings,  Middendorff  continued  his  journey  down 
the  river,  and  reached  the  sea  on  August  24,  in  76°  N.  lat.  But  now  it  was 
high  time  to  return. 

"  The  fear  of  leaving  my  undertaking  half  unfinished,"  says  Middendorff, 
"  had  hitherto  encouraged  me  to  persevere.  The  great  distance  from  any  hu- 
man habitation,  the  rapid  stream,  against  which  Ave  had  now  to  contend,  and  the 
advanced  season,  with  its  approaching  dark  nights  and  frosts,  made  our  return 
an  imperative  necessity,  and  I  could  have  but  little  reliance  on  our  remaining 
strength.  The  insufficient  food  and  the  fatigue's  of  our  journey,  often  prolong- 
ed to  extreme  exhaustion,  had  reduced  our  vigor,  and  we  all  began  to  feel  the 
effects  of  our  frequent  wading  through  cold  water,  when,  as  often  happened, 
our  boat  had  grounded  upon  a  shallow,  or  Avhen  the  flat  mud-banks  of  the  riv- 
er gave  us  no  other  alternative  for  reaching  the  dry  land.  It  was  now  also  the 
second  month  since  Ave  had  not  slept  under  a  tent,  having  all  the  time  passed 
the  nights  behind  a  screen  erected  on  the  oars  of  the  boat,  as  a  shelter  against 
the  Avind,  Provided  Avith  a  good  load  of  drift-Avood,  collected  on  the  shore  of 
the  Polar  Ocean,  Ave  began  our  return  voyage  on  August  26.  The  borders  of 
the  river  Avere  already  incrusted  Avith  ice.  Wading  became  extremely  irksome, 
the  river  having  meanAvhile  fallen  above  six  feet,  and  the  shallows  frequently 
forcing  us  to  step  into  the  Avater  and  pull  the  boat  along. 

"  Fortunately  the  Avind  remained  favorable,  and  thus  by  rowing  to  the  utmost 
of  our  strength,  and  Avith  the  assistance  of  the  broad  sails  of  our '  Tundi-a,'  Ave 
surmounted  tAvo  rapids  Avhich,  encased  between  abrupt  rocks,  seemed  to  defy 
our  utmost  efforts. 

"On  the  31st,  a  malicious  gust  of  Avind,  bursting  out  of  a  narroAV  gorge, 
threw  our  boat  against  the  rocks  and  broke  the  rudder.     The  frost  and  Avet, 


MIDDENDORFF'S  ADVENTURES   IN   TAIMURLAND.  223 

together  with  the  shortness  of  our  provisions,  tried  us  sorely.  Not  a  day  pass- 
ed without  sleet  and  snow. 

"  On  September  5,  while  endeavoring  to  double  during  a  violent  storm  a 
rocky  island  at  the  northern  extremity  of  Lake  Taimur,  one  wave  after  another 
dashed  into  the  boat,  which  I  could  only  save  by  letting  her  run  upon  a  sand- 
bank. The  violent  wind,  with  a  temperature  of  only  4-2'7°  at  noon,  covered 
our  clothes  with  solid  ice-crusts.  We  were  obliged  to  halt  four  days  till  the 
storm  ceased;  our  nets  and  my  double-barrelled  gun  proved  daily  more  and 
more  unsuccessful,  so  that  hunger  combined  with  cold  to  render  our  situation 
almost  intolerable.  On  the  8th,  while  on  the  lookout  for  ptarmigan,  I  saw 
through  my  telescope  a  long  stripe  of  silver  stretching  over  the  lake,  and,  re- 
turning to  my  comrades,  informed  them  that  we  must  absolutely  set  off  again 
the  next  morning,  regardless  of  wind  and  weather. 

"  On  the  following  day  the  ominous  indications  of  the  telescope  rendered  it 
necessary  to  approach  the  more  open  west  side  of  the  lake ;  which  I  followed 
until  stopped  by  the  ice,  along  whose  borders  I  then  sailed  in  order  to  reach  the 
river,  which  must  still  be  open.  Meanwhile  the  wind  had  completely  fallen,  and, 
to  our  astonishment,  we  saw  the  water  in  our  wake  cover  itself  with  a  thin 
crust  of  ice  as  soon  as  we  passed.  The  danger  of  freezing  fast  in  the  middle 
of  the  lake  was  evident." 

Unfortunately,  while  endeavoring  to  reach  the  river,  the  boat  was  crushed 
between  two  ice  floes,  and  was  with  great  difficulty  dragged  on  shore.  The 
only  chance  of  rescue  now  was  to  meet  with  some  Samoiedes  on  the  upper 
course  of  the  river,  for  these  nomads  never  wander  northward  Jbeyond  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  the  lake,  and  from  this  our  travellers  were  still  at  a  great 
distance. 

"  We  made  a  large  hand-sledge,"  continues  Middendorff,  "  and  set  off  with- 
out loss  of  time  on  the  10th,  in  spite  of  the  rainy  weather,  which  had  complete- 
ly dissolved  the  sparing  snow  upon  the  hills.  The  sharp  stones  cut  into  our 
sledge-runners  like  knives,  and  after  having  scarcely  made  three  versts,  the-  ve- 
hicle fell  to  pieces.  The  bad  weather  forced  us  to  stop  for  the  night.  The  fa- 
tigues of  our  boat-journey,  the  want  of  proper  food,  and  mental  anxiety,  had 
for  several  weeks  been  undermining  my  health  :  a  total  want  of  sleep  destroyed 
the  remainder  of  my  strength,  so  that,  early  on  the  11th,  I  felt  myself  quite 
unable  to  proceed." 

In  this  extremity  Middendorff  adopted  with  heroic  self-denial  the  best  and 
only  means  for  his  own  preservation  and  that  of  his  comrades.  If,  by  depart- 
ing without  loss  of  time,  they  wei'e  fortunate  enough  to  reach  the  Samoiedes 
before  these  nomads  had  left  the  Taimur  country  for  the  south,  he  also  might 
be  rescued ;  if  they  found  them  very  late,  they  at  least  might  expect  to  save 
their  lives ;  if  the  Samoiedes  could  not  be  found,  then  of  course  the  whole  party 
was  doomed.  Thus  Middendorff  resolved  to  separate  at  once  from  liis  com- 
rades. A  remnant  of  flesh  extract,  reserved  for  extreme  cases,  was  divided  into 
five  equal  portions ;  the  naturalist's  dog,  the  faithful  companion  of  all  his  pre- 
vious journeys,  was  killed,  though  reduced  to  a  mere  skeleton,  and  his  scanty 
flesh  similarly  distributed  among  the  party.     The  blood  and  a  soup  made  of  the 


224  THE  POLAR- WORLD. 

bones  served  for  the  parting  repast.  Thus  of  his  own  free-will,  the  winter  hav- 
ing ah-eady  set  in,  Middendorff,  ill  and  exhausted,  remained  quite  alone  in  the 
icy  desert,  behind  a  sheltering  rock,  in  15°  N.  lat.,  several  hundred  versts  from 
all  human  dwellings,  almost  without  fuel,  and  with  a  miserable  supply  of  food. 
The  three  first  days  he  Avas  still  able  to  move.  He  saw  the  lake  cover  itself  com- 
pletely with  ice,  and  the  last  birds  depart  for  the  south.  Then  his  strength  ut- 
terly failed  him,  and  for  the  next  three  days  he  was  unable  to  stir.  When  he  was 
again  able  to  move,  he  felt  an  excessive  thirst.  He  crawled  to  the  lake,  broke 
the  ice,  and  the  water  refreshed  him.  But  he  was  not  yet  free  from  disease,  and 
this  was  fortunate,  as  want  of  appetite  did  not  make  him  feel  the  necessity  of 
food.  Now  followed  a  succession  of  terrible  snow-storms,  which  completely 
imprisoned  the  solitary  traveller,  but  at  the  same  time  afforded  him  a  better 
shelter  against  the  wind. 

"My  companions,"  he  writes  in  a  letter  to  a  relation,  "had  now  left  me 
twelve  days;  human  assistance  could  no  longer  be  expected;  I  was  convinced 
that  I  had  only  myself  to  .rely  upon,  that  I  was  doomed,  and  as  good  as  number- 
ed with  the  dead.  And  yet  my  courage  did  not  forsake  me.  Like  our  squir- 
rels, I  turned  myself  according  to  the  changes  of  the  wind.  During  the  long 
sleepless  nights  fancy  opened  her  domains,  and  I  forgot  even  hunger  and  thirst. 
Then  Boreas  broke  roaring  out  of  the  gullies  as  if  he  intended  to  sweep  me 
away  into  the  skies,  and  in  a  short  time  I  was  covered  with  a  comfortable  snow- 
mantle.  Thus  I  lay  three  days,  thinking  of  wretches  who  had  been  immured 
alive,  and  grown  mad  in  their  dreadful  prison.  An  overwhelming  fear  of  in- 
sanity befell  me — it  oppressed  my  heart — it  became  insupportable.  In  vain  I 
attempted  to  cast  it  off — my  weakened  brain  could  grasp  no  other  idea.  And 
now  suddenly — like  a  ray  of  light  from  heaven — the  saving  thought  flashed 
uj^on  me. 

"  My  last  pieces  of  wood  were  quickly  lighted — some  water  was  thawed  and 
warmed — I  poured  into  it  the  spirits  from  a  flask  containing  a  specimen  of  nat- 
ural history,  and  drank.  A  new  life  seemed  to  awaken  in  me :  my  thoughts  re- 
turned again  to  my  family,  to  the  happy  days  I  had  spent  with  the  friends  of 
my  youth.  Soon  I  fell  into  a  profound  sleep — how  long  it  lasted  I  know  not — 
but  on  awakening  I  felt  like  another  man,  and  my  breast  was  filled  with  grati- 
tude. Appetite  returned  with  recovery,  and  I  was  reduced  to  eat  leather  and 
birch- bark,  when  a  ptarmigan  fortunately  came  within  reach  of  my  gun.  Hav- 
ing thus  obtained  some  food  for  the  joui'ney,  I  resolved,  although  still  very  fee- 
ble, to  set  out  and  seek  the  provisions  we  had  buried.  Packing  some  articles  of 
dresSj  my  gun  and  ammunition,  my  journal,  etc.,  on  my  small  hand-sledge,  I  pro- 
ceeded slowly,  and  frequently  resting.  At  noon  I  saw,  on  a  well-known  decliv- 
ity of  the  hills,  three  black  spots  which  I  had  not  previously  hoticed,  and  as  they 
changed  their  position,  I  at  once  altered  my  route  to  join  them.  "We  approach- 
ed each  other — and,  judge  of  my  delight,  it  was  Trischun,the  Samoiede  chief- 
tain, whom  I  had  previously  assisted  in  the  prevailing  epidemic,  and  who  now, 
guided  by  one  of  my  companions,  had  set  out  with  three  sledges  to  seek  me. 
Eager  to  serve  his  benefactor,  the  grateful  savage  had  made  his  reindeer  wander 
without  food  over  a  space  of  150  versts  where  no  moss  grew. 


mCDENDORFF'S   ADVENTURES    IN    TAIMURLAND.  225 

"  I  now  heard  that  my  companions  had  fortmiately  reached  the  Samoiedes 
fom"  days  after  our  separation ;  but  the  dreadfid  snow-storms  had  prevented  the 
nomads  from  coming  sooner  to  my  assistance,  and  had  even  forced  them  twice 
to  retrace  their  steps. 

"  On  September  30  the  Samoiedes  brought  me  to  my  tent,  and  on  October 
9  we  bade  the  Taimur  an  eternal  farewell.  After  five  months  we  hailed  with 
delight,  on  October  20,  the  verge  of  the  forest,  and  on  the  following  day  we 
reached  the  smoky  hut  on  the  Boganida,  where  we  had  left  our  friends." 

Having  thus  accompanied  Middendorfl:  on  his  adventurous  wanderings 
through  Taimuria,  I  will  now  give  a  brief  account  of  his  observations  on  the 
climate  and  natural  productions  of  this  northern  land. 

The  remark  of  Saussure  that  the  difference  of  temperature  between  light  and 
shade  is  greatest  in  summer,  and  in  the  high  latitudes,  was  fully  confirmed  by 
Middendorff.  While  the  thermometer  marked  —37°  in  the  shade,  the  hillsides 
exposed  to  the  sun  were  dripping  with  wet,  and  towards  the  end  of  June,  though 
the  mean  temperature  of  the  air  was  still  below  the  freezing-point  of  water,  the 
snow  had  already  entirely  disappeared  on  the  sunny  side  of  the  Taimur  River. 
Torrents  came  brawding  down  the  hills ;  the  swollen  rivers  rose  forty  or  sixty 
feet  above  their  winter  level,  and  carried  their  icy  covering  along  with  them  to 
the  sea. 

On  August  3,  in  the  very  middle  of  the  short  Taimuriau  summer,  in  74°  15' 
of  latitude,  Middendorff  hunted  butterflies  under  the  shelter  of  a  hill,  bare-foot- 
ed and  in  light  under-clothes.  The  thermometer  rose  in  the  sun  to  -}-68°,  and 
close  to  the  ground  to  -f  86°,  while  at  a  short  distance  on  a  spot  exposed  to  the 
north-eastern  air-current  it  fell  at  once  to  -f  27°. 

The  moistui-e  of  the  air  was  very  remarkable.  In  May  thick  snow-fogs  al- 
most perpetually  obscured  the  atmosphere,  so  that  it  was  impossible  to  ascer- 
tain the  position  of  the  sun.  It  appeared  only  in  the  evening,  or  about  midnight, 
and  then  regularly  a  perpendicular  column  of  luminous  whiteness  descended  from 
its  orb  to  the  earth,  and,  widening  as  it  approached  the  horizon,  took  the  form 
and  the  appearance  of  a  colossal  lamp-flame,  such  as  the  latter  appears  when 
seen  through  the  mists  of  a  vapor  bath.  From  the  same  cause  parhelia  and 
halos  were  very  frequent. 

During  the  daytime  the  snow-fogs,  in  perpetual  motion,  either  entirely  veil- 
ed the  nearest  objects,  or  magnified  their  size,  or  exhibited  them  in  a  dancing 
motion.  In  June  the  snow-fog  became  a  vapor-fog,  which  daily  from  time  to 
time  precipitated  its  surplus  of  moisture  in  form  of  a  light  rain,  but  even  then 
the  nights,  particularly  after  eleven  o'clock,  were  mostly  serene. 

Experience  proved,  contrary  to  Arago's  opinion,  that  thunder-storms  take 
place  withua  the  Arctic  zone.  The  perpetual  motion  of  the  air  was  very  re- 
markable. The  sun  had  merely  to  disappear  behind  a  cloud  to  produce  at  once 
a  gust  of  wind.  Towards  the  end  of  August,  the  southern  and  the  northern  air- 
currents,  like  tw^o  contending  giants,  began  to  strive  for  the  mastery,  until  finally 
the  storms  raged  with  extreme  violence.  But  in  these  treeless  deserts  their  fury 
liuds  nothing  to  destroy. 

It  is  impossible  to  form  any  thing  like  a  correct  estimate  of  the  quantity  of 

15 


326  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

snow  which  annually  falls  in  the  highest  latitudes.  So  much  is  certain  that  it 
can  not  be  small,  to  judge  by  the  violence  and  swelling  of  the  rivers  in  spring. 
The  summits  of  the  hills,  and  the  declivities  exposed  to  the  reigning  winds,  are* 
constantly  deprived  of  snow,  which,  however,  fills  up  the  bottom  of  the  valleys 
to  a  considerable  height.  Great  was  Middendorff's  astonishment,  while  travel- 
Ung  over  the  tundra  at  the  end  of  winter,  to  find  it  covered  with  no  more  than 
two  inches,  or  at  the  very  utmost  half  a  foot,  of  snow ;  the  dried  stems  of  the 
Arctic  plants  everywhere  peeping  forth  above  its  surface.  This  was  the  natu- 
ral consequence  of  the  north-easterly  storms,  which,  sweeping  over  the  naked 
plain,  carry  the  snow  along  with  them,  and  form  the  snow-waves,  the  compass  of 
the  northern  nomads. 

It  is  extremely  probable  that,  on  advancing  towards  the  pole,  the  fall  of  snow 
gradually  diminishes,  as  in  the  Alps,  Avhere  its  quantity  likewise  decreases  on 
ascending  above  a  certain  height. 

On  measuring  the  thickness  of  the  ice,  Middendorff  was  very  much  surprised 
to  find  it  nowhere,  both  in  the  lakes  and  on  the  river,  thicker  than  eight  feet,  and 
sometimes  only  four  and  a  half;  its  thickness  being  constantly  proportionate  to 
the  quantity  of  snow  with  which  it  was  covered.  At  first  he  could  hardly  be- 
lieve that  this  simple  covering  could  afford  so  efiicacious  a  protection  against  the 
extreme  cold  of  winter  in  the  '74th  degree  of  latitude,  but  the  fact  is  well  known 
to  the  Samoiedes,  who,  whenever  they  require  water,  always  make  the  hole 
where  the  snow  lies  deepest. 

The  tundras  of  Taimuria  were  found  to  consist  principally  of  arid  plateaux 
and  undulating  heights,  where  the  vegetation  can  not  conceal  the  boulders  and" 
the  sand  of  which  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  formed. 

The  withered  tips  of  the  grasses  scarcely  differ  in  color  from  the  dirty  yel- 
low-brown moss,  and  the  green  of  the  lo^wr  part  of  the  stalks  appears  as  through 
a  veil  Nothing  can  be  of  a  more  dreary  monotony  than  this  vegetation  when 
spread  over  a  wide  surface;  but  in  the  hardly  perceptible  depressions  of  the 
plains  where  the  spring  water  is  able  to  collect,  a  fresher  green  gains  the  upper 
hand,  the  stalks  are  not  only  longer,  but  stand  closer  together,  and  the  grass, 
growing  to  a  height  of  three  or  even  four  inches,  usurps  the  place  of  the  moss. 
Here  and  there  small  patches  of  Dry  as  octopetala,  or  Gassiope  tetragona,  and 
much  more  rarely  a  dwarf  ranunculus,  diversify  the  dingy  carpet,  yet  without 
being  able  to  relieve  its  wearisome  character.  But  very  different,  and  indeed 
truly  surprising,  is  the  aspect  of  the  slopes  which,  facing  the  Taimur  lake  or 
river,  are  protected  against  the  late  and  early  frosts.  Here  considerable  patches 
of  ground  are  covered  with  a  lively  green,  intermingled  with  gayly-colored  flow- 
ers, such  as  the  brilliant  yellow  Sieversia,  the  elegant  Oxytropis,  the  blue  and 
white  Saxif ragas,  the  red  Armeria  alpina^  and  a  beautiful  new  species  of  Del- 
phinium. All  these  various  flowers  are  not  dwarfs  of  stunted  growth,  for  Pole- 
niones,  Sisymbrias,  Polygonums,  and  Papavers  above  a  foot  high  decorate  the 
slopes,  and  Middendorff  found  an  islet  in  the  Taimur  covered  like  a  field  with  a 
Senecio,  of  which  some  of  the  most  conspicuous  specimens  were  more  than  a  foot 
and  a  half  high,  and  bore  no  less  than  forty  flowers  above  an  inch  in  diameter. 

The  progress  of  vegetation  is  uncommonly  rapid,  so  that,  as  Middendorff  re- 


IVnODENDORFF'S  ADVENTURES   IN   TAIMURLAND.  227 

marks,  if  any  one  wishes  to  see  the  grass  grow,  he  must  travel  to  tlie  Taimur. 
Scarcely  do  the  first  leaves  peep  forth  when  the  blossoms  also  appear,  as  if,  con- 
scious of  the  early  approach  of  autumn,  they  felt  the  necessity  of  bringing  their 
seeds  to  a  rapid  maturity  under  this  wintry  sky. 

With  regard  to  the  animal  creation,  the  general  law  of  polar  unifoi'inity  was 
fully  confirmed  in  Taimurland.  The  same  lemmings  were  found  which  peo- 
ple the  whole  north  of  Asia  and  America,  and  as  high  as  75°  N.  lat.  they  found 
the  traces  of  the  snow-hare,  which  inhabits  the  complete  circle  of  the  Arctic  re- 
gions of  the  globe.  The  Arctic  fox,  everywhere  at  home  in  the  treeless  wastes 
is  here  also  pursued  by  the  northern  glutton ;  and  following  the  herds  of  the 
reindeer,  the  wolves,  and  the  Saraoiedes,  roams  up  and  down  the  tundra.  The 
ptarmigan,  which  in  Scandinavia  and  on  Melville  Island  feeds  on  berries  and 
buds,  appears  also  as  a  summer  visitor  at  the  mouth  of  the  Taimur  in  75°  4'  N. 
lat.,  and  the  ivory  gull  of  the  northern  European  seas  likewise  builds  its  nest 
on  the  rocks  of  that  distant  shore. 

The  more  vigorous  vegetation  on  the  sheltered  declivities  of  the  Taimur  pro- 
vides food  for  a  comparatively  greater  number  of  insects  than  is  found  on  the 
coasts  of  Nova  Zembla.  Bees,  hornets,  and  three  different  species  of  butterflies, 
buzzed  or  hovered  round  the  flowers,  and  caterpillars  could  be  gathered  by 
dozens  on  the  tundra,  but  their  mortal  enemies  had  pursued  them  even  here ; 
and  ichneumon  flies  crept  out  of  most  of  them.  Two  spiders,  several  flies, 
gnats,  and  tipulae,  a  curculio,  and  half  a  dozen  carabi  completed  Middendorff's 
entomological  list,  to  Avhich,  no  doubt,  further  researches  would  have  consid- 
erably added. 

Thus,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  Asia,  as  in  every  other  pai't  of  the  world, 
the  naturalist  finds  the  confirmation  of  the  general  law  that,  where  the  means 
of  life  are  given,  life  is  sure  to  come  forth. 


228  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE  JAKUTS. 

Their  energetic  Nationality. — Their  Descent. — Their  gloomy  Character. — Summer  and  Winter  Dwell- 
ings.— The  Jakut  Horse. — Incredible  Powers  of  Endurance  of  the  Jakuts. — Their  Sharpness  of  Vis- 
ion.—Surprising  local  Memory.— Their  manual  Dexterity. — Leather,  Poniards,  Carpets. —Jakut 
Gluttons. — Superstitious  Fear  of  the  Mountain-spirit  Ljeschei.— Offerings  of  Horse-hair.— Improvised 
Songs. — The  River  Jakut, 

THE  Jakuts  are  a  remarkably  energetic  race,  for  though  subject  to  the  Mus- 
covite yoke,  they  not  only  successfully  maintain  their  language  and  man- 
ners, but  even  impose  their  own  tongue  and  customs  upon  the  Russians  who 
have  settled  in  their  country.  Thus  in  Jakutsk,  or  the  "  capital  of  the  Jakuts," 
as  with  not  a  little  of  national  pride  and  self-complacency  they  style  that  dreary 
city,  their  language  is  much  more  frequently  spoken  than  the  Russian,  for  al- 
most all  the  artisans  are  Jakuts,  and  even  the  rich  fur-merchant  has  not  seldom 
a  Jakut  wife,  as  no  Russian  now  disdains  an  alliance  with  one  of  that  nation. 

At  Amginskoie,  an  originally  Russian  settlement,  Middendorff  found  the 
greatest  difficulty  in  procuring  a  guide  able  to  speak  the  Russian  language,  and 
all  the  Tunguse  Avhom  he  met  "with  between  Jakutsk  and  Ochotsk  understood 
and  spoke  Jakut,  which  is  thus  the  dominant  vlanguage  from  the  basin  of  the 
■  Lena  to  the  extreme  eastern  confines  of  Siberia,  In  truth,  no  Russian  workman 
can  compete  with  the  Jakuts,  whose  cunning  and  effrontery  would  make  it  diffi- 
cult even  for  a  Jew  to  prosper  among  them. 

Though  of  a  Mongolian  physiognomy,  their  language,  which  is  said  to  be 
intelligible  at  Constantinople,  distinctly  points  to  a  Turk  extraction,  and  their 
traditions  speak  of  their  original  seats  as  situated  on  the  Baikal  and  Angora, 
whence,  retreating  before  more  pow^erf ul  hordes,  they  advanced  to  the  Lena, 
where  in  their  turn  they  dispossessed  the  weaker  tribes  which  they  found  in 
possession  of  the  country.  At  present  their  chief  abode  is  along  the  banks  of 
that  immense  river,  which  they  occupy  at  least  as  far  southward  as  the  Aldan. 
Eastward  they  are  found  on  the  Kolyma,  and  westward  as  far  as  the  Jenissei. 
Their  total  number  amounts  to  about  200,000,  and  they  form  the  chief  part  of 
the  population  of  the  vast  but  almost  desert  province  of  Jakutsk. 

They  are  essentially  a  pastoral  people,  and  their  chief  wealth  consists  in 
horses  and  cattle,  though  the  northern  portion  of  their  nation  is  reduced  to  the 
reindeer  and  the  dog.  Besides  the  breeding  of  horses,  the  Russian  fur-trade 
has  developed  an  industrial  form  of  the  hunter's  state,  so  that  among  the 
Jakuts  property  accumulates,  and  wx  have  a  higher  civilization  than  will  be 
found  elsewhere  in  the  same  latitude,  Iceland,  Finland,  and  Norway  alone  ex- 
cepted. Of  an  unsocial  and  reserved  disposition,  they  prefer  a  solitary  settle- 
ment, but  at  the  same  time  they  are  very  hospitable,  and  give  the  stranger  who 


THE   JAKUTS. 


229 


claims  their  assistance  a  friendly  welcome.  Villages  consisting  of  several  huts, 
or  yourts,  are  rare,  and  found  only  between  Jakutsk  and  the  Aldan,  where  the 
population  is  somewhat  denser.  Beyond  the  Werchojansk  ridge  the  solitary 
huts  are  frequently  several  hundred  versts  apart,  so  that  the  nearest  neighbors 
sometimes  do  not  see  each  other  for  years. 

In  summer  the  Jakut  herdsmen  live  in  urossy,  light  conical  tents  fixed  on 
poles  and  covered  with  birch  rind,  and  during  the  whole  season  they  are  per- 
petually employed  in  making  hay  for  the  long  winter. 

In  62°  N.  lat.,  and  in  a  climate  of  an  almost  iinparalleled  severity,  the  rearing 
of  their  cattle  causes  them  far  more  trouble  than  is  the  case  with  any  other  pas- 
toral people.  Their  supply  of  hay  is  frequently  exhausted  before  the  end  of 
the  winter,  and  from  March  to  May  their  oxen  must  generally  be  content  with 
willow  and  birch  twigs  or  saplings. 


A   JAKUT   VILLAGE. 


At  the  beginning  of  the  cold  season  the  Jackut  exchanges  his  summer  tent 
for  his  warm  winter  residence,  or  yourt,  a  hut  built  of  beams  or  logs,  in  the 
form  of  a  truncated  pyramid,  and  thickly  covered  with  turf  and  clay.  Plates 
of  ice  serve  as  windows,  and  are  replaced  by  fish-bladders  or  paper  steeped  in 
oil,  as  soon  as  the  thaw  begins.  The  earthen  floor,  for  it  is  but  rarely  boarded, 
is  generally  sunk  two  or  three  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  seats 
and  sleeping  berths  are  ranged  along  the  sides,  and  the  centre  is  occupied  by 
the  tschitical,  or  hearth,  the  smoke  of  which  finds  its  exit  through  an  aperture  in 
the  roof.     Clothes  and  arms  are  suspended  from  the  walls,  and  the  whole  premi- 


230  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

ses  exhibit  a  sad  picture  of  disorder  and  filth.  Near  the  yourt  are  stables  for 
the  cows,  but  when  the  cold  is  very  severe,  these  useful  animals  are  received 
into  the  family  room.  As  for  the  horses,  they  remain  night  and  day  without 
a  shelter,  at  a  temperature  when  mercury  freezes,  and  are  obliged  to  feed  on 
the  withered  autumnal  gi-ass  which  they  find  under  the  snow.  These  creatures, 
whose  powers  of  endurance  are  almost  incredible,  change  their  hair  in  summer 
like  the  other  quadrupeds  of  the  Arctic  regions.  They  keep  their  strength, 
though  travelling  perhaps  for  months  through  the  T^ilderness  without  any  other 
food  than  the  parched,  half-rotten  grass  met  with  on  the  way.  They  retain 
their  teeth  to  old  age,  and  remain  young  much  longer  than  our  horses.  "•  He 
who  thinks  of  improving  the  Jakut  horse,"  says  Von  Middendorff, "  aims  at 
something  like  perfection.  Fancy  the  w^orst  conceivable  roads,  and  for  nourish- 
ment the  bark  of  the  larch  and  willow,  witli  hard  grass-stalks  instead  of  oats ; 
or  merely  travel  on  the  post-road  to  Jakutsk,  and  see  the  horses  that  have 
just  run  forty  versts  without  stopping,  and  are  covered  with  perspiration  and 
foam,  eating  their  hay  in  the  open  air  without  the  slightest  covering,  at  a  tem- 
perature of  —40°." 

But  the  Jakut  himself  is  no  less  hardened  against  the  cold  than  his  faithful 
horse.  "  On  December  9,"  says  Wrangell,  "  we  bivouacked  round  a  fire,  at  a 
temperature  of  —28°,  on  an  open  pasture-ground,  which  afforded  no  shelter 
against  the  northern  blast.  Here  I  had  an  excellent  opportunity  for  admiring 
the  unparalleled  powers  of  endurance  of  our  Jakut  attendants.  On  the  long- 
est winter  journey  they  take  neither  tents  nor  extra  covering  along  with  them, 
not  even  one  of  the  larger  fur-dresses.  While  travelling,  the  Jakut  contents 
himself  with  his  usual  dress ;  in  this  he  generally  sleeps  in  the  open  air ;  a 
horse  rug  stretched  out  upon  the  snow  is  his  bed,  a  wooden  saddle  his  pillow. 
With  the  same  fur  jacket,  Avhicli  serves  him  by  daytime  as  a  dress,  and  which 
he  pulls  off  w^hen  he  lies  down  for  the  night,  he  decks  his  back  and  shoulders, 
while  the  front  part  of  his  body  is  turned  towards  the  fire  almost  without  any 
covering.  He  then  stops  his  nose  and  ears  with  small  pieces  of  skin,  and  cov- 
ers his  face  so  as  to  leave  but  a  small  opening  for  breathing — these  are  all  the 
precautions  he  takes  against  the  severest  cold.  Even  in  Siberia  the  Jakuts  are 
called  '  men  of  iron.'  Often  have  I  seen  them  sleeping  at  a  temperature  of 
—4°  in  the  open  air,  near  an  extinguished  bivouac  fire,  and  with  a  thick  ice- 
rind  covering  their  almost  unprotected  body." 

Most  of  the  Jakuts  have  an  incredible  sharpness  of  vision.  One  of  them 
told  Lieutenant  Anjou,  pointing  to  the  planet  Jupiter,  that  he  had  often  seen 
yonder  blue  star  devour  a  smaller  one,  and  then  after  a  time  cast  it  out  again.* 
Their  local  memory  is  no  less  astonishing ;  a  pool  of  water,  a  large  stone,  a 
solitary  bush  imprints  itself  deeply  into  their  remembrance,  and  guides  them 
after  a  lapse  of  years  through  the  boundless  wilderness.  In  manual  dexterity 
they  surpass  all  other  Siberian  nations,  and  some  of  their  articles,  such  as  their 
poniards  and  their  leather,  might  figure  with  credit  in  any  Euroj^ean  exhibi- 
tion.    Long  before  the  Russian  conquest  they  made  use  of  the  iron  ore  on  the 

*  Humboklt  likewise  mentions  an  artisan  of  Breslau  whose  sight  vras  so  sharp  as  to  enable  him  to 
point  out  the  position  of  Jupiter's  satellites. 


THE   JAKUTS.  231 

Wilui  to  manufacture  their  own  knives  and  axes,  which,  either  from  the  excel- 
lence of  the  material  or  of  the  workmanship,  rarely  break,  even  in  the  severest 
^.Q\^ — a  perfection  which  the  best  Sheffield  ware  does  not  attain.  Since  time 
immemorial  they  have  been  acquainted  with  the  art  of  striking  fire  with  flint 
and  steel,  an  invention  unknown  even  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Their  leather  is  perfectly  water-tight,  and  the  women  make  carpets  of  white 
and  colored  skins,  which  are  even  exported  to  Europe.  It  is  almost  superflu- 
ous to  mention  that  a  people  so  capable  of  bearing  hardships,  so  sharp-witted, 
and  so  eager  for  gain  as  the  Jakuts  must  needs  pursue  the  fur-bearing  ani- 
mals with  which  their  forests  abound  with  untiring  zeal  and  a  wonderful  dex- 
terity. 

The  horse  renders  the  Jakut  services  not  less  important  than  those  of  the 
reindeer  to  the  Samoiede  or  the  Lapp.  Besides  using  it  for  carrying  or  riding, 
the  Jakut  makes  articles  of  dress  out  of  its  skin,  and  fishing-nets  of  its  hair ; 
boiled  horse-meat  is  his  favorite  food,  and  sour  mare's  milk,  or  kumyss,  his 
chief  beverage.  Of  the  latter  he  also  makes  a  thick  porridge,  or  salccmat,  by 
mixing  it  with  rye-flour,  or  the  inner  rind  of  the  larch  or  fir  tree,  to  which  he 
frequently  adds  dried  fish  and  berries,  and,  to  render  it  perfect,  a  quantity  of 
rancid  fat,  of  which  he  is  immoderately  fond.  He  is  in  fact  a  gross  feeder, 
and  some  professional  gluttons  are  capable  of  consuming  such  astonishing  mass- 
es as  to  shame  the  appetite  even  of  an  Esquimaux.  During  his  stay  at  Ja- 
kutsk.  Sir  George  Simpson  put  the  abilities  of  two  distinguished  artists  to  the 
test,  by  setting  two  pouds  of  boiled  beef  and  a  pond  of  melted  butter  before 
them.  Each  of  them  got  a  poud  of  meat  for  his  share;  the  butter  they  were 
allowed  to  ladle  out  and  drink  ad  libitum.  The  one  was  old  and  experienced, 
the  other  young  and  full  of  zeal.  At  first  the  latter  had  the  advantage.  "  His 
teeth  are  good,"  said  the  elder  champion,  "  but  with  the  assistance  of  my  saint 
(crossing  himself),  I.  will  soon  come  up  to  him." 

When  about  half  of  their  task  was  finished.  Sir  George  left  his  noble  guests 
to  the  care  and  inspection  of  his  secretary,  but  when  he  returned  a  few  houi's 
after,  he  was  informed  that  all  was  consumed,  while  the  champions,  stretched 
out  on  the  floor,  confirmed  the  secretary's  report,  and  expressed  their  thanks 
for  the  exorbitant  meal  they  had  enjoyed  by  respectfully  kissing  the  ground. 
After  one  of  these  disgusting  feats,  the  gorged  gluttons  generally  remain  for 
three  or  four  days  plunged  in  a  torpid  state  like  boa  snakes,  without  eating  or 
drinking,  and  are  frequently  rolled  about  on  the  ground  to  promote  digestion. 
It  may  also  be  noticed,  as  a  proof  of  the  low  state  of  intellectual  culture  among 
the  Jakuts,  that  at  every  wedding  among  the  richer  class  two  professed  virtuosi 
in  the  art  of  gormandizing  are  regularly  invited  for  the  entertainment  of  the 
i^uests.  One  of  thenj  is  treated  at  the  bridegroom's  expense,  the  other  at  that 
of  the  bride,  and  the  party  whose  champion  gains  the  victory  considers  it  as  a 
good  omen  for  the  future. 

The  Jakuts,  besides  being  a  pre-eminently  pastoral  people,  are  also  the  uni- 
versal carriers  to  the  east  of  the  Lena.  For  beyond  Jakutsk,  the  only  roads  are 
narrow  paths  leading  through  swamps,  dense  forests,  or  tangled  bushes,  so 
that  the  horse  affords  the  only  means  of  reaching  the  more  even  and  lower 


233  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

countries  where  reindeer  or  dogs  can  be  attached  to  sledges.  Without  the 
Jakut  and  his  horse,  the  Russian  woukl  never  have  been  able  to  penetrate  to 
the  Sea  of  Ochotsk,  and  from  thence  to  the  Aleutian  chain  ;  but  for  him,  they 
never  would  have  settled  on  the  Kolyma,  nor  have  opened  a  commercial  inter- 
course with  the  Tchuktchi  and  the  western  Esquimaux. 

Before  the  possession  of  the  Araoor  had  opened  a  new  road  to  commerce, 
thousands  of  pack-horses  used  annually  to  cross  the  Stanowoi  hills  on  the  way 
to  Ochotsk;  and  when  we  consider  the  dreadful  hardships  of  the  journey,  we 
can  not  wonder  that  the  road  was  more  thickly  strewn  with  the  skeletons  of 
fallen  horses  than  the  caravan  routes  through  the  desert  with  the  bones  of  fam- 
ished camels.  But  the  Jakut  fears  neither  the  icy  cold  of  the  bivouac  nor  the 
pangs  of  hunger,  which,  in  spite  of  his  wolfish  voracity,  he  is  able  to  support 
with  stoical  fortitude.  He  fears  neither  the  storm  on  the  naked  hill,  nor  the 
gloom  of  the  forest,  nor  the  depth  of  the  morass ;  and,  bidding  defiance  to 
every  thing  else,  fears  only  the  invisible  power  of  "Ljeschei,"  the  spirit  of  the 
mountain  and  the  wood.  The  traveller  wonders  w^hen  he  sees  on  an  eminence 
crowned  Avith  firs  an  old  tree  from  whose  branches  hang  bunches  of  horse-hair. 
The  Jakut  who  leads  the  caravan  soon  explains  the  mystery.  He  dismounts, 
and  plucking  a  few  hairs  from  the  mane  of  his  horse,  attaches  them  with  a  great 
show  of  respect  to  a  branch,  as  an  offering  to  propitiate  the  favor  of  Ljeschei 
on  the  journey.  Even  those  Jakuts  who  pass  for  Christians  still  pay  this  mark 
of  respect  to  the  dethroned  divinity  of  their  fathers ;  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  they  still  retain  the  old  belief  in  Schamanism,  and  an  abject  fear  of 
all  sorts  of  evil  spirits. 

While  travelling  they  sing  almost  perpetually  melancholy  tunes,  correspond- 
ing with  the  habitual  gloom  of  their  national  character.  The  text  has  more 
variety  and  poetry,  and  generally  celebrates  the  beauties  of  nature,  the  stately 
growth  of  the  pine,  the  murmuring  of  the  brook,  or  the  grandeur  of  the  mount- 
ain. The  singers  are  mostly  improvisatores,  and  to  conciliate  the  favor  of  Lje- 
schei, they  praise  the  desert  through  which  they  pass  as  if  it  were  a  paradise. 

Like  the  impoverished  Samoiede  or  Lapp,  the  indigent  Jakut,  who  possess- 
es neither  cattle  nor  horses,  settles  near  some  stream.  His  only  domestic  ani- 
mal is  his  dog,  who  carries  the  fish  on  a  light  sledge  from  the  river-bank  to  his 
hut,  or  follows  him  into  the  woods  on  his  hunting  expeditions.  With  the  skms 
of  fur-bearing  animals  he  pays  hhjassak,  and  is  glad  if  the  surplus  allows  him 
to  indulge  fi'om  time  to  time  in  the  luxury  of  a  pipe  of  Circassian  tobacco. 


WRANGELL. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

WRANGELL. 

His  distinguislied  Services  as  an  Arctic  Explorer.— From  Petersburg  to  Jakutsk  in  1S20.— Trade  of 

Jaluitsk. From  Jakutsk  to  Nishne-Kolymsk.— The  Badarany.— Dreadful  Climate  of  Nisliue-Ko- 

Ivmsk.— Summer  Plagues. — Vegetation. — Animal  Life. — Reindeer-hunting.— Famine. — Inundations. 
—The  Siberian  Dog.— First  Journeys  over  the  Ice  of  the  Polar  Sea,  and  Exploration  of  the  Coast 
beyond  Cape  Shelagskoi  in  1821.— Dreadful  Dangers  and  Hardships.— Matiuschkin's  Sledge-journey 
over  the  Polar  Sea  in  1822. — Last  Adventures  on  the  Polar  Sea. — A  Run  for  Life.— Return  to  St. 
Petersburg. 

THE  expeditions  which  had  been  sent  out  during  the  reign  of  the  Empress 
Anna  for  the  exploration  of  the  Arctic  shores  of  Eastern  Siberia,  had  per- 
formed their  task  so  badly  as  to  leave  them  still  almost  totally  unknown.  To 
fill  up  this  blank  in  geography,  the  Emperor  Alexander  ordered  tw^o  new  ex- 
peditions to  be  fitted  out  m  1820  for  the  purpose  of  accurately  ascertaining 
the  limits  of  these  extreme  frontiers  of  his  immense  empire.  Of  the  one  which, 
under  Lieutenant  Anjou,  commenced  its  operations  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Jana,  and  comprised  within  its  range  New  Siberia  and  the  other  islands  of  the 
Lilchow  group,  but  little  has  been  communicated  to  the  public,  all  his  papers 
having  been  accidentally  burned  ;  but  the  travels  of  Lieutenant  von  Wrangell, 
the  commander  of  the  second  expedition,  have  obtained  a  world-wide  celebrity. 
Starting  from  the  mouths  of  the  Kolyma,  he  not  only  rectified  the  errors  of  the 
coast-line  of  Siberia,  from  the  Indigirka  in  the  west  to  Koliutschin  Island  in 
the  east,  but  more  than  once  ventured  in  a  sledge  upon  the  Polar  Ocean,  in 
the  hopes  of  discovering  a  large  country  supposed  to  be  situated  to  the  north- 
ward of  Kotelnoi  and  New  Siberia. 

Wrangell  left  St.  Petersburg  on  March  23,  1820,  and  experiencing  in  his 
Journey  of  3500  miles  repeated  alternations  of  spring  and  winter,  arrived  at 
Irkutsk,  where  the  gardens  were  in  full  flower,  on  May  20. 

After  a  month's  rest,  a  short  journey  brought  him  to  the  banks  of  the  Lena, 
on  which  he  embarked  on  June  27,  to  descend  to  Jakutsk,  which  he  reached 
on  July  27.  This  small  town  of  4000  inhabitants  bears  the  gloomy  stamp  of 
the  frigid  north,  for  though  it  has  a  few  good  houses,  its  dwellings  chiefly  con- 
sist of  the  winter  yourts  of  the  Jakuts,  with  turf-covered  roofs,  doors  of  skins, 
and  windows  of  talc  or  ice.  The  only  "  sight "  of  this  dreary  place  is  the  old 
ruinous  ostrog  or  wooden  fort  built  by  the  Cossacks,  the  conquerors  of  the 
country,  in  1647.  Jakutsk  is  the  centre  of  the  interior  trade  of  Siberia.  To 
this  place  are  brought,  in  enormous  quantities,  furs  of  all  kinds,  walrus-teeth, 
and  mammoth-tusks,  from  distances  of  many  thousand  versts,  to  an  amount  of 
half  a  million  pounds. 

The  commercial  sphere  of  the  Jakutsk  merchants  is  of  an  immense  extent. 
During  a  cold  of  ten  and  twenty  degrees  they  set  out  for  the  Liichow  Isles,  for 


234  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

the  fair  o±  Ostrownoje,  for  Ochotsk,  or  Kjachta.  Jakutsk  merchants  were  the 
first  who  ventured  in  crazy  shi^DS  across  the  Sea  of  Kamchatka,  and  discovered 
the  island  of  Kadjiak,  eighty  degrees  of  longitude  from  their  home. 

On  September  1 2  Wrangell  left  Jakutsk,  where  regular  travelling  ends,  as 
from  thence  to  Kolymsk,  and  generally  throughout  Northern  Siberia,  there  are 
no  beaten  roads.  The  utmost  that  can  be  looked  for  are  foot  or  horse  tracks 
leading  through  morasses  or  tangled  forests,  and  over  rocks  and  mountains. 
Travellers  ^jroceed  on  horseback  through  the  hilly  country,  and,  on  reaching 
the  plains,  use  sledges  drawn  either  by  reindeer  or  dogs. 

In  this  manner  Wrangell  crossed  from  the  basin  of  the  Lena  to  that  of  the 
Yana,  never  experiencing  a  higher  temperature  than  +2°,  and  frequently  en- 
during a  cold  of  more  than  —12°,  during  the  journey  over  the  intervening 
hills,  and  then  turning  eastward,  traversed  the  Badarany,  a  completely  unin- 
habited desert,  chiefly  consisting  of  swamps.  These  Badarany  never  entirely 
dry  up,  even  after  the  longest  summer-drought.  At  that  time  a  solid  crust  is 
formed,  through  which  the  horses  frequently  break,  but  they  are  preserved 
from  totally  sinking  in  the  mire  by  the  perpetually  frozen  underground.  Noth- 
ing can  be  more  dismal  and  dreary  than  the  Badarany.  As  far  as  the  eye 
reaches,  nothing  is  to  be  seen  but  a  covering  of  dingy  moss,  relieved  here  and 
there  on  some  more  elevated  spots  by  wretched  specimens  of  dwarf-larches. 
The  winter  is  the  only  season  for  traversing  this  treacherous  waste,  but  woe  to 
the  traveller  should  he  be  overtaken  by  a  snow-storm,  as  for  miles  and  miles 
there  is  no  shelter  to  be  found  but  that  of  some  ruinous  powarni,  or  post-station. 

At  length,  fifty-two  days  after  leaving  Jakutsk,  Wrangell  arrived  on  No- 
vember 2  at  Nishne-Kolymsk,  the  appointed  head-quarters  of  the  expedition, 
where  he  was  welcomed  with  a  cold  of  -40°,  or  72°  below  the  freezing-point 
of  water. 

Even  in  Siberia  the  climate  of  this  jolace  is  ill-reputed  for  its  severity,  which 
is  as  much  due  to  its  unfavorable  position  as  to  its  high  latitude  (68°  N.). 
The  town  stands  on  a  low  swampy  island  of  the  Kolyma,  having  on  the  west 
the  barren  tundra,  and  on  the  north  the  Arctic  Ocean,  so  that  the  almost  con- 
stant north-west  whids  have  full  scope  for  their  violence,  and  cause  frequent 
snow-storms  even  in  summer. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  whole  year  is  only  + 14°.  The  river  at  Nishne- 
Kolymsk  freezes  early  in  September,  but  lower  down,  where  the  current  is  less 
rapid,  loaded  horses  can  sometimes  cross  on  the  ice  as  early  as  August  20,  nor 
does  the  ice  ever  melt  before  June. 

Although  the  sun  remains  fifty-two  days  above  the  horizon,  the  light,  ob- 
scured by  almost  perpetual  mists,  is  accompanied  with  little  heat,  and  the  solar 
disc,  compressed  by  refraction  into  an  eUiptical  form,  may  be  looked  at  with 
the  naked  eye  without  inconvenience.  In  spite  of  the  constant  light,  the  com- 
mon order  of  the  parts  of  the  day  is  plainly  discernible.  .  When  the  sun  sinks 
down  to  the  horizon,  all  nature  is  mute ;  but  when,  after  a  few  hours,  it  rises 
in  the  skies,  every  thing  awakens,  the  few  little  birds  break  out  in  feeble  twit- 
ter, and  the  shrivelled  flowers  venture  to  open  their  petals. 

Although  winter  and  summer  are  in  reality  the  only  seasons,  yet  the  inhab- 


WRANGELL.  235 

itants  fancy  they  have  spring  when  about  noon  the  rays  of  the  sun  begin  to 
make  themselves  felt,  which  generally  takes  place  about  the  middle  of  March, 
but  this  so-called  spring  has  frequent  night-frosts  of  twenty  degrees.  Their 
autumn  is  reckoned  from  the  time  when  the  rivers  begin  to  freeze  over,  that  is, 
from  the  first  days  of  September,  when  a  cold  of  thirty  degrees  is  already  by 
no  means  uncommon.  As  may  easily  be  supposed  in  a  climate  like  this,  the 
vegetation  of  summer  is  scarcely  more  than  a  struggle  for  existence. 

In  the  latter  end  of  May  the  stunted  willow-bushes  put  out  Httle  wrinkled 
leaves,  and  those  banks  Avhich  slope  towards  the  south  become  clothed  with  a 
semi-verdant  hue ;  in  June  the  temperature  at  noon  attains  72° ;  the  flowers 
show  themselves,  and  the  berry-bearing  plants  blossom,  when  sometimes  an  icy 
blast  from  the  sea  destroys  the  bloom.  The  air  is  clearest  in  July,  and  the 
temperature  is  usually  mild,  but  then  a  new  plague  arises  for  the  torment  of 
man.  Millions  and  millions  of  mosquitoes  issue  from  the  swamps  of  the  tun- 
dra, and  compel  the  inhabitants  to  seek  refuge  in  the  dense  and  pungent  smoke 
of  the  "  dymokury,"'  or  large  heaps  of  fallen  leaves  and  damp  wood,  which  are 
kindled  near  the  dwellings  and  on  the  pasture-grounds,  as  the  only  means  of 
keeping  off  those  abominable  insects. 

These  tormentors,  however,  are  not  without  use,  for  they  compel  the  rein- 
deer to  migrate  from  the  forests  to  the  sea-shore  and  the  ice,  thus  exposing 
them  to  the  attack  of  the  hunters,  and  they  also  prevent  the  horses  from  stray- 
ing in  the  plains,  and  wandering  beyond  the  protection  of  the  smoke. 

Scarcely  is  the  mosquito  plague  at  an  end,  when  the  dense  autumn  fogs  rising 
from  the  sea  spoil  the  enjoyment  of  the  last  mild  hours  which  precede  the  nine 
months'  winter.  In  January  the  cold  increases  to  —45°  ;  breathing  then  be- 
comes difficult ;  the  wild  reindeer,  the  indigenous  inhabitant  of  the  Polar  region, 
withdraws  to  the  thickest  part  of  the  forest,  and  stands  there  motionless,  as  if 
deprived  of  life. 

With  the  22d  November  begins  a  night  of  thirty-eight  days,  relieved  in  some 
degree  by  the  strong  refraction  and  the  white  of  the  snow,  as  Avell  as  by  the 
moon  and  the  aurora.  On  the  28th  December  the  first  pale  glimmering  of  dawn 
appears,  which  even  at  noon  does  not  obscure  the  stars.  With  the  re-appear- 
ance of  the  sun  the  cold  increases,  and  is  most  intense  in  February  and  March 
at  the  rising  of  the  sun.  Even  in  winter  completely  clear  days  are  very  rare, 
as  the  cold  sea-wind  covers  the  land  with  mists  and  fogs. 

The  character  of  the  vegetation  coi;:j-esponds  Avith  that  of  the  climate.  Moss, 
stunted  grass,  dwarfish  willow-shrubs,  are  all  that  the  place  produces.  The 
neighboring  valleys  of  the  Auiuj,  protected  by  mountains  against  the  sea-wind, 
have  a  somewhat  richer  flora,  for  here  grow  berry-bearing  plants,  the  bircli,  the 
poplar,  absinthe,  thyme,  and  the  low-creeping  cedar.  This  poverty,  however, 
of  the  vegetable  world  is  strongly  contrasted  with  the  profusion  of  animal  life 
over  these  shores  and  on  the  Polar  Sea.  Reindeer,  elks,  bears,  foxes,  sables, 
and  gray  squirrels  fill  the  upland  forests,  while  stone-foxes  burrow  in  the  low 
grounds.  Enormous  flights  of  swans,  geese,  and  ducks  arrive  in  spring,  and 
seek  deserts  where  they  may  moult  and  build  their  nests  in  safety.  Eagles, 
owls,  and  gulls  pursue  their  prey  along  the  sea-coast ;  i)tarmigau  run  in  troops 


236  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

among  the  bushes;  little  snipes  are  busy  among  the  brooks.'  In  the  morasses 
the  crows  gather  round  the  huts  of  the  natives ;  and  when  the  sun  shines  in 
spring,  the  traveller  may  even  sometimes  hear  the  note  of  the  iinch,  and  in  au- 
tumn that  of  the  thrush.  But  the  landscape  remains  dreary  and  dead  ;  all  de- 
notes that  here  the  limits  of  the  habitable  earth  are  passed,  and  one  asks  with 
astonishment  what  could  induce  human  beings  to  take  up  their  abode  in  so 
comfortless  a  region  ? 

In  the  district  of  Kolymsk,  which  surpasses  in  size  many  a  European  king- 
dom, the  population,  at  the  time  of  Wrangell's  visit,  consisted  of  325  Russians, 
1034  Jakuts,  and  1139  Jukahires  of  the  male  sex,  of  whom  2173  had  to  pay  the 
jassak,  consisting  of  803  fox  and  28  sable  skins,  worth  6704  roubles,  beside^ 
Avhich  they  were  taxed  to  the  amount  of  10,847  roubles  in  money.  Thus  the 
Russian  double-eagle  made,  and  no  doubt  still  makes,  the  poor  people  of  Kolymsk 
pay  rather  dear  for  the  honor  of  living  under  the  protection  of  its  talons. 

The  Cossacks,  in  virtue  of  their  descent  from  the  original  conquerors  of 
the  country,  enjoy  the  enviable  jDrivilege  of  being  tax  free;  they  are,  liowever, 
obliged  to  render  military  service  when  required.  They  form  the  small  gar- 
rison of  Nishne-Ivolymsk,  and  every  year  twenty-five  of  them  repair  to  the  fair 
of  Ostrownoje,  to  keep  the  wild  Tchuktchi  in  check.  The  Russians  are  chiefly 
the  descendants  of  fur-hunters  or  of  exiles ;  and  though  they  have  adopted  the 
native  clothing  and  mode  of  life,  they  are  still  distinguishable  by  their  more 
muscular  frame.  The  women,  who  are  somewhat  better-looking  than  the  fe- 
male Jakuts  and  Jukahires,  are  fond  of  music,  and  their  traditional  songs 
dwell  on  the  beauties  of  nature  —  the  rustling  brook,  the  flowery  mead,  the 
nightingale's  note — all  things  belonging  to  a  world  of  which  they  have  no  idea. 

The  dwellings  of  the  Russians  are  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  the  yourts 
of  the  native  tribes.  They  are  made  of  drift-wood,  and,  as  may  easily  be  im- 
agined, are  very  small  and  low.  The  interstices  are  carefully  stoi:)ped  up  with 
moss,  and  the  outside  is  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  clay.  An  external  mud 
wall  rises  to  the  height  of  the  roof  to  keep  off  the  wind.  In  a  hut  like  this 
Wrangell  spent  many  a  winter  month,  but  when  the  cold  was  very  intense,  he 
was  not  able  to  lay  aside  any  part  of  his  fur  clothing,  though  sitting  close  to  a 
large  fire.  When  he  wanted  to  write  he  had  to  keep  the  inkstand  in  hot  water ; 
and  at  night,  when  the  fire  was  allowed  to  go  out  for  a  short  time,  his  bedclothes 
were  always  covered  with  a  thick  snow-like  rime. 

The  existence  of  the  people  of  Kolymsk  depends  upon  fishing  and  hunting, 
in  which  they  are  assisted  by  their  dogs.  These  faithful,  but  cruelly-treated 
animals,  are  said  to  resemble  the  wolf,  having  long,  pointed,  projecting  noses, 
sharp  and  upright  ears,  and  long  bushy  tails.  Their  color  is  black,  brown, 
reddish-brown,  white,  and  spotted,  their  howling  that  of  a  wolf.  In  summer 
they  dig  holes  in  the  ground  for  coolness,  or  lie  in  the  water  to  escape  the  mos- 
quitoes ;  in  winter  they  burrow  in  the  snow,  and  lie  curled  up,  with  their  noses 
covered  with  their  bushy  tails.  The  preparation  of  these  animals  for  a  journey 
must  be  carefully  attended  to ;  for  a  fortnight  at  least  they  should  be  put  on  a 
small  allowance  of  hard  food,  to  convert  their  superfluous  fat  into  firm  flesh ; 
they  must  also  be  driven  from  ten  to  twenty  miles  daily, "after  which  they  have 


WRANGELL.  237 

been  known  to  travel  a  hundred  miles  a  day  without  being  injured  by  it.  A 
team  consists  commonly  of  tAvelve  dogs,  and  it  is  of  importance  that  they  should 
be  accustomed  to  draw  together.  The  quick  and  steady  going  of  the  team, 
as  well  as  the  safety  of  the  traveller,  mainly  depends  on  the  docility  and  sa- 
•'•acity  of  the  foremost  dog  or  leader.  No  pains  are  therefore  spared  in  his  edu- 
cation, so  that  he  may  understand  and  obey  his  master's  orders,  and  prevent  the 
rest  from  starting  off  in  pursuit  of  the  stone-foxes  or  other  animals  that  may 
chance  to  cross  their  path.  Their  usual  food  is  frozen  fish,  and  ten  good  her- 
rings are  said  to  be  a  proper  daily  allowance  for  each  dog  while  on  duty. 
When  not  actively  employed,  they  are  obli>ged  to  content  themselves  with  offal, 
and  towards  spring,  when  the  winter's  provisions  are  generally  exhausted,  they 
suffer  the  keenest  hunger. 

This  season  is  also  a  hard  time  for  the  wandering  tribes  of  the  neighbor- 
hood. Then  they  flock  to  Nishne-Kolymsk,  and  to  the  other  Russian  settle- 
ments on  the  Kolyma,  but  here  also  famine  stares  them  in  the  face.  There  is, 
indeed,  a  public  corn  magazine,  but  the  price  of  flour  is  raised  by  the  cost  of 
transport  to  such  an  exorbitant  height,  as  to  be  completely  beyond  the  reach  of 
the  majority  of  the  people.  Three  such  dreadful  springs  did  Wrangell  pass  at 
Kolymsk,  witnessing  scenes  of  misery  never  to  be  forgotten. 

But  when  the  distress  of  the  people  has  reached  its  highest  point,  relief  is 
generally  at  hand.  Troops  of  migratory  birds  come  from  the  south,  and  fur- 
nish some  food  for  the  despairing  population.  The  supply  is  increased  in  June, 
when  the  ice  breaks  on  the  Kolyma,  for  in  spite  of  the  faultiness  of  the  nets 
and  the  want  of  skiU  of  the  fishermen,  the  river  is  the  principal  source  of  plenty 
during  the  summer,  and  supplies,  moreover,  the  chief  provisions  for  the  follow- 
ing winter.  But  with  these  gifts  the  Kolyma  brings  the  plague  of  inundations, 
so  that  during  the  summer  of  1822  Wrangell  was  obliged  to  spend  a  Avliole 
week  on  the  flat  roof  of  his  hut. 

The  chief  resource  of  the  Jukahires  of  the  River  Aniuj  is  the  reindeer  chase, 
the  success  of  which  mainly  decides  whether  famine  or  some  degree  of  comfort 
is  to  be  their  lot  during  the  coming  winter.  The  passage  of  the  reindeer  takes 
place  twice  a  year ;  in  spring,  when  the  mosquitoes  compel  them  to  seek  the 
sea-shore,  where  they  feed  on  the  moss  of  the  tundra,  and  in  autumn,  when  the 
increasing  cold  forces  them  to  retire  from  the  coast.  The  spring  migration, 
which  begins  about  the  middle  of  May,  is  not  very  profitable,  partly  because 
the  animals  are  meagre,  and  their  furs  in  bad  condition,  and  partly  because  it 
is  more  difticult  to  kill  them  as  they  pass  the  frozen  rivers.  The  chief  hunting 
is  in  August  and  September,  when  the  herds,  consisting  each  of  several  thou- 
sand deer,  return  to  the  forests.  They  invariably  cross  the  river  at  a  particular 
spot,  where  a  flat  sandy  bank  makes  their  landing  easier ;  and  here  tliey  press 
more  closely  together,  imder  tlie  guidance  of  the  strongest  animals  of  the  herd. 
The  passage  takes  place  after  some  hesitation,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the 
river  is  covered  with  swimming  reindeer.  The  hunters,  hidden  in  creeks  or 
behind  stones  and  bushes,  now  shoot  forth  in  their  small  boats  and  Avound  as 
many  as  they  can.  While  they  are  thus  busy,  they  run  some  risk  of  being  over- 
turned in  tlie  turmoil,  for  the  bucks  defend  themselves  with  their  horns,  their 


238  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

teeth,  and  their  hind  legs,  while  the  roes  generally  attempt  to  spring  with  their 
fore  feet  upon  the  edge  of  the  boat.  When  the  lumter  is  thus  overset,  his  only 
chance  of  safety  is  to  cling  to  a  strong  animal,  Avhich  safely  brings  him  to  the 
shore.  But  the  dexterity  of  the  hunters  renders  such  accidents  rare.  A  good 
hunter  will  kill  a  hundred  reindeer  and  more  in  half  an  hour.  In  the  mean 
time  the  other  boats  seize  the  killed  animals,  which  become  their  property, 
while  those  that  are  merely  wounded  and  swim  ashore  belong  to  the  hunters, 
who,  in  the  midst  of  the  tumult,  where  all  their  energies  are  taxed  to  the  ut- 
most, direct  their  strokes  in  such  a  manner  as  only  severely  to  w^ound  the  larger 
animals.  The  noise  of  the  horns  striking  against  each  other,  the  waters  tinged 
with  blood,  the  cries  of  the  hunters,  the  snorting  of  the  affrighted  animals,  form 
a  scene  not  to  be  desci-ib^ed. 

The  people  of  the  Aniuj  Avere  already  suffering  great  distress  when,  on 
September  12,  1821,  the  eagerly-expected  reindeer  herds  made  their  appear- 
ance on  the  right  bank  of  the  river.  Never  had  such  a  multitude  been  seen ; 
they  covered  the  hills,  and  their  horns  might  have  been  mistaken  at  a  distance 
for  a  moving  forest.  In  a  short  time  numbers  of  the  Siberian  tribes  had  as- 
sembled, ready  to  destroy  them.  But  the  wary  animals,  alarmed  by  some  cir- 
cumstance or  other,  took  another  road,  and,  leaving  the  banks  of  the  river,  van- 
ished on  the  mountains.  The  despair  of  the  people  may  be  imagined ;  some 
lamented  aloud  and  wrung  their  hands,  others  threw  themselves  upon  the 
ground  and  scratched  up  the  snow,  others  stood  motionless  like  statues— a 
dreadful  image  of  the  universal  misery.  The  later  fishing-season  likewise  failed 
in  this  deplorable  year,  and  many  hundreds  died  in  the  following  winter. 

While  the  men  of  Kolymsk  are  busily  employed  during  the  short  summer 
"in  hunting,  fishing,  and  hay-making,  the  women  wander  over  the  country,  par- 
ticularly in  the  mountains,  to  gather  edible  roots,  aromatic  herbs,  and  berries 
of  various  kinds,  Avhich  latter,  however,  do  not  every  year  arrive  at  maturity. 
The  berry-gathering  here,  like  the  vintage  elsewhere,  is  a  time  of  merriment. 
The  younger  women  and  girls  go  together  in  large  parties,  passing  whole  days 
and  nights  in  the  open  air.  When  the  berries  are  collected,  cold  water  is 
poured  over  them,  and  they  are  preserved  in  a  frozen  state  for  a  winter  treat. 
Social  parties  are  not  unknown  at  Kolymsk,  and  are  perhaps  not  less  entertain- 
ing than  in  more  refined  communities.  Floods  of  weak  tea  (for  the  aromatic 
leaves  "  which  cheer,  but  not  inebriate,"  are  very  dear  at  Kolymsk)  form  the 
staple  of  the  entertainment ;  and  as  sugar  is  also  an  expensive  article,  every 
guest  takes  a  lump  of  candy  in  his  mouth,  lets  the  tea  which  he  sips  flow  by, 
and  then  replaces  it  upon  the  saucer.  It  would  be  considered  very  unmannerly 
were  he  to  consume  the  whole  piece,  which  thus  is  able  to  do  duty  at  more 
than  one  soiree.     Next  to  tea,  brandy  is  a  chief  requisite  of  a  Kolymsk  party. 

The  busiest  time  at  Kolymsk  is  in  February,  Avhen  the  caravan  from  Ja- 
kutsk  arrives  on  its  Avay  to  the  fair  of  Ostrownoje.  It  consists  of  about  twen- 
ty merchants,  each  of  whom  leads  from  ten  to  forty  sumpter  horses.  This  is 
the  time  not  only  for  sale  and  purchase,  but  also  for  hearing  the  last  news  from 
the  provincial  capital  Jakutsk,  and  receiving  intelligence  six  months  old  from 
Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg. 


WKANGELL.  239 

From  this  short  account  of  Kolyrask  life  it  may  well  be  imagined  what  a 
sensation  it  must  have  made  in  so  secluded  a  place  when  Wrangell  arrived 
there  in  November,  and  informed  the  i^eople  that  he  was  come  to  spend  the 
better  part  of  the  next  three  years  among  them. 

The  winter  was  passed  in  preparation  for  the  next  spring  expeditions,  for 
during  the  long  Arctic  night  the  darkness  prevents  travelling,  and  the  snow 
acquires  a  peculiar  hardness  or  sharpness  from  the  extreme  cold,  so 'that  then 
four  times  the  number  of  dogs  would  be  needed.  But  as  in  summer  the  thaw- 
ing is  likewise  a  hindrance,  Wrangell  had  in  reality  only  about  ten  weeks  every 
year,  from  March  till  the  end  of  May,  for  the  accomi^lishment  of  his  task. 

As  may  easily  be  supposed,  it  was  no  easy  matter  to  make  the  necessary 
arrangements  for  an  expedition  requiring  some  hundreds  of  dogs,  and  provis- 
ions for  several  weeks ;  but  such  was  the  energy  displayed  by  Wrangell  and 
his  colleagiies,  that  on  February  19, 1821,  they  w^ere  able  to  start  on  their  first 
journey  over  the  ice  of  the  Polar  Sea,  which  they  reached  on  the  25th.  Nine 
sledges,  with  the  usual  team  of  twelve  dogs  to  each,  w^ere  provided  for  the 
pi-esent  excursion,  six  of  which  were  to  carry  provisions  and  stores,  to  be  dis- 
tributed in  different  depots,  and  then  to  return.  The  provisions  for  the  dogs 
consisted  of  2400  fresh  herrings,  and  as  much  "  jukola"  as  was  equivalent  to 
8150  dried  herrings.  The  increasing  cold  and  the  violence  of  the  wind  made 
travelling  very  difficult.  To  guard  the  dogs  from  being  frozen,  the  drivers 
were  obliged  to  put  clothing  on  their  bodies,  and  a  kind  of  boots  on  their 
feet,  which  greatly  impeded  their  running.  At  times  the  frost  was  so  intense 
that  the  mercury  congealed  while  Wrangell  was  making  his  observations.  He 
tMis  describes  the  manner  in  which  he  passed  the  nights  on  the  Polar  Sea  in 
his  tent : — 

"  Between  tea  and  supper  the  sledge-drivers  went  out  to  attend  and  feed 
their  dogs,  which  were  always  tied  up  for  the  night,  lest  they  should  be  tempt- 
ed away  by  the  scent  of  some  wild  animal.  Meanwhile,  we  Avere  engaged  in 
comparing  our  observations,  and  in  laying  down  on  the  map  the  ground  which 
we  had  gone  over  in  the  course  of  the  day ;  the  severe  cold,  and  the  smoke 
which  usually  filled  the  tent,  sometimes  made  this  no  easy  task.  Supper  always 
consisted  of  a  single  dish  of  fish  or  meat  soup,  which  was  boiled  for  us  all  in 
the  same  kettle,  out  of  which  it  was  eaten.  Soon  after  we  had  finished  our 
meal,  the  whole  party  lay  down  to  sleep.  On  account  of  the  cold  we  could 
not  lay  aside  any  part  of  our  travelling-dress,  but  we  regularly  changed  our 
boots  and  stockings  every  evening,  and  hung  those  we  had  taken  off,  with  our 
fur  caps  and  gloves,  on  the  tent-poles  to  dry.  This  is  an  essential  precaution, 
particularly  in  respect  to  stockings,  for  with  damp  clothing  there  is  the  gi-eat- 
est.  risk  of  the  part  being  frozen.  We  always  spread  the  bear-skins  between 
the  frozen  ground  and  ourselves,  and  the  fur  coverings  over  us,  and,  being  well 
tired,  we  usually  slept  very  soundly.  As  long  as  all  the  sledge-drivers  contin- 
ued with  us,  we  were  so  crowded  that  we  had  to  place  ourselves  like  the  spokes 
of  a  wheel,  with  our  feet  towards  the  fire  and  our  heads  against  the  tent  wall. 
In  the  morning  Ave  generally  rose  at  six,  lit  the  fire,  and  washed  ourselves  be- 
fore it  Avith  fresh  snoAV ;  Ave  then  took  tea,  and  immediately  afterwards  dinner 


240  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

(which  was  suuilar  to  the  supper  of  the  night  before).  The  tent  was  then 
struck,  and  every  thing  packed  and  stowed  on  the  sledges,  and  at  nine  we  usually 
took  our  departure." 

The  chief  impediments  to  journeying  on  the  ice  were  found  to  be  the  hum- 
mocks, often  eighty  feet  high,  which  lie  in  ridges  at  certain  distances,  parallel 
perhaps  to  the  shore.  Along  the  line  or  lines  where  the  ice  is  periodically 
broken,  it  is  forced  by  pressure  and  the  tossing  of  a  tempestuous  sea  into  those 
irregular  ridges  through  which  Wrangell  had  sometimes  to  make  a  way  with 
crowbars  for  half  a  mile.  The  "  polinyas,"  or  spaces  of  open  water  in  the 
midst  of  the  ice,  offered  less  hindrance,  as  they  might  be  avoided ;  but  in  this 
neighborhood,  and  sometimes  even  where  no  hole  in  the  ice  was  visible,  layers 
of  salt  were  met  with,  which  cut  the  dogs'  feet,  and  at  the  same  time  increased 
the  labor  of  the  draft,  the  sledges  moving  over  the  salt  with  as  much  difficulty 
as  they  would  over  gravel. 

In  spite  of  all  these  hindrances,  Wrangell  extended  his  exploration  of  the 
coast  fifty  versts  beyond  Cape  Shelagskoi,  where  the  want  of  fuel  and  provis- 
ions compelled  him  to  return.  The  depots  which  he  had  made  as  he  ad- 
vanced, were  found  partly  devoured  by  the  stone-foxes  and  gluttons,  so  that 
the  party  was  compelled  to  fast  during  the  two  last  days  of  the  journey.  Aft- 
er an  absence  of  three  weeks  Nishne-Kolymsk  appeared  like  a  second  Capua 
to  Wrangell,  but  time  being  precious  he  allowed  himself  but  a  few  days'  rest, 
and  started  afresh,  on  March  26,  for  Cape  Shelagskoi,  with  the  intention  of  pen- 
etrating as  far  as  possible  to  the  north  on  the  ice  of  the  Polar  Sea.  The  car- 
avan consisted  of  twenty-two  sledges,  laden  with  fuel  and  provisions  for  thirty 
days,  including  food  for  240  dogs.  So  imposing  a  train  had  certainly  neVter 
been  seen  before  in  these  desolate  regions,  for  the  part  of  the  coast  between 
the  Kolyma  and  Cape  Shelagskoi  is  wholly  uninhabited ;  on  one  side  the  oc- 
casional excursions  of  the  Russians  terminate  at  the  Baranow  rocks,  and  on 
the  other  the  Tchuktchi  do  not  cross  the  larger  Baranow  River.  The  interven- 
ing eighty  versts  of  coast  are  never  visited  by  either  party,  but  considered  as 
neutral  ground.  On  April  1  Wrangell  reached  the  borders  of  the  Polar  Sea, 
and  proceeding  northward  to  71°  31',  found  the  thickness  of  the  ice,  which  he 
measured  by  means  of  a  hole,  to  be  about  a  foot,  very  rotten,  and  full  of  salt ; 
the  soundings,  twelve  fathoms,  with  a  bottom  of  soft  green  mud.  The  wind 
increasing  in  violence,  he  heard  the  sound  of  the  water  beneath,  and  felt  the 
undulatory  motion  of  the  thin  crust  of  ice. 

«  Our  position,"  says  the  bold  explorer, "  was  at  least  an  anxious  one  ;  the 
more  so  as  we  could  take  no  step  to  avoid  the  impending  danger.  I  believe 
few  of  our  party  slept,  except  the  dogs,  who  alone  were  unconscious  of  the 
great  probability  of  the  ice  being  broken  up  by  the  force  of  the  waves.  Next 
day,  the  wind  having  fallen,!  had  two  of  the  best  sledges  emptied,  and  placed 
in  them  provisions  for  twenty-four  hours,  with  the  boat  and  oars,  some  poles 
and  boards,  and  proceeded  northward  to  examine  the  state  of  the  ice ;  directing 
M.  von  Matiuschkin,  in  case  of  danger,  to  retire  with  the  whole  party  as  far  as 
might  be  needful,  without  awaiting  my  return.  After  driving  through  the 
thick  brine  Avith  much  difficulty  for  seven  versts,  we  came  to  a  number  of  large 


WRANGELL.  ?41 

fissures,  which  we  passed  with  some  trouble  by  the  aid  of  the  boards  which  we 
had  brought  with  us.  At  last  the  fissures  became  so  numerous  and  so  wide 
that  it  was  hard  to  say  whether  the  sea  beneath  us  was  really  still  covered  by 
a  connected  coat  of  ice,  or  only  by  a  number  of  detached  floating  fragments, 
having  everywhere  two  or  more  feet  of  water  between  them.  A  single  gust 
of  wind  would  have  been  suflficient  to  drive  these  fragments  against  each  other, 
and  being  already  thoroughly  saturated  with  water,  they  would  have  sunk  in 
a  few  minutes,  leaving  nothing  but  sea  on  the  spot  where  we  were  standing. 
It  was  manifestly  useless  to  attempt  going  farther ;  we  hastened  to  rejoin  our 
companions,  and  to  seek  with  them  a  place  of  greater  security.  Our  most 
northern  latitude  was  71°  43'  at  a  distance  of  215  versts  in  a  straight  line  from 
the  lesser  Baranow  rock."  After  rejoining  his  companions,  and  while  still  on 
the  frozen  sea,  so  thick  a  snow-storm  came  on  that  those  in  the  hindmost 
sledge  could  not  see  the  leading  ones.  Unable  either  to  pitch  their  tent  or  to 
light  a  fire,  they  were  exposed  during  the  night  to  the  whole  fury  of  the  storm, 
with  a  temperatere  of  +7°,  without  tea  or  soup,  and  with  nothing  to  quench 
their  thirst  or  satisfy  their  hunger  but  a  few  mouthfuls  of  snow,  a  little  rye 
biscuit,  and  a  half-spoilt  fish.  On  April  28  they  arrived  at  Nishne-Kolymsk, 
after  an  absence  of  thirty-six  days,  during  which  they  had  travelled  above  800 
miles  with  the  same  dogs,  men  and  animals  having  equally  suffered  from  cold, 
hunger,  and  fatigue. 

Neither  discomfort,  however,  nor  danger  prevented  Wrangell  from  under- 
taking a  third  excursion  in  the  following  spring.  He  had  great  difticulty  in 
procuring  the  necessary  dogs,  a  disease  which  raged  among  them  during  the 
winter  having  carried  off  more  than  four-fifths  of  these  useful  animals.  At 
length  his  wants  were  supplied  by  the  people  of  the  Indigirka,  where  the  sick- 
ness had  not  extended,  and  on  March  14, 1822,  he  again  set  out  for  the  borders 
of  the  Polar  Sea.  During  this  expedition  a  large  extent  of  coast  was  accu- 
rately surveyed  by  Wrangell,  who  sent  out  his  worthy  assistant  Matiuschkin, 
with  two  companions,  in  an  unloaded  sledge,  to  see  if  any  farther  advance 
could  be  made  to  the  north.  Plaving  accomplished  ten  versts,  Matiuschkin 
was  stopped  by  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice.  Enormous  masses,  raised  by  the 
■\vaves  into  an  almost  vertical  position,  were  driven  against  each  other  with  a 
dreadful  crash,  and  pressed  downward  by  the  force  of  the  billows  to  re-appear 
again  on  the  surface  covered  with  the  torn-up  green  mud  which  here  forms  the 
bottom  of  the  sea.  It  would  tire  the  reader  were  I  to  relate  all  the  miseries  of 
their  return  voyage ;  sufiice  it  to  say  that,  worn  out  with  hunger  and  fatigue, 
they  reached  Nishne-Kolymsk  on  May  5,  after  an  absence  of  fifty-seven  days. 
Such  sufferings  and  perils  might  have  excused  all  further  attempts  to  discover 
the  supposed  land  in  the  Polar  Sea,  but  nothing  daunted  by  his  repeated  fail- 
ures, Wrangell  determined  on  a  fourth  expedition  in  1823,  on  which  he  resolved 
t)  start  from  a  more  easterly  point.  On  reaching  the  coast,  the  obstacles  were 
found  still  greater  than  on  his  previous  visits  to  that  fearful  sea.  The  Aveather 
was  tempestuous,  the  ice  thin  and  broken.  It  was  necessary  at  times  to  cross 
wide  lanes  of  water  on  pieces  of  ice ;  at  times  the  thin  ice  bent  beneath  the 
weight  of  the  sledges,  which  were  then  saved  only  by  the  sagacity  of  the  dogs, 


343  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

who,  aware  of  the  danger,  ran  at  their  greatest  speed  until  they  found  a  Solid 
footing.  At  length,  about  sixty  miles  from  shore,  they  arrived  at  the  edge 
of  an  immense  break  in  the  ice,  extending  east  and  west  farther  than  the  eye 
could  reach, 

"  We  climbed  one  of  the  loftiest  hummocks,"  says  Wrangell,  "  whence  we 
obtained  an  extensive  view  towards  the  north,  and  whence  we  beheld  the  wide 
ocean  spread  before  our  gaze.  It  was  a  fearful  and  magnificent,  but  to  us  a 
melancholy  spectacle !  Fragments  of  ice  of  enormous  size  floated  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  and  were  thrown  by  the  waves  with  awful  violence  against 
the  edge  of  the  ice-field  on  the  farther  side  of  the  channel  before  us.  The  col- 
lisions were  so  tremendous  that  large  masses  Avere  every  instant  broken  away, 
and  it  was  evident  that  the  portion  of  ice  which  still  divided  the  channel  from 
the  open  ocean  would  soon  be  completely  destroyed.  Had  we  attempted  to 
ferry  ourselves  across  upon  one  of  the  floating  pieces  of  ice,  we  should  not  have 
found  firm  footing  upon  our  arrival.  Even  on  our  own  side  fresh  lines  of  water 
were  continually  forming,  and  extending  in  every  direction  in  the  field  of  ice 
behind  us.  We  could  go  no  farther.  With  a  painful  feeling  of  the  impossi- 
bility of  overcoming  the  obstacles  which  nature  opposed  to  us,  our  last  hope 
vanished  of  discovering  the  land,  which  we  yet  believed  to  exist.  We  saw 
ourselves  compelled  to  renounce  the  object  for  which  Ave  had  striA^en  through 
three  years  of  hardships,  toil,  and  danger.  We  had  done  what  honor  and  duty 
demanded ;  further  attempts  Avould  haA^e  been  absolutely  hopeless,  and  I  de- 
cided to  return." 

"  They  turned,  but  already  the  track  of  their  advance  was  scarcely  discernible, 
as  neAV  lanes  of  water  had  been  formed,  and  fresh  hummocks  raised  by  the  sea. 
To  add  to  their  distress,  a  storm  arose,  which  threatened  every  moment  to 
swalloAV  up  the  ice  island,  on  which  they  hoped  to  cross  a  Avide  space  of  Avater 
Avhich  separated  them  from  a  firmer  ground. 

"  We  had  been  three  long  hours  in  this  position,  and  still  the  mass  of  ice 
beneath  us  held  together,  Avhen  suddenly  it  Avas  caught  by  the  storm,  and  hurled 
against  a  large  field  of  ice ;  the  crash  Avas  terrific,  and  the  mass  beneath  us 
Avas  shattered  into  fragments.  At  that  dreadful  moment,  when  escape  seemed 
impossible,  the  impulse  of  self-preservation,  implanted  in  every  living  being, 
saved  us.  Instinctively  Ave  all  sprang  at  once  on  the  sledges,  and  urged  the 
dogs  to  their  full  speed.  They  flew  across  the  yielding  fragments  to  the  field 
on  Avhich  Ave  had  been  stranded,  and  safely  reached  apart  of  it  of  firmer  charac- 
ter, on  which  were  several  hummocks,  Avhere  the  dogs  immediately  ceased  run- 
ning, conscious,  apparently,  that  the  danger  Avas  past.  We  were  saved !  We 
joyfully  embraced  each  other,  and  united  in  thanks  to  God  for  our  preservation 
from  such  imminent  peril." 

But  their  misfortunes  did  not  end  here ;  they  Avere  cut  off  from  the  deposit 
of  their  provisions  ;  they  were  360  versts  from  their  nearest  magazines,  and  the 
food  for  the  dogs  was  noAV  barely  sufiicient  for  three  days.  Their  joy  may  be 
imagined  Avhen,  after  a  few  versts'  travelling,  they  fiill  in  with  Matiuschkin  and 
his  party,  bringing  with  them  an  abundant  supply  of  j^rovisions  of  all  kinds. 

To  leave  nothing  undone  Avhich  could  possibly  be  effected,  Wrangell  ad- 


WRANGELL.  243 

vanced  to  the  eastward  along  the  coast,  past  Gajje  North,  seen  in  Cook's  last 
voyage,  and  proceeded  as  far  as  Koliutschin  Island,  whei-e  he  found  some  Tchuk- 
tchi,  who  had  come  over  from  Bering's  Straits  to  trade. 

With  this  journey  terminated  Wrangell's  labors  on  the  coasts,  or  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  Polar  Sea,  and,  at  the  beginning  of  the  following  winter,  we  find 
him  taking  a  final  leave  of  Nishne-Kolymsk.  On  January  10, 1824,  he  arrived 
at  Jakutsk,  and  a  few  months  later  at  Petersburg.  If  we  consider  the  diffi- 
culties he  had  to  encounter,  and  his  untiring  zeal  and  courage  in  the  midst  of 
privations  and  dangers,  it  is  only  fair  to  admit  that  his  name  deserves  to  be 
ranked  among  the  most  distinguished  explorers  of  the  Arctic  world. 


244  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

THE   TUNGUSI. 

Their  Relationship  to  the  Maiitchou.  —  Dreadful  Condition  of  the  outcast  Nomads.  —  Character  of 
the  Tungusi. — Tlieir  Outfit  for  the  Chase.-r-Bear-hunting. — Dwellings. — Diet. — A  Night's  Halt  with 
Tungusi  in  the  Forest. — Ochotsk. 

^T^HOUGH  both  belonging  to  the  same  stock,  the  fate  of  the  Tungusi  and 
■^  Mantchou  has  been  very  different ;  for  at  the  same  time  when  the  latter 
conquered  the  vast  Chinese  Empii-e,  the  former,  after  having  sj^read  over  the 
greatest  part  of  East  Siberia,  and  driven  before  them  the  Jakuts,  the  Jukahiri, 
the  Tchuktchi,  and  many  other  aboriginal  tribes,  were  in  their  turn  subjugated 
by  the  mightier  Russians.  In  the  year  1640  the  Cossacks  first  encountered 
the  Tungusi,  and  in  1644  the  first  Mantchou  emperor  mounted  the  Chinese 
throne.  The  same  race  which  here  imposes  its  yoke  uj)on  millions  of  subjects, 
there  falls  a  prey  to  a  small  number  of  adventurers.  However  strange  the 
fact,  it  is,  however,  easily  explained,  for  the  Chinese  were  worse  armed  and  less 
disciplined  than  the  Mantchou,  while  the  Tungusi  had  nothing  but  bows  and 
arrows  to  oppose  to  the  Cossack  fire-arms ;  and  history  (from  Alexander  the 
Great  to  Sadowa)  teaches  us  that  victory  constantly  sides  with  the  best 
weapons. 

In  their  intellectual  development  we  find  the  same  difference  as  in  their 
fortunes  between  the  Mantchou  and  the  Siberian  Tungusi.  Two  hundred  and 
fifty  years  ago  the  former  were  still  nomads,  like  their  northern  kinsfolk,  and 
could  neither  read  nor  write,  and  already  they  have  a  rich  literature,  and  J^heir 
language  is  spoken  at  the  court  of  Peking  ;  while  the  Tungusi,  oppressed  and 
sunk  in  poverty,  are  still  as  ignorant  as  when  they  first  encountered  the  Cos- 
sacks. 

According  to  their  occupations,  and  the  various  domestic  animals  employed 
by  them,  they  are  distinguished  by  the  names  of  Reindeer,  Horse,  Dog,  For- 
est, and  River  Tungusi ;  but  although  they  are  found  from  the  basins  of  the 
Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower  Tunguska  to  the  western  shores  of  the  Sea  of 
Ochotsk,  and  from  the  Chinese  frontiers  and  the  Baikal  to  the  Polar  Ocean, 
their  whole  number  does  not  amount  to  more  than  30,000,  and  diminishes  from 
year  to  year,  in  consequence  of  the  ravages  of  the  small-pox  and  other  epidem- 
ic disorders  transmitted  to  them  by  the  Russians.  Only  a  few  rear  horses  and 
cattle,  the  reindeer  being  generally  their  domestic  animal ;  and  the  impover- 
ished Tunguse,  who  has  been  deprived  of  his  herd  by  some  contagious  disor- 
der or  the  ravages  of  the  wolves,  lives  as  a  fisherman  on  the  borders  of  a  river, 
assisted  by  his  dog,  or  retires  into  the  forests  as  a  promyschlenik,  or  hunter. 
Of  the  miseries  which  here  await  him,  Wrangell  relates  a  melancholy  instance. 
In  a  solitary  hut  in  one  of  the  dreariest  wildernesses  imaginable,  he  found  a 


THE   TUNGUSI.  245 

Tunguse  and  his  daughter.  While  the  father,  with  his  long  snow-shoes,  was 
pursuing  a  reindeer  for  several  days  together,  this  unfortunate  gii-1  remained 
alone  and  helpless  in  the  hut — which  even  in  summer  afforded  but  an  imperfect 
shelter  against  the  rain  and  wind— exposed  to  the  cold,  and  frequently  to  hun- 
ger, and  without  the  least  occupation.  No  wonder  that  the  impoverished 
Tungusi  not  seldom  sink  into  cannibalism.  Neither  the  reindeer  nor  the  dogs, 
nor  the  wives  and  children  of  their  more  fortunate  countrymen,  are  secure  from 
the  attacks  and  voracity  of  these  outcasts,  who,  in  their  turn,  are  treated  like 
wild  beasts,  and  destroyed  without  mercy.  A  bartering  trade  is,  however, 
carried  on  with  them,  but  only  at  a  distance, and  by  signs;  each  party  depos- 
iting its  goods,  and  following  every  motion  of  the  other  with  a  suspicious  eye. 

The  Russian  Government,  anxious  to  relieve  the  misery  of  the  impoverished 
nomads,  has  given  orders  to  settle  them  along  the  river-banks,  and  to  provide 
them  with  the  necessary  fishing  implements ;  but  only  extreme  wretchedness 
can  induce  the  Tunguse  to  relinquish  the  free  life  of  the  forest.  His  careless 
temper,  his  ready  wit,  and  sprightly  manner,  distinguish  him  from  the  other 
Siberian  tribes — the  gloomy  Samoiede,  the  uncouth  Ostiak,  the  reserved  Jakut 
— but  he  is  said  to  be  full  of  deceit  and  malice.  His  vanity  shows  itself  in  the 
quantity  of  glass  beads  with  which  he  decorates  his  dress  of  reindeer  leather, 
from  his  small  Tartar  cap  to  the  tips  of  his  shoes.  When  chasing  or  travelling 
on  his  reindeer  through  the  woods,  he  of  course  lays  aside  most  of  his  finery, 
and  puts  on  large  watei'-tight  boots,  or  sari,  well  greased  with  fat,  to  keep  olf 
the  wet  of  the  morass.  His  hunting  apparatus  is  extremely  simple.  A  small 
axe,  a  kettle,  a  leathern  bag  containing  some  dried  fish,  a  dog,  a  short  gun,  or 
merely  a  bow  and  a  sling,  is  all  he  requires  for  his  expeditions  into  the  forest. 
With  the  assistance  of  his  long  and  narrow  snow-shoes,  he  flies  over  the  daz- 
zhng  plain,  and  protects  his  eyes,  like  the  Jakut,  with  a  net  made  of  black 
horse-hair.  He  never  hesitates  to  attack  the  bear  single-handed,  and  generally 
masters  him.  The  nomad  Tunguse  naturally  requires  a  movable  dwelling. 
His  tent  is  covered  with  leather,  oi-  large  pieces  of  pliable  bark,  which  are  easi- 
ly rolled  up  and  transported  from  place  to  place.  The  yourt  of  the  sedentary 
Tunguse  resembles  that  of  the  Jakut,  and  is  so  small  that  it  can  be  very 
quickly  and  thoroughly  warmed  by  a  fire  kindled  on  the  stone  heai'th  in  the 
centre.  In  his  food  the  Tunguse  is  by  no  means  dainty.  One  of  his  favorite 
dishes  consists  of  the  contents  of  a  reindeer's  stomach  mixed  with  wild  berries, 
and  spread  out  in  thin  cakes  on  the  rind  of  trees,  to  be  dried  in  the  air  or  in 
the  sun.  Those, who  have  settled  on  the  Wiluj  and  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Nertschinsk,  likewise  consume  large  quantities  of  brick  tea,  which  they  boil 
with  fat  and  berries  into  a  thick  porridge,  and  this  unwholesome  food  adds  no 
doubt  to  the  yellowness  of  their  complexion. 

But  few  of  the  Tungusi  have  l^en  converted  to  Christianity,  the  majovity 
being  still  addicted  to  Shamanism.  They  do  not  like  to  bury  their  dead,  but 
place  them,  in  their  holiday  dresses,  in  large  chests,  which  they  hang  up  be- 
tween two  trees.  The  hunting  apparatus  of  the  deceased  is  buried  beneath 
the  chest.  No  ceremonies  are  used  on  the  occasion,  except  when  a  Shaman 
happens  to  be  in  the  neighborhood,  when  a  reindeer  is  sacrificed,  on  whose 


246  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

flesh  the  sorcerer  and  the  relations  regale  themselves,  while  the  spirits  to 
whom  the  animal  is  supposed  to  be  offered  are  obliged  to  content  themselves 
with  the  smell  of  the  burnt  fat.  As  among  the  Samoiedes  or  the  Ostiaks, 
woman  is  a  marketable  ware  among  the  Tungusi.  The  father  gives  his  daugh- 
ter in  marriage  for  twenty  or  a  hundred  reindeer,  or  the  bridegroom  is  obliged 
to  earn  her  hand  by  a  long  period  of  service. 

In  East  Siberia  the  Tungusi  divide  with  the  Jakuts  the  task  of  conveying 
goods  or  travellers  through  the  forests,  and  afford  the  stranger  frequent  op- 
portunities for  admiring  their  agility  and  good-humor.  On  halting  after  a 
day's  journey,  the  reindeer  are  unpacked  in  an  instant,  the  saddles  and  the 
goods  ranged  orderly  on  the  ground,  and  the  bridles  collected  and  hung  on 
branches  of  trees.  The  hungry  animals  soon  disappear  in  the  thicket,  where 
they  are  left  to  provide  for  themselves.  The  men,  who  meanwhile  have  been 
busy  with  their  axes,  drag  a  larch-tree  or  two  to  the  place  of  encampment. 
The  smaller  branches  are  lopped  off  and  collected  to  serve  as  beds  or  seats 
upon  the  show,  while  the  resinous  wood  of  the  larger  trunks  is  soon  kindled 
into  a  lively  fire.  The  kettle,  filled  with  snow,  is  suspended  from  a  strong 
forked  branch  placed  obliquely  in  the  ground  over  the  fire,  and  in  a  few  min- 
utes the  tea  is  ready — for  the  Tungusi  proceed  every  evening  according  to  the 
same  method,  and  are  consequently  as  expert  as  long  and  invariable  practice 
can  make  them.  Comfortably  seated  on  his  reindeer  saddle,  the  traveller  may  , 
now  amuse  liimself  with  the  dances,  which  the  Tungusi  accompany  with  an 
agreeable  song ;  or  if  he  choose  to  witness  their  agility  in  athletic  exercises,  it 
only  costs  him  a  word  of  encouragement,  and  a  small  donation  of  brandy.  Two 
of  the  Tungusi  hold  a  rope,  and  swing  it  with  all  their  might,  so  that  it  does 
not  touch  the  ground.  Meanwhile  a  third  Tunguse  skips  over  the  rope,  picks 
up  a  boAV  and  arrow  spans  the  bow  and  shoots  the  arrow,  without  once  touclv 
ing  the  rope.  Some  particularly  bold  and  expert  Tungusi  will  dance  over  a 
sword  which  a  person  lying  on  his  back  on  the  ground  is  swinging  about 
with  the  greatest  rapidity.  Should  our  traveller  be  a  friend  of  chess,  the  Tun- 
gusi are  equally  at  his  service,  as  they  are  passionately  fond  of  this  noblest  of 
games,  especially  in  the  Kolymsk  district.  Like  all  other  Siberian  nomads, 
they  visit  at  least  once  a  year  the  various  fairs  which  are  held  in  the  small 
towns  scattered  here  and  there  over  their  immense  territory— such  as  Kirensk, 
Olekminsk,  Bargusin,  Tschita,  and  Ochotsk,  which,  before  the  opening  of  the 
Amoor  to  trade,  was  the  chief  port  of  East  Siberia. 

Ochotsk  is  one  of  the  dreariest  places  imaginable ;  at  least  no  traveller  who 
ever  visited  it  has  a  word  to  say  in  its  favor.  Not  a  single  tree  grows  for 
miles  and  miles  around,  and  the  wretched  huts  of  which  the  town  is  composed 
lie  in  the  mid^  of  a  swamp,  which  in  summer  is  a  fruitful  source  of  malaria 
.  and  pestilence.  The  River  Ochota,  at  wh<j^e  mouth  Ochotsk  is  situated,  does 
not  break  up  before  the  end  of  May,  and  the  ice-masses  continue  to  pass  the 
town  till  the  15th  or  20th  of  June.  Soon  after  begins  the  most  unpleasant  time 
of  all  the  year,  or  "  buss  "  of  the  Siberians,  characterized  by  thick  fog  and  a  per- 
petual drizzling  rain.  The  weather  clears  up  in  July,  but  as  early  as  August 
the  ni^ht-frosts  cover  the  earth  with  rime.     Salmon,  of  which  no  less  than 


THE    TUNGUSI.  247 

fourteen  different  species  live  in  the  Sea  of  Ochotsk,  are  the  only  food  which  the 
neighborhood  affords ;  all  other  necessaries  of  life  come  from  Jakutsk,  and  are 
of  course  enormously  dear.  Meat  appears  only  from  time  to  time  on  the  ta- 
bles of  the  wealthier  merchants,  and  bread  is  an  article  of  luxury.  No  won- 
der that  the  scurvy  ravages  every  winter  a  place  so  ill-provisioned,  and  that 
at  the  time  when  the  first  caravan  of  pack-horses  is  expected  to  cross  the  Al- 
dan Mountains,  the  people  of  Ochotsk,  unable  to  restrain  their  impatience,  go 
out  a  long  way  to  meet  it.  As  the  former  trade  of  the  place  has  now  no  doubt 
been  transferred  to  the  settlements  on  the  Amoor,  it  may  well  be  supposed 
that  Ochotsk  has  lost  most  of  its  former  inhabitants,  who  can  only  be  con- 
gratulated on  their  change  of  residence. 


248  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


BERING'S   MONUMENT   AT   PETROPAULOVSK. 


CHAPTER  XXn. 

GEORGE  WILLIAM  STELLER. 


His  Birth. — Enters  the  Russian  Service. — Scientific  Journey  to  Kamchatka. — Accompanies  Bering  on  his 
second  Voyage  of  Discovery. — Lands  on  the  Island  of  Kaiak. — Shameful  Conduct  of  Bering. — Ship- 
wreck on  Bering  Island. — Bering's  Death. — Return  to  Kamchatka. — Loss  of  Property. — Persecutions 
of  the  Siberian  Authorities. — Frozen  to  Death  at  Tjumen. 

GEORGE  WILLIAM  STELLER,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  natural- 
ists of  the  past  century,  was  born  at  Winsheim,  a  small  town  in  Fran- 
conia,  in  the  year  1709.  After  completing  his  studies  at  the  universities  of 
Wittenberg  and  Halle,  he  turned  his  thoughts  to  Russia,  which,  since  the  re- 
forms of  Czar  Peter  the  Great,  and  the  protection  which  that  monarch  and  his 
successors  afforded  to  German  learning,  had  become  the  land  of  2)romise  for 
all  adventurous  spirits. 

Having  been  appointed  surgeon  in  the  Russian  army,  which  at  that  time  was 
besieging  Danzig,  he  went  with  a  transport  of  wounded  soldiers,  after  the  sur- 
render of  that  town,  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  arrived  in  1734.  Here  his 
talents  were  soon  appreciated ;  after  a  few  years  he  was  named  a  member  of 
the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  sent  by  Government,  in  1738,  to  exam- 
ine the  natural  productions  of  Kamchatka.  The  ability  and  zeal  with  which 
he  fulfilled  this  mission  is  proved  by  the  valuable  collections  which,  he  sent  to 
the  Academy,  and  by  his  numerous  memoirs,  which  are  still  read  with  interest 
in  the  present  day. 

In  1741  he  accompanied  Bering  on  his  second  voyage  of  discovery,  the  ob- 
ject of  which  was  to  determine  the  distance  of  America  from  Kamchatka,  and 
to  ascertain  the  separation  or  the  junction  of  both  continents  in  a  higher 


\\ 


GEORGE   WILLIAM  STELLER.  249 

latitude  —  a  question  which  his  first  voyage  had  left  undecided.  Nothing, 
could  be  more  agreeable  to  a  man  like  Steller,  than  the  prospects  held  out 
to  him  by  an  expedition  to  unknown  regions ;  and  we  can  easily  imagine  the 
delight  Avith  which  the  naturalist  embarked  on  board  of  the  "  Saint  Petei-," 
commanded  by  Bering  in  person.  Accompanied  by  the  "  Saint  Paul,"  under 
Tschirigow,  they  sailed  on  June  4  from  the  Bay  of  Avatscha. 

The  expedition  had  cost  ten  years  of  preparation,  and  brought  misery  and 
ruin  upon  many  of  the  wild  Siberian  tribes,  for  all  that  was  necessary  for  the 
outfit  had  to  be  conveyed  by  compulsory  labor  from  the  interior  of  the  conti- 
nent over  mountains  and  rivers,  through  dense  forests  and  pathless  wilds,  and 
it  seemed  from  the  very  beginning  of  the  voyage  as  if  the  curses  of  the  unfor- 
tunate natives  clung  to  it.  Much  valuable  time  had  been  lost,  for  the  ships 
ought  to  have  sailed  at  least  a  month  earlier,  and  Bering,  who  from  illness  con- 
stantly kept  to  his  cabin,  was  by  no  means  a  fit  commander  for  a  scientific  ex- 
pedition. 

After  a  few  days  a  dense  fog  separated  the  vessels,  which  were  never  to  meet 
again ;  and  as  the  "  St.  Peter  "  held  her  course  too  much  to  the  south,  the  Aleu- 
tic  chain  remained  undiscovered,  and  the  first  land  was  only  sighted  after  four 
weeks  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bering's  Bay.  During  the  whole  of  this  passage 
Steller  had  to  endure  all  the  vexations  which  arrogant  stupidity  could  inflict 
upon  a  man  anxious  to  do  his  duty.  It  was  in  vain  that  he  repeatedly  pointed 
out  the  signs  which  indicated  the  presence  of  land  not  far  to  the  north,  in  vain 
that  he  entreated  the  commander  to  steer  but  one  day  in  that  direction.  At' 
last,  on  July  15,  the  high  mountains  of  America  were  seen  to  rise  above  the 
horizon,  and  the  vessel  anchored  on  the  1 9th  near  to  the  small  island  of  Kaiak. 

On  the  following  day  a  boat  was  sent  out  to  fetch  some  fresh  watei-,  but  it 
was  with  the  utmost  difliculty  that  Steller  could  obtain  permission  to  join  the 
party.  All  assistance  was  obstinately  denied  him,  and  accompanied  by  his 
only  servant,  a  Cossack,  he  landed  on  the  unknown  shore,  eager  to  make  the 
most  of  the  short  time  allotted  him  for  his  researches.  lie  immediately  di- 
rected his  steps  towards  the  interior,  and  had  scarcely  walked  a  mile  when 
he  discovered  the  hollowed  trunk  of  a  tree,  in  which,  a  few  hours  before, 
the  savages  had  boiled  their  meat  with  red-hot  stones.  He  also  found  several 
pots  filled  with  esculent  herbs,  and  a  wooden  instrument  for  making  fire,  like 
those  which  are  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  Kamchatka.  Hence  he  conjectured 
that  the  aborigines  of  this  part  of  the  American  coast  must  be  of  the  same  ori- 
gin as  the  Kamchatkans,  and  that  both  countries  must  necessarily  approach 
each  other  towards  the  north,  as  the  inhabitants  could  not  possibly  traverse 
such  vast  extents  of  ocean  in  their  I'udely-constructed  boats. 

Pursuing  his  way,  Steller  now  came  to  a  path  which  led  into  a  dense  and 
shady  forest.  Before  entering,  he  strictly  forbade  his  Cossack  to  act  without 
commands,  in  case  of  a  hostile  encounter.  The  Cossack  had  a  gun,  with  a  knife 
and  hatchet ;  Steller  himself  only  a  Jakut  poniard,  which  he  had  taken  with 
him  to  dig  out  plants  or  stones.  After  half  an  hour's  walking,  they  came  to  a 
place  strewn  with  grass.  This  was  immediately  removed,  and  a  roof  or  plat- 
form discovered,  consisting  of  strips  of  bark  laid  upon  poles  and  covered  with 


250  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

stones.  This  platform  opened  into  a  cellar  containing  a  large  quantity  of 
smoked  fishes,  and  a  few  bundles  of  the  inner  bark  of  the  larch  or  fir  tree, 
which,  in  case  of  necessity,  serves  as  food  throughout  all  Siberia.  There  were 
also  some  arrows,  dyed  black  and  smoothed,  of  a  size  far  superior  to  those 
used  in  Kamchatka. 

After  Steller,  in  spite  of  the  danger  of  being  surprised  by  the  savages,  had 
accurately  examined  the  contents  of  the  cellar,  he  sent  his  Cossack  back  again 
to  the  place  where  the  boatmen  were  watering.  He  gave  him  specimens  of 
the  various  articles  which  he  had  found,  ordering  him  to  take  them  to  Cap- 
tain Bering,  and  to  request  that  two  or  three  men  m^ght  be  sent  to  him  for 
further  assistance.  In  the  mean  time,  though  quite  alone,  he  continued  his 
investigations  of  the  strange  land,  and  having  reached  the  summit  of  a  hill, 
be  saw  smoke  rising  from  a  foi'est  at  some  distance.  Overjoyed  at  the  sight, 
for  he  now  could  hope  to  meet  with  the  natives  and  to  complete  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  island,  he  instantly  returned  to  the  landing-place  with  all  the 
eagerness  of  a  man  who  has  something  important  to  communicate ;  and  as 
the  boat  was  just  about  to  leave,  told  the  sailors  to  inform  the  captain  of  his 
discoveiy,  and  to  beg  that  the  small  pinnace,  Avith  a  detachment  of  armed 
men,  might  be  sent  out  to  him. 

Meanwhile,  exhausted  wath  fatigue,  he  sat  down  on  the  beach,  where  he 
described  in  his  pocket-book  some  of  the  more  delicate  plants  he  had  collect- 
ed, which  he  feared  might  speedily  Avither,  and  regaled  himself  with  the  ex- 
cellent water.  After  waiting  for  about  an  hour,  he  at  length  received  an  an- 
swer from  Bering,  telling  him  to  return  immediately  on  board,  unless  he  chose 
to  be  left  behind ;  and  we  can  easily  imagine  the  indignation  of  the  disap- 
pointed naturalist  at  this  shameful  command. 

On  the  morning  of  July  21,  Bering,  contrary  to  his  custom,  appeared  on 
deck,  ordered  the  anchors  to  be  weighed,  and  gave  directions  to  sail  back 
again  on  the  same  course.  The  continent  he  had  discovered  was  not  even 
honored  Avith  a  single  visit,  so  that  Steller  could  not  help  telling  the  Russians 
they  had  merely  come  thus  far  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  American  water  to 
Asia.  Any  conscientious  commander  Avould  have  continued  to  sail  along  the 
unknown  shore,  or,  considering  that  the  season  was  already  far  advanced,  would 
have  determined  to  winter  there,  and  to  pursue  his  discoveries  next  spring ; 
but,  unfortunately  for  Bering  and  his  companions,  the  course  he  adopted 
proA^ed  as  disastrous  as  it  was  dishonorable. 

Three  months  long  the  ship  was  tossed  about  by  contrary  winds  and 
storms  ;  the  islands  of  the  Aleutic  chain,  though  frequently  seen  through  the 
mists,  Avere  but  seldom  visited ;  the  scuiwy  broke  out  among  the  dispirited, 
ill-fed  crew,  their  misery  increased  from  day  to  day,  and  their  joy  may  be  im- 
agined when  at  length,  on  November  5,  a  land  was  seen  which  they  firmly 
believed  to  be  Kamchatka — though  in  reality  it  was  merely  the  desert  of 
Bering's  Island,  situated  a  hundred  miles  from  that  peninsula.  Even  those 
who  Avere  nearly  half  dead  crept  upon  deck  to  enjoy  the  welcome  sight ;  every 
one  thanked  God,  and  the  ignorant  officer,  convinced  that  they  were  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Bay  of  Avatscha,  even  named  the  several  mountains ;  but 


GEORGE  WILLIAM    STELLER.  251 

their  mistake  soon  became  apparent  when,  on  rounding  a  small  promontory, 
some  well-known  islets  were  missed.  As  they  had  no  doubt,  however,  that 
tlie  land  was  really  Kamchatka,  and  the  bad  weather  and  the  small  number 
of  hands  fit  to  do  duty  rendering  it  difficult  to  reach  the  Gulf  of  Avatscha, 
it  was  resolved  to  run  into  the  bay  that  lay  before  them,  and  to  send  notice 
from  thence  to  Nishne-Kamchatsk  of  their  safe  arrival. 

Steller  was  among  the  first  to  land,  and  probably  the  very  first  of  the 
party  who  discovered  the  mistake  of  the  excellent  navigators  to  whom  the 
expedition  had  been  intrusted.  Sea-otters  came  swimming  to  him  from  the 
land,  and  he  well  knew  that  these  much-persecuted  animals  had  long  since 
disappeared  from  the  coast  of  Kamchatka.  The  number  of  Arctic  foxes,  too, 
who  showed  no  fear  at  his  approach,  and  the  sea-cows  gambolling  in  the 
water,  were  sure  signs  that  the  foot  of  man  had  not  often  trodden  this  shore. 
Steller  was  also  the  first  to  ^et  the  good  example  of  making  the  best  of  a 
bad  situation,  instead  of  uselessly  bewailing  his  misfortunes.  He  began  to 
erect  a  hut  for  the  following  winter,  and  formed  an  association  with  several 
of  the  crew,  who,  whatever  might  await  them,  promised  to  stand  by  each 
other. 

During  the  following  days  the  sick  were  gradually  conveyed  on  shore. 
Some  of  them  died  on  board  as  soon  as  they  were  brought  into  the  open  air, 
others  in  the  boat,  others  as  soon  as  they  were  landed.  "  On  all  sides,"  says 
Steller,  in  his  interesting  account  of  this  ill-fated  voyage,  "  nothing  was  to  be 
seen  but  misery.  Before  the  dead  could  be  buried,  they  were  mangled  by  the 
foxes,  who  even  ventured  to  approach  the  helpless  invalids  who  were  lying 
without  cover  on  the  beach.  Some  of  these  wretched  sufferers  bitterly  com- 
plained of  the  cold,  others  of  hunger  and  thirst— for  many  had  their  gums  so 
swollen  and  ulcerated  with  the  scurvy  a§  to  be  unable  to  eat." 

"  On  November  13,"  continues  the  naturalist, "  I  Avent  out  hunting  for  the 
first  time  with  Messieurs  Plenisner  and  Betge ;  we  killed  four  sea-otters,  and 
did  not  return  before  night.  We  ate  their  flesh  thankfully,  and  prayed  to 
God  that  He  might  continue  to  provide  us  with  this  excellent  food.  The 
costly  skins,  on  the  other  hand,  were  of  no  value  in  our  eyes ;  the  only  ob- 
jects which  we  now  esteemed  were  knives,  needles,  thread,  ropes,  etc.,  on 
which  before  we  had  not  bestowed  a  thought.  We  all  saw  that  rank,  sci- 
ence, and  other  social  distinctions  were  now  of  no  avail,  and  could  not  in  any 
way  contribute  to  our  preservation :  we  therefore  resolved,  before  we  were 
forced  to  do  so  by  necessity,  to  set  to  work  at  once.  We  introduced  among 
us  five  a  community  of  goods,  and  regulated  our  housekeeping  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  not  to  be  in  want  before  the  winter  was  over.  Our  three  Cossacks 
M^ere  obliged  to  obey  our  orders,  when  we  had  decided  upon  something  in 
common;  but  we  began  to  treat  them  with  greater  politeness,  calling  them 
by  their  names  and  surnames,  and  we  soon  found  that  Peter  Maximowitsch 
served  us  with  more  alacrity  than  formerly  Petrucha  (a  diminutive  of  Peter). 

"  N'ov.  14. — The  whole  ship's  company  was  formed  into  three  parties.  The 
one  had  to  convey  the  sick  and  provisions  from  the  ship ;  the  second  brought 
wood ;  the  third,  consisting  of  a  lame  sailor  and  myself,  remained  at  home— 


253  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

the  former  busy  making  a  sledge,  while  I  acted  as  cook.  As  our  party  was 
the  first  to  organize  a  household,  I  also  performed  the  duty  of  bringing  warm 
soup  to  some  of  our  sick,  until  they  had  so  far  recovered  as  to  be  able  to  help 
themselves. 

"  The  barracks  being  this  day  ready  to  receive  the  sick,  many  of  them 
were  transported  under  roof;  but  for  want  of  room,  they  lay  everywhere  on 
the  ground,  covered  with  rags  and  clothes.  No  one  could  assist  the  other, 
and  nothing  was  heard  but  lamentations  and  curses — the  whole  affording  so 
wretched  a  sight,  as  to  make  even  the  stoutest  heart  lose  courage.  On 
November  15  all  the  sick  were  at  length  landed.  We  took  one  of  them, 
named  Boris  Sand,  into  our  hut,  and  by  God's  help  he  recovered  within  three 
months. 

"  The  following  days  added  to  our  misery,  as  the  messengers  we  had  sent 
out  brought  us  the  intelligence  that  we  were  on^a  desert  island,  without  any 
communication  with  Kamchatka.  We  were  also  in  constant  fear  that  the 
stormy  weather  might  drive  our  ship  out  to  sea,  and  along  with  it  all  our 
provisions,  and  every  hope  of  ever  returning  to  our  homes.  Sometimes  it  was 
impossible  to  get  to  the  vessel  for  several  days  together,  so  boisterous  was 
the  surge  ;  and  about  ten  or  twelve  men,  who  had  hitherto  been  able  to  work, 
now  also  fell  ill.  Want,  nakedness,  frost,  rain,  illness,  impatience,  and  de- 
spair, were  our  daily  companions!" 

Fortunately  the  stormy  sea  drove  the  ship  upon  the  strand,  better  than  it 
could  probably  have  been  done  by  human  efforts.  Successively  many  of  the 
scorbutic  patients  died,  and  on  December  8  the  unfortunate  commander  of 
the  expedition  paid  his  debt  to  nature. 

Titus  Bering,  by  birth  a  Dane,  had  served  thirty-six  years  with  distinc» 
tion  in  the  Russian  navy,  but  age  and  infirmities  had  completely  damped  his 
energies,  and  his  death  is  a  warning  to  all  who  enter  vipon  undertakings 
above  their  strength. 

In  the  mean  time  the  whole  ship's  company  had  established  itself  for  the 
winter  in  five  subterranean  dwellings  ;  the  general  health  was  visibly  im- 
proving, merely  by  means  of  the  excellent  water,  and  by  the  fresh  meat  fur- 
nished by  sea-otters,  seals,  and  manatees ;  and  the  only  care  noAV  was  to  gain 
sufficient  strength  to  be  able  to  undertake  the  Avork  of  deliverance  in  spring. 

In  April  the  shipwrecked  mariners  began  to  build  a  smaller  ship  out  of  the 
timbers  of  the  "  St.  Petei-,"  and,  such  was  the  alacrity  with  which  all  hands 
set  to  work,  that  on  August  13  they  were  able  to  set  out. 

"Wken  we  were  all  embarked,"  says  Steller,  "we  first  perceived  how 
much  we  should  be  hiconvenienced  for  want  of  room ;  the  water-casks,  pro- 
visions, and  baggage  taking  up  so  much  space,  that  our  forty-two  men  (the 
three  ship's  officers  and  myself  were  somewhat  better  off  in  the  cabin)  could 
hardly  creep  between  them  and  the  deck.  A  great  quantity  of  the  bedding 
and  clothing  had  to  be  thrown  overboard.  Meanwhile  we  saw  the  foxes 
sporting  about  our  deserted  huts,  and  greedily  devouring  remnants  of  fat 
and  meat. 

"On  the  14th,  in  the  morning,  we  weighed  anchor,  and  steered  out  of  the 


GEORGE   WILLIAM   STELLER.  253 


bay.  The  weather  being  beautiful,  and  the  wind  favorable,  we  were  all  in 
aood  spirits,  and,  as  we  sailed  along  the  island,  pointed  out  to  each  other  the 
well-known  mountains  and  valleys  which  we  had  frequently  visited  in  quest 
of  game  .or  for  the  purpose  of  reconnoitring.  Towards  evening  we  were  op- 
posite the  farthest  point  of  the  island,  and  on  the  15th,  the  wind  continuing 
favorable,  we  steered  direct  towards  the  Bay  of  Avatscha.  About  midnight, 
however,  we  perceived,  to  our  great  dismay,  that  the  vessel  began  to  fill  witli 
water  from  an  unknown  leak,  which,  in  consequence  of  the  crowded  and 
overloaded  state  of  the  vessel,  it  was  extremely  difficult  to  find  out.  The 
pumps  were  soon  choked  by  the  shavings  left  in  the  hold,  and  the  danger 
rapidly  increased,  as  the  wind  was  strong  and  the  vessel  badly  built.  The 
sails  were  immediately  taken  in ;  some  of  the  men  removed  the  baggage  to 
look  for  the  leak,  others  kept  continually  pouring  out  the  water  with  kettles, 
while  others  again  cast  all  superfluous  articles  overboard.  At  length,  after 
the  lightening  of  the  ship,  the  carpenter  succeeded  in  stopping  the  leak,  and 
thus  we  were  once  more  saved  from  imminent  danger.  ...  On  the  I7tb  we 
sighted  Kamchatka,  but  as  the  wind  was  contrary,  we  did  not  enter  the  har- 
bor before  the  evening  of  the  27th. 

"In  spite  of  the  joy  we  all  felt  at  our  deliverance,  yet  the  news  we  heard 
on  our  arrival  awakened  in  us  a  host  of  conflicting  emotions.  We  had  been 
given  up  for  lost,  and  all  our  property  had  passed  into  other  hands,  and  been 
mostly  carried  away  beyond  hope  of  recovery.  Hence  joy  and  sorrow  alter- 
nated within  a  few  moments  in  our  minds,  though  we  were  all  so  accustomed 
to  privation  and  misery,  as  hardly  to  feel  the  extent  of  our  losses." 

In  the  year  1 744  Steller  was  ordered  to  return  to  St.  Petersburg ;  but  his 
candor  had  made  him  powerful  enemies.  Having  reached  Novgorod,  and  re- 
joicing in  the  idea  of  once  more  mixing  with  the  civilized  world,  he  was  sud- 
denly ordered  to  appear  before  the  imperial  court  of  justice  at  Irkutsk,  on  the 
charge  of  having  treacherously  sold  powder  to  the  enemies  of  Russia,  Thus 
obliged  to  return  once  more  into  the  depths  of  Siberia,  he  Avas  at  length  dis- 
missed by  his  judges,  after  waiting  a  whole  year  for  their  verdict. 

Once  more  on  his  way  to  St.  Petersburg,  he  had  already  reached  Moscow, 
when  he  was  again  summoned  to  appear  without  delay  before  the  court  of 
Irkutsk.  A  journey  to  Siberia  is,  under  all  circumstances,  an  arduous  under- 
taking ;  what,  then,  must  have  been  Steller's  feelings  when,  instead  of  enjoy- 
ing the  repose  he  had  so  well  merited,  he  saw  himself  obliged  to  retrace  his 
steps  for  the  fourth  time,  for  the  purpose  of  vindicating  his  conduct  before  a 
rascally  tribunal  ?  On  a  very  cold  day  his  Cossack  guards  stopped  to  re- 
fresh themselves  with  some  brandy  at  an  inn  by  the  road-side,  and  Steller, 
who  remained  in  the  sledge  waiting  for  their  return,  fell  asleep,  and  was 
frozen  to  death. 

He  lies  buried  near  the  town  of  Tjumen,  and  no  monument  apprises  the 
naturalist,  whom  the  love  of  knowledge  may  lead  into  the  Siberian  Avilds,  that 
his  unfortunate  predecessor  was  thus  basely  requited  after  years  of  exertion 
in  the  interests  of  science. 


254 


THE  POLAE  WORLD. 


■■^-^ 


CHURCH  AT  PETROPATLOSK. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

KAMCHATKA. 

Climate.— Fertility. — Luxuriant  Vegetation. — Fish. — Sea-birds. — Karachatkan  Bird-catchers.— The  Bay 
of  Avatscha. — Petropaylosk. — The  Kamchatkans. — Their  physical  atid  moral  Qualities. — The  Frl- 
tillaria  Sarrcma. — The  Muchamor. — Bears. — Dogs. 

T^HE  peninsula  of  Kamchatka,  though  numbering  no  more  than  6000  or  7000 
■^  inhabitants,  on  a  surface  equalling  Great  Britain  in  extent,  has  so  many 
natural  resources  that  it  could  easily  maintain  a  far  greater  number.  The  cli- 
mate is  much  more  temperate  and  uniform  than  that  of  the  interior  of  Siberia, 
being  neither  so  excessively  cold  in  winter,  nor  so  intensely  hot  in  summer ; 
and  though  the  late  and  early  night-frosts,  with  the  frequent  fogs  and  rains, 
prevent  the  cultivation  of  corn,  the  humid  air  produces  a  very  luxuriant  herba- 
ceous vegetation.  Not  only  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers  and  lakes,  but  in  the 
forest  glades,  the  grass  grows  to  a  height  of  more  than  twelve  feet,  and  many 
of  the  Compositse  and  Umbelliferoe  attain  a  size  so  colossal  that  the  Heraclium 
dulce  and  the  Senecio  cannahifoUus  not  seldom  overtop  the  rider  on  horseback. 
The  pasture-grounds  are  so  excellent  that  the  grass  can  generally  be  cut  thrice 
during  the  short  summer,  and  thus  a  comparatively  small  extent  of  land  affords 
the  winter  supply  for  all  the  cattle  of  a  hamlet.  Though  the  cold  winds  pre- 
vent the  growth  of  trees  along  the  coast,  the  more  inland  mountain  slopes  and 
valleys  are  clothed  with  woods  richly  stocked  with  sables  and  squirrels. 


KAMCHATKA.  255 

No  country  in  the  world  has  a  greater  abundance  of  excellent  fisheries.  In 
spring  the  salmon  ascend  the  rivers  in  such  amazing  numbers,  that  on  plunging 
a  dart  into  the  stream  one  is  almost  sure  to  strike  a  fish ;  and  Steller  aflirms 
that  the  bears  and  dogs  of  Kamchatka  catch  on  the  banks  more  fish  with  their 
paws  and  mouths  than  man  in  other  countries,  with  all  his  cunning  devices  of 
net  or  angle.  As  the  various  birds  of  passage  do  not  all  wander  at  the  same 
,time  to  the  north,  so  also  the  various  kinds  of  fishes  migrate,  some  sooner, 
others  later,  and  consequently  profusion  reigns  during  the  whole  of  the  summer. 
Ermann  was  astonished  at  this  incalculable  abundance  of  the  Kamchatkan  riv- 
ers, for  in  one  of  them,  when  the  water  was  only  six  inches  deep,  he  saw  multi- 
tudes of  Chaekos  {Slagocephalus)  as  long  as  his  arm  partly  stranded  on  the 
banks,  partly  still  endeavoring  to  ascend  the  shallow  stream.  As  the  waters 
contain  such  an  incredible  multitude  of  fishes,  we  can  not  wonder  that  the 
rocky  coasts  of  the  peninsula  swarm  with  sea-fowl,  whose  breeding  and  roosting 
places  are  as  densely  peopled  as  any  others  in  the  world.  At  the  entrance  of  the 
Avatscha  Bay  lies  a  remarkable  labyrinth  of  rocks,  separated  from  each  other 
by  narrow  channels  of  water,  like  the  intricate  streets  of  an  old-fashioned  city. 
The  flood  has  everywhere  scooped  out  picturesque  cavities  and  passages  in 
these  stupendous  masses  of  stone,  and  the  slightest  wind  causes  the  waves  to 
beat  with  terrific  violence  against  their  feet.  Every  ledge,  platform,  and  pro- 
jection, every  niche,  hollow,  and  crevice  is  peopled  with  sea-birds  of  strange 
and  various  forms.  In  the  capture  of  these  birds  the  Kamchatkans  display  an 
intrepidity  equal  to  that  of  the  islanders  of  St.  Kilda  or  Feroe,  and  trust  solely 
to  their  astonishing  agility  in  climbing.  Barefooted,  without  ropes  or  any 
other  assistance,  they  venture  down  the  steepest  declivities,  which  are  frequent- 
ly only  accessible  from  the  top,  as  the  foaming  breakers  cut  off  all  access  from 
below.  The  left  arm  clasps  a  basket,  which  they  fill  with  eggs  as  they  advance, 
while  the  right  hand  grasps  a  short  stick  with  an  iron  hook  to  drag  the  birds 
from  the  crevices  of  the  rock.  When  a  bird  is  caught,  a  dexterous  grip  wrings 
its  neck,  and  it  is  then  attached  to  the  girdle  of  the  fowler.  In  this  manner  an 
expert  climber  will  kill  in  one  day  from  seventy  to  eighty  birds,  and  gather 
above  a  hundred  eggs.  ^ 

Thus  the  population  of  Kamchatka  is  quite  out  of  proportion  to  the  riches 
of  its  pastures  and  waters.  Its  scanty  inhabitants  are  moreover  concentrated 
on  a  few  spots  along  the  chief  rivers  and  bays,  so  that  almost  the  whole  penin- 
sula is  nothing  but  an  uninhabited  wilderness. 

Before  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the  Russians  it  had  at  least  twenty 
times  its  present  population,  but  the  cruelty  of  the  Cossacks  and  the  ravages  of 
the  smaU-pox  caused  it  to  mel|  away  almost  as  rapidly  as  that  of  Cuba  or  Hayti 
after  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards.  At  that  time  the  sable  and  the  sea-otter 
were  considered  of  far  greater  importance  than  man ;  and  unfortunately  Rus- 
sia has  too  many  deserts  to  pec^ple,  before  she  can  think  of  repairing  past  er- 
rors and  sparing  inhabitants  for  this  remotest  corner  of  her  vast  Asiatic  em- 
pire. 

As  the  peninsula  is  too  distant  from  the  highways  of  the  world  to  attract 
the  tide  of  emigration,  it  is  also  seldom  visited  by  travellers.     The  few  stran- 


256  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

gers,  however,  who  have  sailed  along  the  coasts,  or  made  excursions  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  country,  speak  with  enthusiasm  of  the  boldness  of  its  rocky  prom- 
ontories, the  magnificence  of  its  bays  and  mountains,  and  only  regret  that 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year  an  Arctic  winter  veils  the  beauties  of  the 
landscape  under  mists  and  snow. 

Throughout  its  whole  length  Kamchatka  is  traversed  by  an  Alpine  chain 
rising  in  some  of  its  peaks  to  a  height  of  14,000  or  16,500  feet,  and  numberinsj 
no  less  than  28  active  volcanoes  along  with  many  others  whose  fires  are  extinct. 
A  land  thus  undermined  with  subterranean  fires  must  be  possessed  of  many 
mineral  riches,  but  as  yet  no  one  has  ever  thought  of  seeking  for  them  or  put- 
ting them  to  use. 

Owing  to  the  great  humidity  of  the  climate  and  the  quantities  of  rain  at- 
tracted by  the  mountains,  Kamchatka  abounds  in  sj^rings.  In  the  lowlands 
they  gush  forth  in  such  numbers  as  to  render  it  very  difficult  to  travel  any  dis- 
tance on  foot  or  horseback,  even  in  winter,  as  they  prevent  the  rivers  from 
freezing.  No  doubt  many  a  mineral  spring — cold,  tepid,  or  warm — that  would 
make  the  fortune  of  a  German  spa,  here  flows  unnoticed  into  the  sea. 

Kam(?liatka  has  many  excellent  harbors,  and  the  magnificent  Bay  of  Avatscha 
would  alone  be  able  to  afford  room  to  all  the  navies  of  the  Avorld.  Its  steep 
rocky  shores  are  almost  everywhere  clothed  with  a  species  of  beech  {Betula 
Ermanjii),  intermingled  with  luxuriant  grasses  and  herbs,  and  the  higher  slopes 
are  generally  covered  with  a  dense  underwood  of  evergreens  and  shrubs  of  de- 
ciduous foliage,  whose  changes  of  color  in  autumn  tinge  the  landscape  with  yel- 
low, red,  and  brown  tints.  But  the  chief  beauty  of  the  Bay  of  Avatscha  is  the 
prospect  of  the  distant  mountains,  forming  a  splendid  panorama  of  fantastic 
peaks  and  volcanic  cones,  among  which  the  Streloshnaja  Sopka  towers  pre-emi- 
nent to  the  height  of  14,000  feet.  Close  to  this  giant,  but  somewhat  nearer  to 
the  coast,  rises  the  active  volcano  of  Avatscha,  which  frequently  covers  the 
whole  country  with  ashes. 

The  vast  Bay  of  Avatscha  forms  several  minor  ci-eeks  :  among  others  the  ha- 
ven of  St.  Peter  and  Paul,  one  of  the  finest  natural  harbors  in  the  world,  where 
the  Russians  have  established  the  seat  of  their  government  in  the  small  town  of 
Petropavlosk,  which  hardly  numbers  500  inhabitants,  but  has  acquired  some 
celebrity  from  the  unsuccessful  attack  of  the  English  and  French  forces  in  1854. 

Mr.  Knox  thus  describes  Petropavlosk :  "  To  make  a  counterfeit  Petro- 
pavlosk, take  a  log  village  in  the  backwoods  of  a  western  state  in  America, 
and  place  it  near  a  little  harbor,  where  the  ground  slopes  gently  to  the  water. 
Arrange  most  of  the  houses  along  a  single  unpaved  street,  and  drop  the  rest  in 
a  higgledy-piggledy  fashion  on  the  sloping  hillside.  Ajl  buildings  must  be  but 
one  story  high,  and  those  of  the  poorer  sort  thatched  Avith  grass.  The  better 
class  may  have  iron  or  board  roofs  painted  for  preservation.  The  houses  of  the 
ofiicials  and  the  foreign  merchants  may  be  commodious,  and  built  of  hewn  tim- 
ber, but  the  doors*of  all  must  be  low,  and  heavily  constructed,  to  exclude  the 
winter  cold.  Every  dwelling  must  contain  a  brick  stove  that  presents  a  side  to 
each  of  two  or  three  rooms.  In  winter  this  stove  will  maintain  a  temperature 
of  about  68  de2:rees  in  all  the  rooms  it  is  intended  to  warm." 


KAMCHATKA. 


257 


PETKOPAVLOSK. 


Besides  some  Jakut  immigrants,  the  chief  stock  of  the  scanty  population  of 
the  country  consists  of  the  descendants  of  the  primitive  Kamchatkans,  who,  in 
spite  of  frequent  intermarriages  with  their  conquerors  the  Cossacks,  have  still 
retained  many  of  tlieir  ancient  manners.  They  are  of  a  small  stature,  but  broad- 
shouldered,  their  cheek-bones  are  prominent,  their  jaws  uncommonly  broad  and 
projecting,  their  noses  small,  their  lips  very  full,  their  hair  black.  The  color  of 
the  men  is  dark  brown,  or  sometimes  yellow ;  the  women  have  fairer  complex- 
ions, which  they  endeavor  to  preserve  by  means  of  bears'  guts,  stuck  upon  their 
faces  in  spring  with  fresh  lime,  so  as  not  to  be  burned  by  the  sun.  They  also 
paint  their  cheeks  with  a  sea-weed,  which,  when  rubbed  upon  them  with  fat, 
gives  them  a  beautiful  red  color. 

The  Kamchatkans  are  a  remarkably  healthy  race.  IMaiiy  of  them  attain  an 
age  of  seventy  or  eighty  years,  and  are  able  to  walk  and  to  work  until  their 

17 


258  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

death.  Theii-  hair  seldom  turns  gray  before  their  sixtieth  year,  and  even  the 
oldest  men  have  a  firm  and  elastic  step.  The  weight  of  their  body  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  Jakuts,  though  the  latter  live  on  milk  and  flesh,  while  fish  is 
the  almost  exclusive  food  of  the  Kamchatkans.  The  round  tubercles  of  the 
Fritillarki  sarrana,  a  species  of  lily  with  a  dark  purple  flower,  likewise  play 
an  important  part  in  their  diet,  and  serve  them  instead  of  bread  and  meal, 
"  If  the  fruits  of  the  bread-fruit  tree,"  says  Kittlitz — who  has  seen  both  plants 
in  the  places  of  their  growth — "  are  pre-eminent  among  all  others,  as  affording 
man  a  perfect  substitute  for  bread,  the  roots  of  the  Sarrana,  which  are  very 
similar  in  taste,  rank  perhaps  immediately  after  them.  The  collecting  of  these 
tubers  in  the  meadows  is  an  important  summer  occupation  of  the  women,  and 
one  which  is  rather  troublesome,  as  the  plant  never  grows  gregariously,  so  that 
each  root  has  to  be  sought;  and  dug  out  separately  with  a  knife.  Fortunately 
the  wonderful  activity  of  the  Siberian  field-vole  facilitates  the  labor  of  gather- 
ing the  tubers.  These  remarkable  animals  burrow  extensive  winter  nests,  with 
five  or  six  store-houses,  which  they  fill  with  various  roots,  but  chiefly  with  those 
of  the  Sarrana.  To  find  these  subterranean  treasures,  the  Kamchatkans  use 
sticks  with  iron  points,  which  they  strike  into  the  earth.  The  contents  of  three 
of  these  nests  are  as  much  as  a  man  can  carry  on  his  back.  A  species  of  fun- 
gus, called  muchamor,  affords  a  favorite  stimulant.  It  is  dried  and  eaten  raw. 
Besides  its  exhilarating  effects,  it  is  said  to  j^roduce,  like  the  Peruvian  Coca,  a 
remarkable  increase  of  strength,  which  lasts  for  a  considerable  time. 

Fishing  and  hunting  supply  all  the  wants  of  the  Kamchatkans,  for  they  have 
not  yet  learned  to  profit  in  any  degree  worth  mentioning  by  the  luxuriance  of 
their  meadow-lands.  They  pay  their  taxes  and  purchase  their  foreign  luxuries 
— meal  and  tea,  tobacco  and  brandy — with  furs.  The  chase  of  the  costly  sea- 
otter  (which  from  excessive  persecution  had  at  one  time  almost  become  extinct) 
has  latterly  improved.  Besides  the  fur  animals,  they  also  hunt  the  reindeer,  the 
argali,  the  wolf,  and  the  bear,  whose  skins  supply  them  with  clothing. 

Bears  abound  in  Kamchatka,  as  they  -find  a  never-faiUng  supply  of  fishes 
and  berries,  and  Ermann  assures  us  that  they  would  long  since  have  extirpated 
the  inhabitants,  if  (most  probably  on  account  of  th'plenty  in  Avhich  they  live) 
they  were  not  of  a  more  gentle  disposition  than  any  others  in  the  world.  In 
spring  they  descend  from  the  mountains  to  the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  to  levy 
their  tribute  on  the  migratory  troops  of  the  fishes,  frequently  eating  only  the 
heads.  Toward  autumn  they  follow  the  fishes  into  the  interior  of  the  country 
as  they  ascend  the  streams. 

The  most  valuable  domestic  animal  in  Kamchatka  is  the  dog,  who  has  the 
usual  characters  of  the  Esquimaux  race.  He  lives  exclusively  on  fish,  which  he 
catches  very  dexterously.  From  spring  to  autumn  he  is  allowed  to  roam  at  lib- 
erty, no  one  troubling  himself  about  him ;  but  in  October,  every  proprietor  col- 
lects his  dogs,  binds  them  to  a  post,  and  lets  them  fast  for  a  time,  so  as  to  dfr" 
prive  them  of  their  superfluous  fat,  and  to  render  them  more  fit  for  running. 
During  the  winter  they  are  fed  with  dried  fish  every  morning  and  evening,  but 
Avhile  travelling  they  get  nothing  to  eat,  even  though  they  run  for  hours.  Their 
strength  is  wonderful.     Generally  no  more  than  five  of  them  are  harnessed  to  a 


KAMCHATKA. 


DOGb  FIb^I^G 


sledge,  and  will  drag  with  ease  three  full-grown  persons,  and  sixty  pounds' 
weight  of  luggage.  When  lightly  laden,  such  a  sledge  will  travel  from  30  to 
40  versts  in  a  day  over  bad  roads  and.  through  the  deep  snow ;  on  even  roads, 
from  80  to  140.  The  horse  can  never  be  used  for  sledging,  on  account  of  the 
deep  snow,  into  which  it  would  sink,  and  of  the  numerous  rivers  and  sources, 
Avhich  are  either  never  frozen,  or  merely  covered  with  a  thin  sheet  of  ice,  un- 
able to  bear  the  weisrht  of  so  iaro-e  an  animal. 


Travelling  with  dogs  is,  however,  both  dangerous  and  difficult.  Instead  of 
the  whip,  the  Kamchatkans  use  a  crooked  stick  with  iron  rings,  which,  by 
their  jingling,  give  the  leader  of  the  team  the  necessary  signals.  When  the 
dogs  do  not  sufficiently  exert  themselves,  the  stick  is  cast  among  them  to  rouse 
them  to  greater  speed ;  but  then  the  traveller  must  be  dexterous  enough  to 


260 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


pick  it  up  again  while  the  sledge  shoots  along.  During  a  snow-stoi-ni  the  dogs 
keep  their  master  warm,  and  will  lie  quietly  near  him  for  hours,  so  that  he  has 
merely  to  prevent  the  snow  from  covering  him  too  deeply  and  suffocating  him. 
The  dogs  are  also  excellent  weather  prophets,  for  when,  while  resting,  they  dig 
holes  in  the  snow,  a  storm  may  with  certainty  be  expected. 

The  sledge-dogs  are  trained  to  their  future  service  at  a  very  early  period. 
Soon  after  birth  they  are  placed  with  their  mother  in  a  deep  pit,  so  as  to  see 
neither  man  nor  beast,  and,  after  having  been  Aveaned,  they  are  again  condemn- 
ed to  solitary  confinement  in  a  pit.  After  six  months  they  are  attached  to  a 
sledge  with  other  older  dogs,  and,  being  extremely  shy,  they  run  as  fast  as 
they  can.     On  returning  home,  they  are  again  confined  in  their  jjit,  where  they 


DOGS   TOWINCf   BOATS. 


remain  until  they  are  perfectly  trained,  and  able  to  perform  a  long  journey. 
Then,  but  not  before,  they  are  allowed  their  summer  liberty.  This  severe  edu- 
cation completely  sours  their  temper,  and  they  constantly  remain  gloomy,  shy, 
quarrelsome,  and  suspicious. 

To  return  to  the  Kamchatkans :  travellers  praise  their  good-nature,  their 
hospitality,  and  their  natural  wit.  Of  a  sanguine  disposition,  they  are  happy 
and  content  in  their  poverty,  and  have  no  cares  for  the  morrow.  Being  ex- 
tremely indolent,  they  never  work  unless  when  compelled.  They  readily  adopt 
strange  manners,  ^nd  no  doubt  education  might  produce  valuable  results  in  so 
pliable  and  sharp-witted  a  race.  Unfortunately  the  Russians  and  Cossacks 
who  have  settled  among  them  do  not  afford  them  the  best  examples.     They 


KAMCHATKA. 


201 


have  long  since  been  converted  to  the  Greek  Church,  but  it  is  supposed  tliat  Ijap- 
tism  has  not  fully  effaced  all  traces  of  Shamanism.  Formerly  they  had  many 
gods,  the  chief  of  whom  was  Kutka,  the  creator  of  heaven  and  earth.  But  far 
from  honoring  Kutka,  they  continually  ridiculed  him,  and  made  him  the  con- 
stant butt  of  their  satire.  Kutka,  however,  had  a  wife,  Chachy,  who  was  en- 
dowed with  all  the  intelligence  in  which  her  spouse  was  supposed  to  be  defi- 
cient, and  who,  as  is  the  case  in  many  mortal  housekeepings,  was  constantly  ex- 
erting her  ingenuity  in  repairing  the  blunders  of  her  lord  and  master. 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


FRAME-WOKK   Oh    TCULKTCIII   HOLbE 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

THE  TCHUKTCHI. 


The  Land  of  the  Tchuktchi.— Their  independent  Spirit  and  commercial  Enterprise.— Perpetual  Mitrra- 
tions. — The  Fair  of  Ostrownoje. — Visit  in  a  Tchnlitch  Polog. — Races. — Tchulvtch  Bayaderes. — Tlie 
Tennygk,  or  Reindeer  Tchuktchi. — TheOnkilon,  or  Sedentary  Tchuktchi. — Their  Mode  of  Life. 

AT  the  extreme  north-eastern  point  of  Asia,  bounded  by  the  Polar  Ocean 
on  one  side  and  the  Sea  of  Bering  on  the  other,  lies  the  land  of  the 
Tchuktchi,  The  few  travellers  who  have  ever  visited  that  bleak  promontory 
describe  it  as  one  of  the  dreariest  regions  of  the  earth.  The  climate  is  dread- 
fully cold,  as  may  be  expected  in  a  country  confined  between  icy  seas.  Before 
July  20th  there  is  no  appearance  of  summer,  and  winter  already  sets  in  about 
August  20th,  The  lower  grounds  shelving  to  the  north  are  intersected  with 
numerous  streams,  which,  however,  enjoy  their  liberty  but  a  short  time  of  the 
year ;  the  valleys  are  mostly  swampy  and  filled  with  small  lakes  or  ponds ; 
while  on  the  bleak  hill-slopes  the  Vaccinium  and  the  dwarf  birch  or  willow 
sparingly  vegetate  under  a  carpet  of  mosses  and  lichens.  The  eastern,  north- 
eastern, and  partly  also  the  southern  coasts  abound  with  walruses,  sea-lions, 
and  seals,  while  the  reindeer,  the  argali,  the  wolf,  and  the  Arctic  fox  occupy 
the  land.  During  the  short  summer,  geese,  swans,  ducks,  and  wading-birds 
frequent  the  marshy  grounds ;  but  in  winter  the  snow-owl  and  the  raven  alone 
remain,  and  constantly  follow  the  path  of  the  nomadic  inhabitants.  In  this 
desolate  nook  of  the  Old  World  lives  the  only  aboriginal  people  of  North  Asia 
which  has  known  how  to  maintain  its  liberty  to  the  present  day,  and  which, 
proud  of  its  independence,  looks  down  with  sovereign  contempt  upon  its  re- 
lations, the  Korjaks,  who,  without  offering  any  resistance,  have  yielded  to  the 
authority  of  Russia, 


THE  TCHUKTCHI.  263 

The  rulers  of  Siberia  have  indeed  confined  the  Tchuktehi  within  narrow 
limits,  but  here  at  least  they  obey  no  foreign  ruler,  and  wander,  unmolested 
by  the  stranger,  with  their  numerous  reindeer  herds,  over  the  naked  tundras. 
A  natural  distrust  of  their  powerful  neighbors  has  rendered  them  long  unwil- 
lino-  to  enter  into  any  commercial  intercourse  with  the  Russians,  and  to  meet 
them  at  the  fair  of  Ostrownoje,  a  small  town,  situated  not  far  from  their  fron- 
tiers, on  a  small  island  of  the  Aniuj,  in  68°  N.  lat. 

This  remotest  trading-place  of  the  Old  World  is  not  so  unimportant  as 
mio-ht  be  supposed,  from  the  sterile  nature  of  the  country,  for  the  Tchuktehi 
are  not  satisfied,  like  the  indolent  Lapps  or  Samoiedes,  with  the  produce  of 
their  reindeer  herds,  but  strive  to  increase  their  enjoyments  or  their  property 
by  an  active  trade.  From  the  East  Cape  of  Asia,  where,  crossing  Bering's 
Straits  in  boats  covered  with  skins,  they  barter  furs  and  walrus-teeth  from  the 
natives  of  America,  the  Tchuktehi  come  with  their  goods  and  tents  drawn  on 


TCHUKTCHI  CANOE. 

sledges  to  the  fair  of  Ostrownoje.  Other  sledges  laden  with  lichens,  the  food 
of  the  reindeer,  follow  in  their  train,  as  in  their  wanderings,  however  circuitous, 
they  not  seldom  pass  through  regions  so  stony  and  desert  as  not  even  to  afford 
these  frugal  animals  the  slightest  repast.  Thus  regulating  their  movements 
by  the  wants  of  their  herds,  they  require  five  or  six  months  for  a  journey 
which,  in  a  direct  line,  would  not  be  much  longer  than  a  thousand  versts,  and 
are  almost  constantly  wandering  from  place  to  place,  though,  as  they  always 
carry  their  dwellings  along  with  them,  they  at  the  same  time  never  leave  home. 
One  of  these  snail-like  caravans  generally  consists  of  fifty  or  sixty  families,  and 
one  fair  is  scarcely  at  an  end  when  they  set  of£  to  make  their  arrangements  for 
the  next. 

Tobacco  is  the  primum  mobile  of  the  trade  which  centres  in  Ostrownoje. 
Their  pipes  are  of  a  peculiar  character,  larger  at  the  stem  than  the  bowl,  which 
holds  a  very  small  quantity  of  tobacco.  In  smoking,  they  swallow  the  fumes 
of  the  tobacco,  and  often,  after  six  or  eight  whiffs,  fall  back  completely  intoxi- 


264  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 


TCnUKTCHI   PIPE. 


cated  for  the  time.  The  desire  to  i^rocure  a  few  of  its  narcotic  leaves  induces 
the  American  Esquimaux,  from  the  Icy  Cape  to  Bristol  Bay,  to  send  their  prod- 
uce from  hand  to  hand  as  far  as  the  Gwosdew  Islands  in  Bering's  Straits, 
where  it  is  bartered  for  the  tobacco  of  the  Tchuktchi,  and  these  again  princi- 
pally resort  to  the  fair  of  Ostrownoje  to  purchase  tobacco  from  the  Russians. 
Generally  the  Tchuktchi  receive  from  the  Americans  as  many  skins  for  half  a 
poud,  or  eighteen  pounds,  of  tobacco-leaves  as  they  afterwards  sell  to  the  Rus- 
sians for  two  pouds  of  tobacco  of  the  same  quality.  These  cost  the  Russian 
merchant  about  160  roubles  at  the  very  utmost,  while  the  skins  which  he  obtains 
in  barter  are  worth  at  least  260  at  Jakutsk,  and  are  more  than  double  that  sum 
at  St.  Petersburg. 

The  furs  of  the  Tchuktchi  principally  consist  of  black  and  silver-gray  foxes, 
stone-foxes,  gluttons,  lynxes,  otters,  beavers,  and  a  fine  species  of  marten  which 
does  not  occur  in  Siberia,  and  approaches  the  sable  in  value.  They  also  bring 
to  the  fair  bear-skins,  walrus-thongs  and  teeth,  sledge-runners  of  whale-ribs,  and 
ready-made  clothes  of  reindeer  skin.  The  American  furs  are  generally  packed 
in  sacks  of  seal  skin,  which  are  made  in  an  ingenious  manner  by  extracting  the 
bones  and  flesh  through  a  small  opening  made  in  the  abdomen. 

The  Russian  traders  on  their  part  bring  to  the  fair,  besides  tobacco,  iron- 
ware— particularly  kettles  and  knives — for  the  Tchuktchi,  and  tea,  sugar,  and 
various  stuffs  for  their  countrymen  who  have  settled  along  the  Kolyma. 

But  Ostrownoje  attracts  not  only  Tchuktchi  and  Russians ;  a  great  num- 
ber of  the  Siberian  tribes  from  a  vast  circuit  of  1000  or  1500  versts — Juka- 
hires,  Lamutes,  Tungusi,  Tschuwanzi,  Koriaks  —  also  come  flocking  in  their 
sledges,  drawn  partly  by  dogs,  partly  by  horses,  for  the  purpose  of  bartering 
their  commodities  against  the  goods  of  the  Tchuktchi.  Fancy  this  barbarous 
assembly  meeting  every  year  during  the  intense  cold  and  short  days  of  the  be- 
ginning of  March.  Picture  to  yourself  the  fantastic  illumination  of  their  red 
watch-fires  blazing  under  the  starry  firmament,  or  mingUng  their  ruddy  glare 
with  the  Aurora  flickering  through  the  skies,  and  add  to  the  strange  sight  the 
hollow  sound  of  the  Shaman's  drum,  and  the  howling  of  several  hundreds  of 
hungry  dogs,  and  you  will  surely  confess  that  no  fair  has  a  more  original  char- 
acter than  that  of  Ostrownoje.  A  government  commissary,  assisted  by  some 
Cossacks,  superintends  the  fair,  and  receives  the  inconsiderable  market-tax 
which  the  Tchuktclii  pay  to  the  Emperor. 


THE   TCIIUKTCIII.  265 

All  preliminaries  having  been  arranged,  the  orthodox  Russians  repair  to 
the  chapel  for  the  purpose  of  hearing  a  solemn  mass,  after  which,  the  hoisting 
of  a  flag  on  the  tower  of  the  ostrog  announces  the  opening  of  the  market. 
At  this  welcome  sign,  the  Tchuktchi,  comi)letely  armed  with  spears,  bows,  and 
arrows,  advance  with  their  sledges,  and  form  a  wide  semicircle  round  the 
fort,  while  the  Russians,  and  the  other  visitors  of  the  fair,  ranged  opposite  to 
them,  await  in  breathless  silence  the  tolling  of  the  bell,  which  is  to  begin  ti)e 
active  business  of  the  day.  At  the  very  first  sound,  each  trader,  grotesquely 
laden  with  packages  of  tobacco,  kettles,  knives,  or  whatever  else  he  supposes 
best  able  to  supply  some  want,  or  to  strike  some  fancy  of  the  Tchuktchi,  rush- 
es as  fast  as  he  can  towards  the  sledges,  and  in  the  jumble  not  seldom  knocks 
down  a  competitor,  or  is  himself  stretched  at  full  length  on  the  snow.  But, 
unmindful  of  the  loss  of  cap  and  gloves,  which  he  does  not  give  himself  time 
to  pick  up,  he  starts  afresh,  to  make  up  for  the  delay  by  redoubled  activity. 
Before  he  reaches  the  first  Tchuktch,  his  eloquence  breaks  forth  in  an  inter- 
minable flow,  and  in  a  strange  jargon  of  Russian,  Tchuktch,  and  Jakute,  he 
praises  the  excellence  of  his  tobacco  or  the  solidity  of  his  kettles.  The  imper- 
turbable gravity  of  the  Tchuktch  forms  a  remarkable  contrast  with  the  greedy 
eagerness  of  the  Russian  trader  ;  without  replying  to  his  harangue,  he  merely 
shakes  his  head  if  the  other  offers  him  too  little  for  his  goods,  and  never  for 
an  instant  loses  his  self-possession  :  while  the  Russian,  in  his  hurry,  not  sel 
doni  hands  over  two  ponds  of  tobacco  for  one,  or  pockets  a  red  fox  instead  of 
a  black  one.  Although  the  Tchuktch  have  no  scales  with  them,  it  is  not  easy 
to  deceive  them  in  the  weight,  for  they  know  exactly  by  the  feeling,  of  the 
hand  whether  a  quarter  of  a  pound  is  wanting  to  the  poud.  The  whole  fair 
seldom  lasts  longer  than  three  days,  and  Ostrownoje,  which  must  have  but  very 
few  statioliary  inhabitants  indeed  (as  it  is  not  even  mentioned  in  statistical  ac- 
counts, which  cite  towns  of  seventeen  souls),  is  soon  after  abandoned  for  many 
months  to  its  ultra-Siberian  solitude. 

But  before  Ave  allow  the  Tchuktchi  to  retire  to  their  deserts,  we  may  learn 
something  more  of  their  habits  by  accompanying  Mr.  Matiuschkin — Wrangell's 
companion — on  a  visit  to  the  ladies  of  one  of  their  first  chiefs.  "  We  enter  the 
outer  tent,  or  '  namet,'  consisting  of  tanned  reindeer  skins  supported  on  a  slen- 
der frame-work.  An  opening  at  the  top  to  let  out  the  smoke,  and  a  kettle  in 
the  centre,  announce  that  antechamber  and  kitchen  are  here  harmoniously  blend- 
ed into  one.  But  where  are  the  inmates  ?  Most  probably  in  that  large  sack 
made  of  the  finest  skins  of  reindeer  calves,  which  occupies,  near  the  kettle,  the 
centre  of  the  'namet.'  To  penetrate  into  this  '  sanctum  sanctorum'  of  the 
Tchuktch  household,  we  raise  the  loose  flap  which  serves  as  a  door,  creep  on  all 
fours  through  the  opening,  cautiously  re-fasten  the  flap  by  tucking  it  under  the 
floor-skin,  and  find  ourselves  in  the  reception  or  withdrawing  room — the  '  polog.' 
A  snug  box  no  doubt  for  a  cold  climate,  but  rather  low,  as  we  can  not  stand  up- 
right ih  it,  and  not  quite  so  Avell  ventilated  as  a  sanitary  commissioner  would 
approve  of,  as  it  has  positively  no  opening  for  light  or  air.  A  suffocating 
smoke  meets  us  on  entering,  we  rub  our  eyes,  and  when  they  have  at  length  got 
accustomed  to  the  biting  atmosphere,  we  perceive,  by  the  gloomy  light  of  a 


206 


THE  POLAE  WORLD. 


train-oil  lamp,  the  worthy  family  sqxiatting  on  the  floor  in  a  state  of  almost 
complete  nudity.  Without  being  in  the  least  embarrassed,  Madame  Leiitt  and 
her  dauf^hter  receive  us  in  their  primitive  costume  :  but  to  show  us  that  the 
Tchuktchi  know  how  to  receive  company,  and  to  do  honor  to  their  guests,  they 
immediately  insert  strings  of  glass  beads  in  their  greasy  hair.  Their  hospitali- 
ty  equals  their  politeness ;  for,  instead  of  a  cold  reception,  a  hot  dish  of  boiled 
reindeer-flesh,  copiously  irrigated  with  rancid  train-oil  by  the  experienced  hand 
of  the  mistress  of  the  household,  is  soon  after  smoking  before  us.  Unfortunate- 
ly our  effeminate  taste  is  not  up  to  the  Iiaut  gout  of  her  culinary  art,  and  while 
Mr.  Levitt  does  ample  justice  to  the  artistic  talent  of  his  spouse,  by  rapidly  bolt- 
ing down  pieces  as  large  as  a  fist,  we  are  hardly  able  to  swallow  a  morsel." 

During  his  visit  at  Ostrownoje,  Matiuschkin  had  a  favorable  opportunity  of 
becoming  acquainted  with  the  sports  of  the  Tchuktchi,  the  chieftain,  Makomol, 
having  set  out  prizes  for  a  race.  These  consisted  of  a  valuable  silver  fox,  a 
first-rate  beaver  skin,  and  two  fine  walrus-teeth.  Nothing  can  be  more  ad- 
mirable than  the  fleetness  of  the  reindeer  or  the  dexterity  of  their  drivers ; 
and  the  agility  displayed  in  the  foot-race  by  the  Tchuktchi,  running  at  full 
speed,  in  their  heavy  winter  dresses,  over  a  distance  of  fifteen  versts,  gives  a 
hjo-h  idea  of  their  muscular  powers.  After  the  races,  the  spectators  are  treated 
to  a  grand  choregraphic  display.  The  Arctic  bayaderes,  muflled  from  head 
to  foot  in  their  stiff  skin  garments,  form  a  narrow  circle,  slowly  moving  their 
feet  backward  and  forward,  and  fiercely  gesticulating  with  their  hands,  whilst 
their  faces  are  distorted  into  a  thousand  horrible  grimaces.  The  singing  that 
accompanies  the  ballet  has  no  doubt  its  charm  for  native  ears,  but  to  strangers 
it  seems  no  better  than  a  kind  of  grunt.  The  representation  is  closed  by  three 
fii-st-rate  artistes  executing  a  particularly  favorite  dance.  The  faces  of  their 
countrymen  express  the  same  intense  admiration  with  which  a  European  dilet- 
tante follows  the  graceful  pirouettes  of  a  Taglioni,  while  the  Russian  guests 
see  only  three  greasy  monsters  alternately  rushing  towards  each  other  and 
starting  back,  until  at  length  they  stop  from  sheer  exhaustion.  As  a  token  of 
their  satisfaction,  the  Russians  regale  the  fair  performers  with  a  cup  of  brandy 
and  a  roll  of  tobacco,  and  both  parties  take  leave  of  each  other  with  mutual 
protestations  of  satisfaction  and  friendship. 

Though  most  of  the  Reindeer  or  nomadic  Tchuktchi  have  been  baptized,  yet 
Wrangell  supposes  the  ceremony  to  have  been  a  mere  financial  speculation  on 
their  part,  and  is  convinced  that  the  power  of  the  Shamans  is  still  as  great  as 
ever.  An  epidemic  had  carried  off  a  great  number  of  persons,  and  also  whole 
herds  of  reindeer.  In  vain  the  Shamans  had  recourse  to  their  usual  conjura- 
tions, the  plague  continued.  They  consulted  together,  and  directed  that  one  of 
their  most  respected  chiefs,  named  Kotschen,  must  be  sacrificed,  to  appease  the 
irritated  spirits.  Kotschen  was  willing  to  submit  to  the  sentence,  but  none 
could  be  found  to  execute  it,  until  his  own  son,  prevailed  on  by  his  father's  ex- 
liortations,  and  terrified  by  his  threatened  curse,  plunged  a  knife  into  his  heart, 
and  gave  his  body  to  the  Shamans. 

Polygamy  is  general  among  the  Tchuktchi,  and  they  change  their  wives  as 
often  as  they  please.     Still,  though  the  women  are  certainly  slaves,  they  are  al- 


THE   TCIIUKTCHI.  267 

lowed  more  influence,  and  are  subjected  to  less  labor  than  among  many  sav- 
ages. Among  other  heathenish  and  detestable  customs,  is  that  of  killing  all 
deformed  children,  and  all  old  people  as  soon  as  they  become  unfit  for  the 
hardships  and  fatigues  of  a  nomad  life.  Two  years  before  Wrangell's  arri- 
val at  Kolyma  there  was  an  instance  of  this  in  the  case  of  one  of  their  richest 
chiefs.  Waletka's  father  became  infirm  and  tired  of  life,  and  was  put  to  death 
at  his  own  express  desire  by  some  of  his  neai-est  relations. 

Besides  the  wandering,  or  Reindeer  Tchuktchi,  who  call  themselves  Tennygk, 
there  are  others,  dwelling  in  fixed  habitations  along  the  borders  of  the  sea  at 
Bering's. Straits  and  the  Gulf  of  Anadyr,  who  differ  considerably  from  the 
former  in  appearance  and  language.  These  Onkilon,  or  stationary  Tchuktchi, 
belong  to  the  wide-spread  Esquimaux 'family,  and,  like  most  of  their  race,  sub- 
sist by  hunting  the  whale,  the  walrus,  and  the  seal.  They  live  in  a  state  of 
abject  dependence  on  the  nomad  Tchuktchi,  and  are  poor,  like  all  fishermen, 
while  some  of  the  Tennygk  chieftains  possess  several  thousands  of  reindeer, 
and  are  continually  adding  to  their  wealth  by  trade.  Of  course  there  is  an 
active  exchange  of  commodities  between  the  two ;  the  Onkilon  furnishing 
thongs  of  walrus  hide,  walrus-teeth,  train-oil,  etc.,  and  receiving  reindeer  skins, 
or  ready-made  clothes  of  the  same  material,  in  return. 

They  live  in  small  settlements  or  villages  spread  along  the  coast ;  their  huts, 
raised  on  frame-works  of  whale-rib  and  covered  with  skins,  resemble  a  large 
irregular  cone  reposing  on  its  side,  with  the  apex  directed  to  the  north,  and 
the  base  shelving  abruptly  to  the  south.  Here  is  the  small  opening,  closed  by 
a  flap  of  loose  skin,  which  serves  as  a  door,  while  the  smoke  escapes  and  the 
light  enters  through  a  round  hole  in  the  roof.  At  the  farther  or  northern  end 
of  this  structure  is  a  second  low  square  tent,  covered  with  double  reindeer 
skins,  the  polog,  which  in  winter  serves  both  as  the  dining  and  bed  room  of 
the  family. 

The  Onkilon  catch  seals  in  a  kind  of  net  made  of  leather  straps,  which  they 
spread  out  under  the  ice,  and  in  which  the  animal  entangles  itself  with  the 
head  or  flippers.  When  the  walrus,  which  is  particularly  abundant  about 
Koliutschin  Island,  creeps  on  shore,  they  steal  upon  it  unawares,  cut  off  its  re- 
treat, and  kill  it  with  their  spears.  Like  the  Esquimaux,  they  use  dogs  to  drag 
their  sledges. 

The  number  of  the  Tchuktchi  is  greater  than  one  might  expect  to  find  in 
so  sterile  a  country.  According  to  the  Russian  missionaries,  there  were,  some 
years  back,  52  ulusses  or  villages  of  the  0;ikilon,  with  1568  tents,  and  10,000 
inhabitants ;  and  Wrangell  tells  us  that  the  Tennygk  are  at  least  twice  as  nu- 
merous, so  that  the  entire  population  of  the  land  of  the  Tchuktchi  may  possi- 
bly amount  to  30,000. 


368  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

BERING  SEA— THE  RUSSIAN  FUR  COMPANY— THE  ALEUTS. 

Bering  Sea.— Unalaska.— The  Pribilow  Islands.— St.  Matthew.— St.  Laurence.— Bering's  Straits.— The 
Russian  Fur  Companj'.— The  Aleuts.— Their  Character.— Their  Skill  and  Intrepidity  in  hunting  the 
Sea-otter. — The  Sea-bear. — Whale-chasing. — Walrus-slaughter. — The  Sea-lion. 

"OKRING  SEA  is  extremely  interesting  in  a  geographical  point  of  view,  as 
-*-'  tlie  teraperatiu-e  of  its  coasts  and  islands  exhibits  so  striking  a  contrast 
with  that  part  of  the  Ai'ctic  Ocean  which  extends  between  Greenland,  Iceland, 
Norway,  and  Spitzbergen,  and  aifords  ^^s  the  most  convincing  proof  of  the 
benefits  we  owe  to  the  Gulf  Stream,  and  to  the  mild  south-westerly  winds 
which  sweep  across  the  Atlantic.  While  through  the  sea  between  Iceland 
and  Scotland,  a  part  of  the  Avarmth  generated  in  the  tropical  zone  penetrates 
by  means  of  marine  and  aerial  currents  as  far  as  Spitzbergen  and  the  western 
coast  of  Nova  Zembla,  the  Sea  of  Bering  is  completely  deprived  of  this  advan- 
tage. The  long  chain  of  mountainous  islands  which  bounds  it  on  the  soutli 
serves  as  a  barrier  against  the  mild  influence  of  the  Pacific,  and  instead  of 
warm  streams  mixing  with  its  waters,  many  considerable  rivers  and  deep  bays 
yearly  discharge  into  it  enormous  masses  of  ice.  Thus  as  soon  as  the  naviga- 
tor enters  Bering  Sea  he  perceives  at  once  a  considerable  fall  in  the  tempera- 
ture, and  finds  himself  suddenly  transferred  from  a  temperate  oceanic  region 
to  one  of  a  decidedly  Arctic  character.  In  spite,  therefore,  of  their  compara- 
tively southerly  position  (for  the  Straits  of  Bering  do  not  even  reach  the  Arc- 
tic Circle,  and  the  Andrianow  Islands  are  ten  degrees  farther  to  the  south  than 


BERING    SEA— THE   ALEUTS.  269 

the  Feroes),  those  frigid  waters  are,  with  regard  to  climate,  fat-  less  favorably 
situated  than  the  seas  of  Spitzbergen, 

The  same  gradual  ditferenees  of  temperature  and  vegetation  which  we 
find  in  Unalaska,  the  Pribilow  Islands,  St.  Laurence,  and  the  Straits  of  Be- 
rino-  within  10°  of  latitude,  occur  in  the  Shetland  Islands,  Iceland,  Bear  Island, 
and  Spitzbergen  at  distances  of  almost  20° ;  so  that  in  the  Sea  of  Bering  the 
increase  of  cold  on  advancing  to  the  north  is  about  twice  as  rapid  as  in  the 
waters  between  North  Europe  and  North  America. 

The  long  and  narrow  peninsula  of  Aliaska,  which  forms  the  south-eastern 
boundary  of  this  inhospitable  sea,  shows  us  its  influence  in  a  very  marked  de- 
o-ree,  for  while  the  climate  of  the  northern  side  of  that  far-projecting  land- 
tongue  has  a  decidedly  Arctic  character,  its  southern  coasts  fronting  the  Pa- 
cific enjoy  a  temperate  climate.  The  mountain-chain  which,  rising  to  a  height 
of  five  or  six  thousand  feet,  forms  the  backbone  of  the  peninsula,  serves  as  the 
boundary  of  two  distinct  worlds,  for  while  the  northern  slopes  are  bleak  and 
treeless  like  Iceland,  the  southern  shores  are  covered  from  the  water's  edge 
with  magnificent  forests.  While  on  the  northern  side  the  walrus  extends  his 
excursions  down  to  56°  30'  N.  lat.,  on  the  southern  exposure  the  humming- 
bird is  seen  to  flit  from  flower  to  flower  as  high  as  61°,  the  most  northerly 
point  it  is  known  to  attain. 

The  Feroe  Islands  (64°  N.  lat.)  have  undoubtedly  a  no  very  agreeable  cli- 
mate to  boast  of,  but  they  may  almost  be  said  to  enjoy  Italian  skies  when 
compared  with  Unalaska  (54°  N.  lat.),  the  best  known  of  the  Aleutian  chain. 

The  Scandinavian  archipelago  is  frequently  obscured  with  fogs,  but  here 
they  are  perpetual  from  April  to  the  middle  of  July.  From  this  time  till  the 
end  of  September  the  weather  improves,  as  then  the  southerly  winds  drive  the 
foggy  region  mpre  to  the  north,  and  enable  the  sun  to  shine  during  a  few  se- 
rene days  upon  the  bleak  shores  of  Unalaska.  But  soon  the  Polar  air-streams 
regain  the  supremacy,  and  a  dismal  veil  once  more  shrouds  the  melancholy  isl- 
and. Of  Sitka,  the  chief  town  of  Aliaska,  Mr.  Whymper  says  :  "  It  enjoys  the 
unenviable  position  of  being  about  the  most  rainy  place  in  the  world.  Rain 
ceases  only  when  there  is  a  good  prospect  of  snow."  Snow  generally  begins 
to  fall  early  in  October,  and  snow-st6rms  occur  to  the  very  end  of  May.  There 
are  years  in  Avhich  it  rains  continually  during  the  whole  winter.  In  the  Feroes 
some  service-trees  are  to  be  seen  twelve  feet  high  or  more,  while  nothing  like 
a  tree  ever  grew  in  Unalaska.  The  difference  between  the  temperatures  of  the 
summer  and  winter,  which  in  the  Feroes  is  confined  to  very  narrow  limits,  is 
much  more  considerable  in  Unalaska,  though  here  also  the  moderating  influ- 
ence of  the  sea  makes  itself  felt.  Thus  in  summer  the  thermometer  rarely 
rises  above  66°,  but  on  the  other  hand  in  winter  it  still  more  rarely  fiills  be- 
low -2°. 

Of  course  no  corn  of  any  kind  can  possibly  ripen  in  a  climate  like  this,  but 
the  damp  and  cool  temperature  favors  the  growth  of  herbs.  In  the  moist  low- 
lands the  stunted  willow-bushes  are  stifled  by  the  luxuriant  grasses;  and  even 
on  the  hills,  the  vegetation,  which  is  of  a  deq^dedly  Al]Mne  character,  covers 
the  earth  up  to  the  line  of  perpetual  snow;  while  several  social  plants,  sucli 


270 


THE   POLAR  WORLD. 


as  the  lAtpinus  ^ootkednus  and  the  Rhododendron  kamtschadalicum,  decorate 
these  dismal  regions  with  their  brilliant  color.  The  lively  green  of  the  mead- 
oAvs  reminds  one  of  the  valley  of  Urseren,.so  well  known  to  all  Alpine  tourists. 


M 


'^m^^^mi 


The  mosses  and  lichens  begin  already  at  Unalaska  to  assume  that  predomi- 
nance in  the  Flora  which  characterizes  the  frigid  zone. 

A  few  deo-rees  to  the  north  of  the  Aleutian  chain,  which  extends  in  a  long 


i 


BERING   SEA— THE  ALEUTS.  271 

line  from  thp  promontory  of  Aliaska  to  Kamcliatka,  are  situated  the  Pribilow 
Islands,  St.  Geoi-ge  and  St.  Paul,  which  are  celebi-ated  in  ,the  history  of  the  fur- 
trade,  the  former  as  the  chief  breeding-jjlace  of  the  sea-bear,  the  latter  as  that 
of  the  sea-lion,  Chamisso  was  struck  with  their  wintry  aspect,  for  here  no 
sheltered  valleys  and  lowlands  promote,  as  at  Unalaska,  a  more  vigorous  veg- 
etation. The  rounded  backs  of  the  hills  and  the  scattered  rocks  are  covered 
Avith  black  ^nd  gray  lichens  ;  and  where  the  melting  snows  afford  a  sufficient 
moisture,  sphagnum,  mosses,  and  a  few  weeds  occupy  the  marshy  ground.  The 
frozen  earth  has  no  springs,  and  yet  these  desolate  islands  have  a  more  south- 
erly situation  than  the  Orkneys,  where  barley  grows  to  ripeness.  Before 
these  islands  were  discovered  by  the  Russians  they  had  been  for  ages  the  un- 
disturbed home  of  the  sea-birds  and  the  large  cetacean  seals.  Under  Russian 
superintendence,  some  Aleuts  have  now  been  settled  on  both  of  them.  The 
innumerable  herds  of  sea-lions,  which  cover  the  naked  shores  of  St.  Georo-e 
as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  present  a  strange  sight.  The  guillemots  have 
taken  possession  of  the  places  unoccupied  by  their  families  and  fly  fearlessly 
among  them,  or  nestle  in  the  crevices  of  the- wave- worn  rock-walls,  or  between 
the  large  boulders  which  form  a  bank  along  the  strand. 

Still  farther  to  the  north  lies  the  uninhabited  island  of  St.  Matthew  (62° 
N".  lat.).  A  settlement  was  once  attempted ;  but  as  the  animals  which  had 
been  reckoned  upon  for  the  winter  supply  of  f«od  departed,  the  unfortunate 
colonists  all  died  of  hunger. 

Fogs  are  so  frequent  about  the  island  of  St,  Laurence  that  navigators  have 
often  passed  close  by  it  (65°  N",  lat.)  without  seeing  it.  Chamisso  Avas  sur- 
prised at  the  beauty  and  the  numbers  of  its  dwarfish  flowering  herbs,  which 
reminded  him  of  the  highlands  of  Switzerland,  while  the  neighboring  St, 
Laurence  Bay,  in  the  land  of  the  Tchuktchi,  was  the  image  of  Avintry  desola- 
tion, Li  July  the  lowlands  were  covered  with  snow-fields,  and  the  fcAV  plants 
bore  the  Alpine  character  in  the  most  marked  degree.  Under  this  inclement 
sky,  the  mountains,  unprotected  by  vegetation,  rapidly  fall  into  decay.  Every 
winter  splits  the  rocks,  and  the  summer  torrents  carry  the  fragments  doAvn  to 
their  feet.  The  ground  is  everywhere  covered  with  blocks  of  stone,  unless 
where  the  sphagnum,  by  the  accumulation  of  its  decomposed  remains,  has 
formed  masses  of  peat  in  the  swampy  lowlands. 

On  sailing  through  Bering's  Straits,  the  traveller  may  see,  in  clear  weather, 
both  the  Old  and  the  New  World,  On  both  sides  rise  high  mountains,  pre- 
cipitously from  the  water's  edge  in  Asia^  but  separated  from  the  sea  by  a 
broad  alluvial  belt  on  the  American  side.  The  sea  is  deepest  on  the  Asiatic 
border,  Avhere  the  current,  flowing  from  the  south  with  considerable  rapidity, 
has  also^the  greatest  force.  Here  also  whales  may  be  often  seen,  and  largo 
herds  of  walruses. 

In  former  times  the  baidar  of  the  Esquimaux  was  the  only  boat  ever  seen 
in  the  straits,  and  since  Semen  Deshnew,  who  first  sailed  round  the  eastern 
point  of  Asia,  European  navigators  had  but  rarely  passed  them  to  explore  tlie 
seas  beyond  ;  but  recently  this  remotest  part  of  the  world  has  become  the 
scene  of  an  active  whale-fishery. 


272  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


A  BAIDAK. 


The  shores  of  Bering  Sea  are  naked  and  bleak,  and  the  numerous  volca- 
noes of  the  Aleutian  chain  pour  out  their  lava-streams  over  unknown  wilder- 
nesses. But  the  waters  of  the  sea  are  teeming  with  life.  Gigantic  algae,  such 
as  are  never  seen  in  the  torrid  zone,  form,  round  the  rocky  coasts,  vast  sub- 
marine forests.  A  host  of  fishes,  whales,  walruses,  and  seals,  fill  the  sea  and 
its  shores,  and  innumerable  sea-birds  occupy  the  clifis.  But  these  treasures 
of  the  ocean,  which  for  ages  furnished  the  Aleuts  and  other  wild  tribes  with 
the  means  of  existence,  have  also^^been  the  cause  of  their  servitude.  Had  the 
sea-otter  not  existed,  the  wild  children  of  the  soil  might  possibly  still  be  in 
possession  of  their  ancient  freedom;  and  but  for  the  sea-bear  and  the  walrus, 
the  whale  and  the  seal,  the  banners  of  the  Czar  would  scarcely  have  met  the 
flag  of  England  on  the  continent  of  America. 

As  the  Avhole  fur-trade  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Territory  is  concentrated  in 
the  hands  of  one  mighty  company,  thus  also  one  powerful  association  enjoys 
the  exclusive  commerce  of  the  eastern  possession  of  Russia.  The  regions  un- 
der the  authority  of  the  Russian  Fur  Company*  occupy  an  immense  space,  as 
they  comprise  not  only  all  the  islands  of  Bering  Sea,  but  also  the  American 
coasts  down  to  55°  K  lat.  The  extreme  points  of  this  vast  territory  are  situ- 
ated at  a  greater  distance  from  each  other  than  London  from  Tobolsk,  but  the 
importance  of  its  trade  bears  no  proportion  to  its  extent. 

The  company,  which  was  founded  in  the  year  1799,  under  the  Emperor 
Paul,  had,  in  1839,  thirty-six  hunting  settlements  on  its  own  territory  (the 
Kurile  Islands,  the  Aleutic  chain,  Aliaska,  Bristol  Bay,  Cook's  Inlet,  Norton 
Sound,  etc.),  besides  a  chain  of  agencies  from  Ochotsk  to  St.  Petersburg.  Its 
chief  seat  is  New  Archangel,  on  Sitka,  one  of  the  many  island^"*bf  King 
George  III.'s  Archipelago,  first  accurately  explored  by  Vancouver.  The  mag- 
nificent Bay  of  Norfolk,  at  the  head  of  which  the  small  town  is  situated, 
greatly  resembles  a  Norwegian  fjord,  as  we  here  find  the  same  steep  rock- 

*  Since  last  year  [1867]  the  Eussian  Government  has  sold  her  American  possessions  to  the  United 
States,  but  as  it  is  not  yet  known  how  far  the  interests  of  the  Russian  Fur  Company  have  boen  aflected 
by  the  change,  I  may  be  allowed  to  speak  of  her  in  the  present  tense. 


BERING   SEA— THE   ALEUTS.  273 

walls  bathing  their  precipitous  sides  in  the  emerald  waters,  and  clothed  with 
dense  pine  forests  wherever  a  tree  can  grow. 

A  number  of  islets  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  bay  add  to  the  beauty 
of  the  scene.  The  furs  collected  by  the  company  are  chiefly  those  of  sea- 
bears,  sea-otters,  foxes,  beavers,  bears,  lynxes,  American  martens,  etc.,  and  are 
partly  furnished  by  the  subjects  of  its  own  territory  (Aleuts,  Kadjacks,  Ke- 
naizes,  Tchugatchi,  Aliaskans),  who  are  compelled  to  hunt  on  its  account,  and 
partly  obtained  by  barter  from  the  independent  tribes  of  the  mainland,  or 
from  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  The  greater  part  is  sent  to  Ochotsk  or 
the  Amoor,  and  from  thence  through  Siberia  to  St.  Petersburg  ;  the  rest  to  the 
Chinese  ports,  where  the  skins  of  the  young  sea-bear  always  find  a  ready 
market. 

Of  all  the  aboriginal  tribes  which  inhabit  the  vast  territory  of  Russian 
America,  the  most  worthy  of  notice  is  that  of  the  Aleuts.  Less  fortunate 
than  their  independent  relatives,  the  Esquimaux  of  the  north — who  in  the 
midst  of  privations  maintain  an  imperturbable  gayety  of  temper — these  isl- 
anders have  been  effectually  spirit-broken  under  a  foreign  yoke.  In  1817 
the  cruel  treatment  of  their  masters  had  reduced  them  to  about  a  thousand ; 
since  that  time  their  number  has  somewhat  increased,  the  company  having  at 
length  discovered  that  man  is,  after  all,  the  most  valuable  production  of  a 
land,  and  that  if  depopulation  increased  still  further,  they  would  soon  have 
no  more  hunters  to  supply  them  wath  furs. 

Every  Aleut  is  bound,  after  his  eighteenth  year,  to  serve  the  company 
three  years ;  and  this  forced  labor-tax  does  not  seem  at  first  sight  immode- 
rate, but  if  we  consider  that  the  islanders,  to  whom  every  foreign  article  is 
supplied  from  the  warehouses  of  the  company,  are  invariably  its  debtors,  we 
can  not  doubt  that  as  long  as  the  Aleut  is  able  to  hunt,  he  is  obliged  to  do  so 
for  the  wages  of  a  slave.  The  Bishop  Ivan  Weniaminow,  who  resided  ten 
years  at  Unalaska,  draws  a  picture  of  this  people  which  exhibits  e\'ident 
marks  of  a  long  servitude.  They  never  quarrel  among  each  other,  and  their 
patience  is  exemplary.  Nothing  can  surpass  the  fortitude  with  ^diich  they 
endure  pain.  On  the  other  hand,  they  never  show  excessive  joy ;  it  seems 
impossible  to  raise  their  feelings*to  the  pitch  of  delight.  Even  after  a  long 
tast,  a  child  never  grasps  with  eagerness  the  proffered  morsel,  nor  does  it  on 
any  occasion  exhibit  the  mirth  so  natural  to  its  age. 

In  hunting  the  marine  animals,  the  Aleuts  exhibit  a  wonderful  skill  and  in- 
trepidity. To  catch  the  sea-otter,- they  assemble  in  April  or  May  at  an  ap- 
pointed spot,  in  their  light  skin  boats,  or  baidars,  and  choose  one  of  their  most 
respected  chiefs  for  the  leader  of  the  expedition,  which  generally  numbers 
from  fifty  to  a  hundred  boats.  Such  hunting-parties  are  annually  organized 
from  the  Kurile  Islands  to  Kadjack,  and  consequently  extend  their  o])erations 
over  a  line  of  3000  miles.  On  the  first  fine  day  the  expedition  sets  out  and 
proceeds  to  a  distance  of  about  forty  versts  from  the  coast,  when  the  baidars 
form  into  a  long  line,  leaving  an  interval  of  about  250  fathoms  from  boat  to 
boat,  as  far  as  a  sea-otter  diving  out  of  the  water  can  be  seen,  so  that  a  row 
of  thirty  baidars  occupies  a  space  of  from  ten  to  twelve  versts.     When  the 

18 


274  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

number  of  the  boats  is  greater,  the  intervals  are  reduced.  Every  man  now 
looks  upon  the  sea  with  great  attention.  Nothing  escapes  the  eye  of  the 
Aleut ;  in  the  smallest  black  spot  appearing  but  one  moment  over  the  surface 
of  the  waters,  he  at  once  recognizes  a  sea-otter.  The  baidar  which  first  sees 
the  animal  rows  rapidly  towards  the  spot  where  the  creature  dived,  and  now 
the  Aleut,  holding  his  oar  straight  up  in  the  air,  remains  motionless  on  the* 
spot.  Immediately  the  whole  squadron  is  on  the  move,  and  the  long,  straight 
line  changes  into  a  wide  circle,  the  centre  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  baidar 
with  the  raised  oar.  The  otter,  not  being  able  to  remain  long  under  water,  re- 
appears, and  the  nearest  Aleut  immediately  greets  him  with  an  arrow.  This 
first  attack  is  seldom  mortal ;  very  often  the  missile  does  not  even  reach  its 
mark,  and  the  sea-otter  instantly  disappears.  Again  the  oar  rises  from  the 
next  baidar ;  again  the  circle  forms,  but  this  time  narrower  than  at  first ;  the 
fatigued  otter  is  obliged  to  come  oftener  to  the  surface,  arrows  fly  from  all 
sides,  and  finally  the  animal,  killed  by  a  mortal  shot,  or  exhausted  by  repeat- 
ed wounds,  falls  to  the  share  of  the  archer  who  has  hit  it  nearest  to  the  head. 
If  several  otters  appear  at  the  same  time,  the  boats  form  as  many  rings,  pro- 
vided their  number  be  sufficiently  great. 

The  boldest  of  all  hunters,  the  Aleuts  of  the  Fox  Islands,  pursue  the  sea-ot- 
ter also  in  winter.  If,  during  the  summer  chase,  the  rapidity  and  regularity 
with  which  all  the  movements  are  performed,  and  the  sure  eye  and  aim  of  the 
archers  command  the  spectator's  admiration,  this  winter  chase  gives  him  occa- 
sion to  wonder  at  their  courage.  During  the  severest  winter-storms  the  otter 
shelters  himself  on  the  shore  of  some  small  uninhabited  island  or  on  a  solitary 
rock,  and  after  having  carefully  ascertained  that  no  enemy  is  neai-,  coils  himself 
up  and  falls  asleep.  While  the  storm  still  rages,  two  Aleuts  approach  the  rock 
in  two  single  baidars  from  the  leeward.  The  hunter  in  the  foremost  baidar 
stands  upright,  a  gun  or  a  club  in  his  hand,  and  waits  in  this  position  till  a 
wave  brings  him  near  to  the  summit  of  the  rock.  He  now  springs  on  land, 
and  while  his  companion  takes  care  of  the  baidar,  approaches  the  sleeping  otter 
and  shoots.it  or  kills  it  with  his  club.  With  the  assistance  of  his  companion 
who  has  remained  on  the  water,  he  springs  back  into  his  baidar  as  soon  as  the 
crest  of  a  wave  brings  it  within  his  reach. 

The  sea-bear  is  nearly  as  valuable  as  the  sea-otter  to  the  fur  company,  as  the 
woolly  skin  of  the  young  animal  is  the  only  one  of  the  whole  seal  tribe  which 
is  reckoned  among  the  finer  peltry.  The  sea-bears  are  chiefly  killed  on  the 
Commodore  and  Pribilow  islands,  particularly  on  St.  Paul,  where  they  are 
hunted  by  a  certain  number  of  Aleuts  located  there  imder  Russian  superin- 
tendence. The  chase  begins  in  the  latter  part  of  September,  on  a  cold,  foggy 
day,  when  the  wind  blows  from  the  side  where  the  animals  are  assembled  on 
the  rocky  shora  The  boldest  huntsmen  open  the  way,  then  follow  the  older 
people  and  the  children,  and  the  chief  personage  of  the  band  comes  last,  to  be 
the  better  able  to  direct  and  survey  the  movements  of  his  men,  who  are  all 
armed  with  clubs.  The  main  object  is  to  cut  off" the  herd  as  quickly  as  possi- 
ble from  the  sea.  All  the  grown-up  males  and  females  are  spared  and  allowed 
to  escape,  but  most  of  the  young  animals  are  sentenced  to  death.      Those 


BERING   SEA— THE   ALEUTS.  275 

which  are  only  four  months  old  (their  furs  being  most  highly  prized)  are 
doomed  without  exception;  while  of  the  others  that  have  attained  an  age  of 
one,  two,  or  three  years,  only  the  males  are  killed.  For  several  days  after  the 
massacre,  the  mothers  swim  about  the  island,  seeking  and  loudly  wailing  for 
their  young. 

From  October  5  St.  Paul  is  gradually  deserted  by  the  sea-bears,  Avho  then 
migrate  to  the  south  and  re-appear  towards  the  end  of  April,  the  males  arriving 
first.  Each  seeks  the  same  spot  on  the  shore  Avhich  he  occupied  during  the 
preceding  year,  and  lies  down  among  the  large  stone  blocks  with  which  the  flat 
beach  is  covered.  About  the  middle  of  May  the  far  more  numerous  females 
begin  to  make  their  appearance,  and  the  sea-bear  families  take  full  possession 
of  the  strand.  Each  male  is  the  sultan  of  a  herd  of  females,  varying  in  immber 
accordhig  to  his  size  and  strength ;  the  weaker  brethren  contenting  themselves 
with  half  a  dozen,  while  some  of  the  sturdier  and  fiercer  fellows  preside  over 
harems  200  strong.  Jealousy  and  intrusion  frequently  give  rise  to  terrible  bat- 
tles. The  full-grown  male  sea-bear,  Avho  is  about  four  or  five  times  larger  than 
the  female,  grows  to  the  length  of  eight  feet,  and  owes  his  name  to  his  shaggv 
blackish  fur,  and  not  to  his  disposition,  which  is  far  from  being  cruel  or  savage. 

Armed  with  a  short  spear,  a  single  Aleut  does  not  hesitate  to  attack  the  co- 
lossal whale.  Approaching  cautiously  from  behind  in  his  baidar  until  he  reach- 
es the  head,  he  plunges  his  weapon  into  the  animal's  flank  under  the  fore  fin, 
and  then  retreats  as  fast  as  his  oar  can  carry  him.  If  the  spear  has  penetrated 
into  the  flesh,  the  whale  is  doomed  ;  it  dies  within  the  next  two  or  three  days, 
and  the  currents  and  the  waves  drift  the  carcass  to  the  next  shore.  Eacli 
spear  has  its  peculiar  mark  by  which  the  owner  is  recognized.  Sometimes  the 
baidar  does  not  escape  in  time,  and  the  whale,  maddened  by  pain,  furiously 
lashes  the  water  w^ith  his  tail,  and  throws  the  baidar  high  up  into  the  air,  or 
sinks  it  deep  into  the  sea.  The  whale-fishers  are  highly  esteemed  among  the 
Aleuts,  and  their  intrepidity  and  skill  well  deserve  the  general  admiration.  Of 
course  many  of  the  whales  are  lost.  In  the  summer  of  1831, 118  Avhales  were 
wounded  near  Kadjack,  of  which  only  forty-three  were  found.  The  others 
may  have  been  wafted  far  out  into  the  sea  to  regale  the  sharks  and  sea-birds, 
or  driven  to  more  distant  shores,  whose  inhabitants  no  doubt  gladly  welcomed 
their  landing,  Wrangell  informs  us  that  since  1833  the  Russians  have  intro- 
duced the  use  of  the  harpoon,  and  engaged  some  English  harpooners  to  teach 
the  Aleuts  a  more  profitable  method  of  whale-catching,  but  we  are  not  told 
how  the  experiment  has  succeeded. 

The  company,  besides  purchasing  a  great  quantity  of  walrus-teeth  from  the 
Tchuktchi  of  the  Bering's  Straits  and  Bristol  Bay,  send  every  year  a  detach- 
ment of  Aleuts  to  the  north  coast  of  Aliaska,  where  generally  a  large  number 
of  young  walruses,  probably  driven  away  by  the  older  ones,  who  prefer  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  polar  ice,  spend  the  summer  months. 

The  walruses  herd  on  the  lowest  edge  of  the  coast  which  is  within  reach  of 
the  spring  tides.  When  the  Aleuts  prepare  to  attack  the  animals,  they  tak(! 
leave  of  each  other  as  if  they  were  going  to  face  death,  being  no  less  afraid  of 
the  tusks  of  the  walruses  than  of  the  awkwardness  of  their  own  companions. 


376  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

Armed  with  lances  and  heavy  axes,  they  stealthily  approach  the  walruses,  and 
having  disposed  their  ranks,  suddenly  fall  upon  them  with  loud  shouts,  and  en- 
deavor to  drive  them  from  the  sea,  taking  care  that  none  of  them  escape  into 
the  water,  as  in  that  case  the  rest  would  irresistibly  follow  and  precipitate  the 
huntsmen  along  with  them.  As  soon  as  the  walruses  have  been  driven  far 
enough  up  the  strand,  the  Aleuts  attack  them  with  their  lances,  striking  at 
them  in  places  where  the  hide  is  not  so  thick,  and  then  pressing  with  all  their 
might  against  the  spear,  to  render  the  wound  deep  and  deadly.  The  slaughter- 
ed animals  tumble  one  over  the  other  and  form  large  heaps,  whilst  the  hunts- 
men, uttering  furious  shouts  and  intoxicated  with  carnage,  wade  through  the 
bloody  mire.  They  then  cleave  the  jaws  and  extract  the  tusks,  which  are  the 
chief  objects  of  the  slaughter  of  several  thousand  walruses,  since  neither  their 
flesh  nor  their  fat  is  made  use  of  in  the  colony.  The  carcasses  are  left  on  the 
shore  to  be  washed  away  by  the  spring  tides,  which  soon  efface  the  mark  of  the 
massacre,  and  in  the  following  year  the  inexhaustible  north  sends  new  victims 
to  the  coast. 

Sir  George  Simpson,  in  his  "  Overland  Journey  round  the  World,"  relates 
that  the  bales  of  fur  sent  to  Kiachta  are  covered  with  walrus  hide ;  it  is  then 
made  to  protect  the  tea-chests  which  find  their  way  to  Moscow,  and  after  all 
these  wanderings,  the  far-travelled  skin  returns  again  to  New  Archangel,  where, 
cut  into  small  pieces  and  stamped  with  the  company's  mark,  it  serves  as  a  me- 
dium of  exchange. 

The  skin  of  the  sea-lion  {Otaria  Stelleri)  has  but  little  value  in  the  fur- 
trade,  as  its  hair  is  short  and  coarse,  but  in  many  other  respects  the  imwieldy 
animal  is  of  considerable  use  to  the  Aleut.  Its  hide  serves  to  cover  his  bai« 
dar ;  with  the  entrails  he  makes  his  water-tight  kamleika,  a  wide,  long  shirt 
which  he  puts  on  over  his  dress  to  protect  himself  against  the  rain  or  the 
spray ;  the  thick  webs  of  its  flippers  furnish  excellent  soles  for  his  boots,  and 
the  bristles  of  its  lip  figure  as  ornaments  in  his  head-dress. 


I 


ALASKA. 


277 


FOKT    ST.  MICHAEL. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

ALASKA. 


Purchase  of  Alaska  by  the  United  States. — The  Eussian  American  Telegraph  Scheme. — Wh3'mper's 
Trip  up  the  Yukon. — Dogs. — The  Start. — Extempore  Water-filter. — Snow-shoes. — The  Frozen  Yu- 
kon.— Under-ground  Houses. — Life  at  Nulato. — Cold  Weather. — Auroras. — Approach  of  Summer. 
— Breaking-up  of  the  Ice. — Fort  Yukon. — Furs. — Descent  of  the  Yukon. — Value  of  Goods. — Arctic 
and  Tropical  Life. — Moose-hunting. — Deer-corrals. — Lip  Ornaments.— Canoes. — Four-post  CofBn. 
— The  Kenaian  Indians. — The  Aleuts. — Value  of  Alaska. 

TN  1867  the  Russian  Government  sold  to  the  United  States  all  of  its  j^osses- 
-*-  sions  in  America,  comprising  an  area  of  more  than  500,000  square  miles,  equal 
in  extent  to  France,  Germany,  and  Great  Britain,  stretching  from  54°  40'  north 
latitude  to  the  i^rctic  Ocean.  The  sum  paid  was  about  seven  and  a  quarter 
millions  of  dollars.  In  this  purchase  is  included  Mount  St.  Elias,  the  highest 
peak  in  North  America,  rising  to  a  height  of  more  than  18,000  feet,  and  one  of 
the  loftiest  single  peaks  on  the  globe.  The  real  value  of  this  new  acquisition 
was  quite  unknown  to  both  buyer  and  seller.  In  the  southern  part,  and  on  the 
islands,  there  is  considerable  vegetation  and  forests  of  large  trees ;  and  it  is 
said  that  there  is  some  mineral  wealth.  But  the  greater  part  of  the  territory 
is  essentially  Arctic.  It  now  bears  the  designation  of  the  Territory  of  Alaska, 
an  ablpreviation  of  Aliaska,  the  name  of  the  peninsula  stretching  into  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean. 

Little  information  has  as  yet  been  gained  of  this  region.  The  most  impor- 
tant is  the  result  of  a  journey  up  the  River  Yukon,  performed  in  1S6G  by  j\Ir. 
Frederick  Whymper,  an  artist  connected  with  the  Telegraph  Expedition.  This 
telegraph  enterprise  was  undertaken  in  the  confident  expectation  that  the  ca- 


278  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

bles  laid  directly  across  the  Atlantic  Avould  fail,  and  that  telegraphic  communica- 
tions between  London  and  New  York  must  be  mainly  by  land.  The  proposed 
line,  starting  from  the  mouth  of  the  Amoor,  to  which  point  it  was  already  con- 
structed, should  bend  around  the  head  of  the  Sea  of  Okotsch,  thence  run  east- 
ward and  northward  through  Kamchatka  to  the  63d  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude, then  cross  the  narrow  Strait  of  Bering,  and  run  southward  through  what 
was  then  Russian  America,  British  Columbia,  Washington  Territory,  and  Ore- 
gon, to  San  Francisco ;  thence  across  the  American  continent  to  New  York. 
A  dispatch  from  London  to  New  York  by  this  route  would  travel  something 
more  than  25,000  miles,  while  the  distance  in  a  straight  line  across  the  Atlantic 
was  about  3000  miles.  The  company  undertaking  this  enterprise  had  survey- 
ed a  considerable  part  of  the  distance,  and  expended  some  millions  of  dollars, 
when  it  was  announced  that  the  Atlantic  cable  was  a  success,  and  the  work  was 
abandoned. 

In  the  mean  while  Mr.  Whyraper  undertook  a  trip  up  the  great  River  Yu- 
kon. This  is  essentially  an  Arctic  river,  though  its  mouth  is  far  southward  of 
the  Arctic  Circle.  It  is  probably  the  greatest  of  the  Arctic  rivers,  and  in  length 
and  volume  of  water  is  exceeded  by  not  moi'e  than  six  rivers  of  the  globe. 

The  party  of  which  Mr.  Whymper  was  one  consisted  of  six  Europeans  and 
three  Indians.  In  October,  1865,  they  started  from  Unalachleet,  on  Norton 
Sound.  A  trip  of  200  miles  would  bring  them  to  Nulato,  a  Russian  trading- 
post  700  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  which  here  runs  almost  parallel 
with  the  coast. 

They  were  to  travel  on  foot  over  frozen  rivers  and  through  deep  snow.  To 
convey  their  Supplies  they  had  four  "feledges,  each  drawn  by  five  dogs.  Such  a 
team  will  draw  about  350  pounds.  The  dogs  of  this  region  are  not  of  a  good 
class.  Mr.  Whymper  thinks  they  have  in  them  quite  as  much  of  the  wolf  as  of 
the  dog.  Their  usual  food  is  fish ;  their  regular  daily  allowance  in  winter  is  a 
dried  salmon  a  day :  in  summer  they  are  expected  to  fish  for  themselves.  They 
will,  however,  eat  almost  any  thing,  and,  if  they  can  get  enough,  will  grow  fat 
upon  it.  They  even  took  kindly  to  beans,  provided  they  were  boiled  soft— a 
thing  which  Kane  could  never  induce  his  Esquimaux  dogs  to  undertake. 

They  set  out  on  the  27th  of  October  at  11  o'clock— that  is,  just  after  sun- 
rise—the thermometer  standing  at  30°  below  freezing-point.  Their  trip  was 
begun  a  little  too  early,  for  the  deep  snow  had  not  become  packed  hard,  and  a 
bit  of  thaw  would  transform  it  into  slush";  and  the  streams  which  they  had  to 
cross  were  not  all  frozen  over.  Fortunately,  they  had  a  light  skin  boat,  which 
not  only  stood  them  in  good  stead  now,  but  served  them  afterwards  for  more 
than  a  thousand  miles  of  winter  travel.  Whenever  they  came  to  a  frozen 
stream,  the  Indians  would  break  a  hole  through  the  ice  to  get  a  draught  of 
water.  They  always  filled  up  the  hole  with  loose  snow,  through  which  they 
sucked  the  water.  This  they  said  was  to  filter  out  the  little  red  worms  with 
which  they  said  the  water  was  infested. 

The  travellers  wore  snow-shoes  ;  the  use  of  which,  although  indispensable  in 
going  over  the  soft  snow,  is  very  fatiguing,  obliging  the  wearers  to  lift  a  dozen 
])Ounds  of  snow  at  every  step.     Sometimes  they  had  to  break  a  path  for  the 


ALASKA. 


279 


sledges.  The  men  would  go  on  ahead  for  a  space,  then  return  and  start  on 
again,  thus  traversing  the  distance  three  times.  Often  they  could  not  accoin- 
plish  more  than  ten  miles  a  day. 


At  noon  on  the  11th  of  November,  a  fortnight  after  starting,  they  caught 
in  the  distance  a  glimpse  of  a  faint  bluish  streak,  varying  the  white  monotony 


280  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

of  the  scene.  This  they  knew  marked  the  course  of  the  great  river  towards 
which  they  were  tending.  Pushing  eagerly  on,  at  sunset  they  broke  out  of  the 
woods,  shot  down  a  steep  bank,  and  stood  on  an  immense  plain  of  snow-covered 
ice.  It  was  the  Yukon,  frozen  solidly  over  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  except 
that  here  and  there  was  a  faint  streak  of  open  water.  From  bank  to  bank  the 
distance  was  more  than  a  mile,  and  this  they  afterwards  found  was  the  normal 
breadth  of  the  river  for  seven  hundred  miles  below,  and  a  thousand  miles  above. 
Not  unf requently  it  spread  out  into  broad  lagoons  four  or  five  miles  wide.  The 
Yukon  is  one  of  the  great  rivers  of  the  globe.  In  length  and  volume  of  water 
it  is  exceeded  only  by  the  Amazon,  the  Mississippi,  and  perhaps  the  Plata.  It 
exceeds  the  Nile,  the  Ganges,  the  Volga,  the  Amoor,  and  has  affluents  to  which 
the  Rhine  and  Rhone  are  but  brooks.  It  rises  far  within  the  British  Posses- 
sions, and  its  head-waters  almost  interlock  with  those  of  the  Mackenzie,  which 
empties  into  the  Arctic  Ocean.  A  portage  of  only  eighty  miles  intervenes  be- 
tween these  rivers  at  points  where  each  is  navigable  for  boats  forty  feet  long, 
and  drawing  two  feet  of  water.  Over  this  portage  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
transport  upon  men's  backs  the  goods  for  trading  with  the  Indians  on  the  Up- 
per Yukon.  Mr.  Whymper  thinks  that  a  flat-bottomed  stern-wheel  steamer, 
like  those  used  on  the  Upper  Mississippi,  could  ascend  the  Yukon  for  eighteen 
hundred  miles,  and  tap  the  whole  fur-bearing  region.  But  as  the  river  is  frozen 
solid  for  eio-ht  months  out  of  the  twelve,  the  steamer  could  hardly  make  more 
than  one  trip  a  year. 

The  travellers  stopped  two  days  at  the  Indian  winter  village  of  Coltog.  The 
houses  were  built  mainly  under-ground.  First,  a  little  shanty  is  put  up,  under 
which  a  hole  like  a  w^ell  is  dug  ;  thence  a  branch  like  a  sewer  runs  some  yards, 
alon^  which  one  must  crawl  on  hands  and  knees  to  reach  the  proper  dwelling, 


^-ft-^ 


which  is  a  square  hole  in  the  earth,  over  which  is  raised  a  low  dome-shaped 
roof,  with  a  hole  in  the  top  to  let  out  the  smoke  of  the  fire,  which  is  built  di- 
rectly underneath.  When  the  fire  gets  low  the  smoke-hole  is  covered  with  a 
skin,  which  keeps  in  not  only  the  heat  but  the  manifold  scents  engendered  by 
the  crowded  occupancy.  The  slight  heat  from  below  makes  the  roof  a  favorite 
trysting-place  for  the  dogs,  and  every  now  and  then  one  comes  tumbling  down 
through  the  smoke-hole  upon  the  fire  below,  adding  the  odor  of  singed  hair  to 
those  arising  from  stale  fish,  old  skin  garments,  and  other  unnamable  abomina- 
tions. Coltog  is  a  rather  favorable  sample  of  an  Indian  winter  village  in  Alaska. 
From  Coltog  the  travellers  proceeded  up  the  river  two  days'  journey  to  Nu- 
lato,  the  most  northern  and  most  inland  of  the  Russian  Company's  fur-posts. 


ALASKA. 


281 


It  stands  in  latitude  65°,  and  longitude  158°,  ni^on  a  level  slip  of  land  bounded 
on  two  sides  by  the  great  river  and  one  of  its  main  branches.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  high  latitude,  trees  of  considerable  size  grow  there,  and  during  the  brief 
summer  the  grass  is  luxuriant,  and  berries  abound.  The  i)ost  is  a  little  fortress, 
surrounded  by  a  picket,  which  is  closed  at  night  to  exclude  the  Indians,  .who 
camp  around  in  large  numbers.  The  house  appropriated  to  the  travellers  was 
built  of  logs,  forming  one  side  of  the  little  square.  The  windows  were  of  seal- 
gut  instead  of  glass ;  and  as  there  is  during  the  winter  only  two  or  three  hours 
of  daylight,  the  light  was  never  any  of  the  best.  By  caulking  the  floor  with 
moss,  and  carpeting  it  with  skins,  the  main  room  was  kept  comfortably  warm, 
except  near  the  floor.  If  one  hung  a  damp  garment  from  the  rafters  it  would 
steam  at  the  top,  while  frozen  stiff  at  the  bottom.  The  temperature  at  the 
roof  was  sometimes  65°,  wdiile  near  the  floor  it  was  4°.  Water,  for  daily  use 
was  hauled  on  a  sledge  from  the  river.  To  get  at  it,  they  were  obliged  to 
break  through  solid  ice  four  feet  thick.  Nevertheless,  the  Indians  contrive  to 
catch  immense  quantities  of  fish  by  constructing  a  weir  of  wicket-work,  and 
keeping  holes  open  in  the  ice. 


-^^^ 


ll^H    lltVl'>   ON    THE    \IK0N. 


Winter  fairly  set  in  soon  after  the  party  had  taken  up  their  abode  at  Nulato. 
On  the  2d  of  November  the  thermometer  indicated  the  moderate  temperature  of 
2°  above  zero.  It  suddenly  fell  to  20°  below  zero,  and  kept  on  steadily  falling 
imtil  the  5th  of  December,  when  it  sunk  to  58°  below  zero,  that  is,  ninety  de- 
grees below  the  freezing-point  of  water.  This  was  the  coldest  day,  but  there 
were  during  December  and  January  eleven  days  when  the  thermometer  sunk 
below  the  freezing-point  of  mercury.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  after  a  certain 
point  the  human  system  seems  to  take  little  additional  note  of  the  temperature 
as  indicated  by  the  thermometer.  ,.  When  the  mercury  froze,  72°  below  the 
freezing-point  of  water,  it  did  not  seem  very  cold,  provided  there  was  no  wind ; 
while  one  day  when  the  thermometer  was  44°  higher,  we  find  this  note  :  "  A 
north  wind  blew,  and  made  us  feel  the  cold  very  decidedly.  It  is  wonderful 
how  searching  the  wind  is  in  this  northern  climate  ;  each  little  seam,  slit,  or 


283  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

tear  in  your  fur  or  woollen  clothing  makes  you  aware  of  its  existence,  and 
one's  nose,  ears,  and  angles  generally  are  the  special  sufferers."  One  day  when 
the  thermometer  stood  at  10°,  an  expedition  started  off  for  the  coast :  and  once 
when  it  was  at  32°,  a  half-clad  Indian  came  to  the  post  witli  his  child,  no  better 


clad,  bringing  some  game ;  he  did  not  seem  tu  think  the  day  remai'kably  cold. 
The  shortest  day  of  the  Avinter  was  December  21,  when  the  sun  was  an  hour 
and  fifty  minutes  above  the  horizon. 

During  the  winter  Mr.  Whymper  made  many  capital  sketches  out-of-doors, 
while  the  temperature  was  sixty  degrees  below  freezing-point.     Among  these 


ALASKA. 


is  a  remarkable  aurora  borealis  on  the  21st  of  December.     It  was  not  the  con- 
ventional arch,  but  a  graceful,  undulating,  ever-changing  snake  of  pale  electric 


light ;  evanescent  colors,  pale  as  those  of  a  lunar  rainbow,  ever  and  again  flit- 
ting through  it,  and  long  streamers  and  scintillations  moving  upward  to  the 
bright  stars,  which  shone  distinctly  through  its  hazy  ethereal  form.     The  night 


♦ 


284  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

was  beautifully  calm  and  clear;  cold,  but  not  intensely  so,  the  thermometer 
standing  at  +16°. 

So  passed  the  long  winter  months.  Early  in  April  there  came  signs  of  sum- 
mer— for  in  the  Arctic  regions  there  is  properly  no  spring  or  autumn.  On  the 
9th  flies  made  their  appearance.  Next  day  the  willows  were  seen  budding. 
But  for  another  fortnight  the  weather  was  variable.  On  the  28th  the  first 
goose  put  in  his  appearance.  But  for  another  fortnight  the  ice  in  the  river  re- 
mained unbroken.  The  first  sign  of  breaking  up  was  on  the  12th  of  May. 
That  day  mosquitoes  showed  themselves.  Next  day  came  swallows  and  wild 
geese  in  abundance.  Still  anothei:  fortnight,  during  which  a  steady  stream  o^f 
broken  ice  came  down,  bearing  with  it  whole  trees  torn  up  from  the  banks. 
On  the  24th  of  May  the  river  was  tolerably  clear  of  ice. 

The  Russians  had  already  got  ready  for  a  trading-excursion  up  the  Yukon 
to  an  Indian  trading-place  240  miles  above,  the  farthest  point  ever  visited  by 
them.  They  had  a  huge  skin  boat,  fitted  with  mast  and  sail,  manned  by  eight 
men,  carrying,  besides  men  and  provisions,  two  tons  of  goods.  The  Americans 
went  with  them,  though  meaning  to  go  far  beyond.  They  had  their  own  little 
boat,  laden  with  six  or  seven  hundred  pounds  of  stores  of  all  kinds.  The  river 
was  still  full  of  ice  and  drift-Avood.  A  large  tree  would  sometimes  pass  under 
the  bow  of  the  Russian  boat,  and  fairly  lift  it  out  of  the  water.  These  skin 
boats  seem  to  be  the  best  of  all  for  this  kind  of  navigation.  They  give  way 
without  harm  to  a  blow  which  would  break  through  a  bark  canoe. 

One  can  scarcely  conceive  the  rapidity  with  which  summer  comes  on  in 
these  regions.  On  the  2'7th  of  May  the  river  was  yet  full  of  ice.  Ten  days 
after  they  had  to  lie  by  dui-ing  the  noontide  heat,  the  thermometer  standing  at 
80°  in  the  shade. 

The  Americans  Veached  Fort  Yukon  on  the  9th  of  June,  having,  in  twenty- 
nine  days,  rowed  and  tracked  six  hundred  miles.  A  few  weeks  later,  with  the 
current  in  their  favor,  they  descended  the  same  space  in  seven  days.  Fort  Yu- 
kon lies  a  little  within  what  Avas  formerly  Russian  America,  and  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  paid  a  small  sum  for  the  privilege  of  its  occupancy.  Here  the 
Americans  remained  a  month,  being  hospitably  entertained.  The  fort  had 
quite  a  civilized  look.  There  were  freshly-plastered  walls,  glazed  windows, 
open  fireplaces,  magazines,  store  -  houses,  and  a  great  fur-room.  Camped 
around  were  Indians  of  many  tribes,  locally  designated  as  "  Foolish  Folks," 
"  Wood  Folks,"  "  Birch-bark  Folks,"  "  Rat  Folks,"  "  Hill  Folks,"  and  the  like. 
Some  wore  their  native  costumes  ;  others  were  tricked  out  in  the  odds  and 
ends  of  civilized  attire.  The  fur-room  was  a  rare  sight.  From  the  beams 
hung  marten-skins  by  the  thousand,  while  the  cheaper  sorts  were  lying  in  huge 
heaps  on  the  floor.  Skins  are  here  the  regular  currency.  The  beaver  is  the 
unit,  estimated  at  about  half  a  dollar.  Two  martens  count  as  one  beaver,  and 
so  on  by  a  recognized  scale.  Fox-skins  are  numerous.  The  most  valuable  is 
that  of  the  black  fox,  worth  twenty  times  more  than  any  other.  There  is  a  story 
that  an  unlucky  employe  of  the  company  once  bought  the  skin  of  a  white  fox, 
Avhich  the  Indian  seller  had  cunningly  dyed  black,  paying  fi^r  it  more  pounds 
than  he  should  have  paid  shillings.     The  overplus  Avas  deducted  from  his  salary. 


ALASKA. 


On  the  8th  of  July  the  travellers  started  on  their  return  journey,  under  a 
salute  from  their  hospitable  hosts.  They  canoed  down  the  river  day  and  night, 
only  stopping  two  or  three  times  a  day  to  prepare  their  tea  and  cook  their  fish.' 
It  was  a  holiday  excursion,  the  current  sweeping  them  along  at  the  rate  of  four 


miles  an  hour.  Once,  by  aid  of  rowing,  they  made  forty-five  miles  in  seven 
hours.  They  followed  the  river  clear  to  its  mouth.  For  the  seven  hundred 
miles  below  Nulato,  near  where  they  had  struck  the  river  on  their  upward 
journey,  the  region  is  comparatively  poor.  It  lies  out  of  the  way  of  traders ; 
fish  are  plenty  and  cheap  enough.     Five  needles  were  considered  a  fair  price 


THE  POLAB  -WORLD. 
^  M     Whvmpev,  "  lolwcco  wont  farther 

f„,  a  lldv.v-ro."Kl  -""""•'  ^'"!'  ?':i  ■;;     On  Z23a  of  July  tl,ey  reached 
L  we  baVevev  known  it  to  do  ^  J^        ^^^  ^„^,,  „,„„gU  the,,,  to 
(,,, „vivcr,  whence  two  (la\s  ™''=    '            j-o,.t  Yukon  and  St. 
the  mouth  of  *« -- ■        ^„,„g,  of  wop  ,n,lcs  between  Fo, 
St.  ISIicliael  s.     i »«  "■  •  


^„..V»  had  t^en  ^^^  ^^  ^^I^d^:^  a,^'^-^^  ^"^ 

that  the  telegraphrc  ente,l„se 


ALASKA. 


Arctic  regions.  It  confirms  what  lias  been  told  us  by  Richardson,  Kane,  Ilall, 
and  all  other  Arctic  explorers  as  to  the  superabundance  of  animal  life  existing 
in  certain  seasons  in  the  northern  regions.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  tropical 
and  semi-tropical  countries  are  almost  bare  of  living  creatures.  Strain  and  his 
pai-ty  wandered  for  weeks  through  the  thick  forests  of  Central  America,  never 
seeing  an  animal,  and  rarely  a  bird,  and  the  river  appeared  to  be  almost  destitute 
of  fish.  But  life  abounds  in  the  Arctic  regions.  The  rivers  swarm  with  fish 
almost  begging  to  be  caught.  The  Kamchatdales  have  reindeer  by  the  thou- 
sand. Whymper  and  his  friends,  during  their  brief  stay  at  Nulato,  bought 
the  skins  of  eight  hundred  white  hares  with  which  to  cover  their  blankets  ;  the 
Indians  had  used  the  flesh  for  food.  Moose-meat,  varied  by  beaver,  is  the 
standing  food  of  those  who  have  got  tired  of  salmon.  The  delicacies  are  a 
moose's  nose  and  a  beaver's  tail.  So  abundant  are  the  moose  on  the  Yukon 
that)  the  natives  think  it  hardly  worth  while  to  waste  powder  and  shot  in  kill- 
ing them.  When  an  Indian  in  his  canoe  comes  upon  a  moose  swimming  in 
the  water,  he  gives  chase  until  the  creature  is  fatigued,  and  then  stabs  it  to  the 
heart  with  his  knife.  They  have  also  an  ingenious  way  of  corralling  deer. 
They  build  a  long  elliptical  inclosure  of  stakes  upon  a  trail  made  by  the  deer. 
Between  each  pair  of  stakes  is  a  slip-noose.     A  herd  of  deer  is  driven  into  this 

inclosure;  they  try  to  run  out  be- 
tween the  stakes,  get  caught  by  the 
nooses,  and  so  fall  a  ready  prey  to  the 
guns  of  the  hunters. 

The  native  population  of  Alaska 
is  estimated  at  about  60,000.  From 
the  southern  boundary  wp  to  Mount 
St.  Elias  and  on  the  islands  live  the 
Koloschians,  estimated  at  20,000. 
They  are  of  niiddliug  stature,  of 
copper-colored  complexion,  Avith  round 
faces,  thick  lips,  and  black  hair.  The 
men  wear  various  ornaments  in  their 
ears  and  noses ;  the  Avomen,  when 
young,  insert  a  piece  of  ivory  in  a  slit 
made  in  the  under  lip,  increasing  it  in 
size  from  year  to  year,  until  at  last  the 
ornament  gets  to  be  four  inches  wide, 
projecting  six  inches  from  the  side  of 
the  face.  The  baidars  or  canoes  of 
tli^  Koloschians  are  dug  out  of  a  single  tree,  and  Avill  carry  from  twelve  to 
fifty  persons.  They  are  usually  propelled  by  paddles,  though  upon  long  voy- 
ages they  are  rigged  with  two  or  more  masts  and  sails  of  matting  or  canvas. 
They,  and  indeed  all  of  the  tribes,  do  not  bury  their  dead,  but  deposit  their 
remains  in  an  oblong  box  raised  upon  posts,  with  the  canoe  and  other  pos- 
sessions of  the  deceased  over  the  box. 

Next  northward  of  the  Koloschians  come  the  Kenaians,  who  stretch  almost 


LIP  OKNAMENTS. 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


iicross  the  continent  to  Hudson's  Bay.  Those  living  upon  the  Yukon  call  them 
Co-yukons,  that  is,  People  of  the  Great  River,  "  Yukon  "  in  their  language  sig- 
nifying river.     They  are  much  feared  by  the  surrounding  tribes,  and  have  often 


given  no  little  trouble  to  their  Russian  masters.     Many  of  these  wear  a  bone 
ornament  stuck  through  the  septum  of  the  nose. 


ALASKA. 


289 


TANANA  INDIAN. 


The  Aleuts,  who  inhabit  the  Aleutian  Islands  are,  to  a  considerable  extent,  of 
mixed  blood,  Russian  and  Koloschian.  They  have  advanced  in  civilization  far 
beyond  any  other  of  the  Esquimaux  race.  Not  a  few  of  them  have  received  a 
fair  education,  and  among  the  priests  of  the  Greek  Church  there  are  not  a  few 
who  go  through  the  service  of  the  church  in  the  Greek  language,  with  a  full 
understanding  of  the  words  of  the  service. 

Quite  nine-tenths  of  the  whole  territory  of  Alaska  is  purely  Arctic,  and  is 
not  only  uninhabited  but  uninhabitable.  The  other  tenth  is  now  sparsely  in- 
habited, and  there  is  little  reason  to  suppose  that  the  population  will  ever  be 
greatly  beyond  its  present  number.  Except  in  special  cases,  the  possible  popu- 
lation of  a  country  is  measured  by  its  agricultural  capacity.  Leaving  out  of 
view  the  extreme  northern  parts  of  Alaska,  the  best  accounts  as  yet  accessible 
show  that  at  St.  Michael's  lettuce,  parsnips,  and  turnips  can  be  raised  by  sowing 
them  in  beds.  At  Fort  Yukon  potatoes  not  much  larger  than  cherries  can  be 
raised.  At  Sitka  potatoes  will  grow  a  little  larger.  On  some  of  the  islands 
the  inhabitants  can  even  venture  upon  barley.  The  forest-trees,  which  flourish 
in  isolated  parts,  will  soon  be  exhausted,  as  far  as  any  profitable  use  of  them  is 
concerned.  Fish  and  furs  constitute  almost  the  sole  value  of  Alaska.  Tlie 
fisheries  are  among  the  most  valuable  in  the  world.  The  furs  will  soon  be  ex- 
hausted, unless  prompt  measures  are  taken  to  prevent  the  capture  of  fur-bearing 
animals  in  the  breeding  season. 

19 


290  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 


CHAPTER  XXYII. 

THE  ESQUIMAUX. 

Their  wide  Extension. —  Climate  of  the  Regions  they  inhabit. —  Their  physical  Appearance. — Their 
Dress.— Snow  Huts. — The  Kayak,  or  tlie  Baidar. — Hunting  Apparatus  and  Weapons. — Enmity  be- 
tween the  Esquimaux  and  the  Red  Indian. — The  "  Blood)'  Falls.  " — Chase  of  the  Reindeer. — Bird- 
catching. — Whale-hunting. — Various  Stratagems  employed  to  catch  the  Seal. — The  "  Keep-kuttuli." 
— Bear-hunting. —  Walrus-hunting.^- Awaklok  and  Myouk. —  The  Esquimaux  Dog. — Games  and 
Sports. — Angelioks. —  Moral  Character. —  Self-reliance. — Intelligence. — Iligliuk. —  Commercial  Ea- 
gerness of  the  Esquimaux. — Their  Voracity. — Seasons  of  Distress. 

OF  all  the  uncivilized  nations  of  the  globe  none  range  over  a  wider  space 
than  the  Esquimaux,  whose  various  tribes  extend  from  Greenland  and 
Labrador,  over  all  the  coasts  of  Arctic  America,  to  the  Aleutic  chain  and  the  ex- 
treme north-eastern  point  of  Asia.  Many  are  independent,  others  subject  to 
the  Russian,  Danish,  or  British  rule.  In  Baffin's  Bay  and  Lancaster  Sound  they 
accost  the  whale-fisher ;  they  meet  him  in  the  Icy  Sea  beyond  Bering's  Straits ; 
and  while  their  most  southerly  tribes  dwell  as  low  as  the  latitude  of  Vienna, 
others  sojourn  as  high  as  the  80th  degree  of  northern  latitude,  and  probably 
roam  even  still  higher  on  the  still  undiscovered  coasts  beyond — a  nearness  to 
the  pole  no  other  race  is  known  to  reach. 

The  old  Scandinavian  settlers  in  Greenland  expressed  their  dislike  for  them 
in  the  contemptuous  name  of  Skraelingers  (screamers  or  wretches) ;  the  seamen 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  ships,  who  trade  annually  with  the  natives  of  Northern  Lab- 
rador and  the  Savage  Islands,  have  long  called  them  "  Seymos "  or  "  Sucke- 
raos,"  names  evidently  derived  from  the  cries  of  "  Seymo,"  or  "  Teymo,"  with 
which  they  greet  the  arrival  of  the  ships ;  they  speak  of  theiuselves  simply  as 
"  Inuit,"  or  men. 

With  few  exceptions  the  whole  of  the  vast  region  they  inhabit  lies  beyond 
the  extremest  limits  of  forest  growth,  in  the  most  desolate  and  inhospitable 
countries  of  the  globe.  The  rough  winds  of  the  Polar  Sea  almost  perpetually 
blow  over  their  bleak  domains,  and  thus  only  a  few  plants  of  the  hardest  na- 
ture—lichens and  mosses,  grasses,  saxifragas,  and  willows — are  able  to  subsist 
there,  and  to  afford  a  scanty  supply  of  food  to  a  few  land  animals  and  birds. 
Ill  indeed  would  it  fare  with  the  Esquimaux,  if  they  were  reduced  to  live  upon 
the  niggardly  produce  of  the  soil ;  but  the  sea,  with  its  cetaceans  and  fishes, 
amply  provides  for  their  wants.  Thus  they  are  never  found  at  any  considera- 
ble distance  from  the  ocean,  and  they  line  a  considerable  part  of  the  coasts 
of  the  Arctic  seas  without  ever  visiting  the  interior. 

It  may  easily  be  supposed  that  a  race  whose  eastern  branches  have  for  sev- 
eral centuries  been  under  the  influence  of  the  Danes  and  English,  while  in  the 
extreme  west  it  has  long  been  forced  to  submit  to  Russian  tyranny,  and  whose 
central  and   northern   tribes  rarely  come   into   contact  with  Europeans,  must 


THE  ESQUIMAUX.  291 

show  some  variety  in  its  manners  and  mode  of  life,  and  tliat  the  same  descrip- 
tion is  not  applicable  in  all  points  to  the  disciples  of  the  Moravian  brothers  in 
Labrador  or  Greenland,  to  the  Greek-Catholic  Aleuts,  and  to  the  far  more  nu- 
merous heathen  Esquimaux  of  continental  America,  or  of  the  vast  archipelago 
beyond  its  northern  shores.  Upon  the  whole,  however,  it  is  curious  to  observe- 
how  exactly,  amidst  all  diversity  of  time  and  place,  these  people  have  preserved 
unaltered  their  habits  and  manners.  The  broad,  flat  face,  widest  just  below  the 
eyes,  the  forehead  generally  narrow  and  tapering  upward ;  the  eyes  narrow  and 
more  or  less  oblique  ;  all  indicate  a  Mongol  or  Tartar  type,  differing  greatly 
from  the  features  of  the  conterminous  Red  Indian  tribes.  Their  complexion, 
when  relieved  from  smoke  and  dirt,  also  approaches  more  nearly  to  white  than 
that  of  their  copper-colored  neighbors.  Most  of  the  men  are  rather  under  the 
medium  English  size,  but  they  can  not  be  said  to  be  a  dwarfish  race.  Thus 
Simpson  saw  in  Camden  Bay  three  Esquimaux  who  measured  from  five  feet 
ten  inches  to  six  feet ;  and  among  the  natives  of  Smith  Strait,  Kane,  a  rather 
short  man,  met  with  one  a  foot  taller  than  himself.  The  females,  however,  are 
all  comparatively  short.  The  Esquimaux  are  all  remarkably  broad-shouldered, 
and  though  their  muscles  are  not  so  firm  as  those  of  the  European  seamen,  yet 
they  surpass  in  bodily  strength  all  the  other  natives  of  America.  In  both  sexes 
the  hands  and  feet  are  remarkably  small  and  well-formed.  From  exercise  in 
hunting  the  seal  and  walrus,  the  muscles  of  the  arms  and  back  are  much  devel- 
oped in  the  men,  who  are  moreover  powerful  wrestlers.  When  young,  the  Es- 
quimaux looks  cheerful  and  good-humored,  and  the  females  exhibit,  when  laugh- 
ing, a  set  of  very  white  teeth.  Could  they  be  induced  to  wash  their  faces, 
many  of  these  savage  beauties  Avould  be  found  to  possess  a  complexion  scarcely 
a  shade  darker  than  that  of  a  deep  brunette ;  but  though  disinclined  to  ablu- 
tions, for  which  the  severity  of  their  climate  may  serve  as  an  excuse,  they  are 
far  from  neglecting  the  arts  of  the  toilette. 

Unlike  the  Hare  Indian  and  Dog-Rib  females,  in  whom  the  hard  rule  of  their 
lords  and  masters  has  obliterated  every  trace  of  female  vanity,  the  Esquimaux 
women  tastefully  plait  their  straight, black,  and  glossy  hair;  and  hence  we  may 
infer  that  greater  deference  is  paid  to  them  by  the  men.  They  also  generally 
tattoo  their  chin,  forehead,  and  cheeks,  not,  liowever,  as  in  the  South  Sea  Isl- 
ands, with  elaborate  patterns,  but  with  a  few  simple  lines,  which  have  a  not  un- 
pleasing  elfect. 

From  Bering's  Straits  eastward  as  far  as  the  Mackenzie,  the  males  pierce 
the  lower  lip  near  each  angle  of  the  mouth,  and  filb  the  apertures  with  labrets 
of  blue  or  green  quartz,  or  of  ivory  resembling  buttons.  Many  also  pierce  the 
septum  of  the  nose,  and  insert  a  dentalium  shell  or  ivory  needle.  Like  the  Red 
Indians,  they  are  fond  of  beads,  but  their  most  common  ornament  consists  in 
strings  of  teeth  of  the  fox,  wolf,  or  musk-ox — sometimes  many  hundreds  in 
number — which  are  either  attached  to  the  lower  part  of  the  jacket,  or  fastened 
as  a  belt  round  the  waist. 

Their  dress  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  severity  of  their  climate.  With 
their  two  pair  of  breeches  made  of  reindeer  or  seal  skin,  the  outer  one  liaving 
the  hair  outside  and  the  inner  one  next  the  body,  and  their  two  jacket's — of 


393  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

which  the  uppei-  one  is  provided  with  a  great  hood — with  their  water-tight 
seal-skin  boots,  lined  with  the  downy  skins  of  birds,  and  their  enormous  gloves, 
they  bid  defiance  to  the  severest  cold,  and  even  in  the  hardest  weather  pursue 
their  occupations  in  the  oj^en  air  whenever  the  moon  is  in  the  sky,  or  during 
the  doubtful  meridian  twilight.  The  women  are  perfect  in  the  art  of  making 
water-tight  shirts,  or  "  kamleikas,"  of  the  entrails  of  the  seal  or  walrus,  which 
in  summer  serve  to  replace  their  heavy  skin  jackets.  They  also  sew  their  boots 
so  tight  that  not  the  slightest  wet  can  penetrate,  and  with  a  neatness  of 
which  the  best  shoemaker  in  Europe  might  be  proud.  The  dress  of  the  two 
sexes  is  much  alike,  the  outer  jacket  having  a  pointed  skirt  before  and  behind, 
but  that  of  the  females  is  a  little  longer.  The  women  also  wear  larger  hoods, 
iu  which  they  carry  their  children  ;  and  sometimes  (as  in  Labrador)  the  inner 
boot  has  in  front  a  long,  pointed  flap,  to  answer  the  same  purpose. 

The  Esquimaux  are  equally  expert  in  the  construction  of  their  huts.  As 
soon  as  the  lengthening  days  induce  the  tribes  about  Cajje  Bathurst  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  to  move  seaward  on  the  ice  to  the  seal-hunt,  a  marvel- 
lous system  of  architecture  comes  into  use,  unknown  among  any  other  Ameri- 
can nations.  The  fine  pure  snow  has  by  that  time  acquired,  under  the  action 
of  the  winds  and  frosts,  sufficient  coherence  to  form  an  admirable  light  build- 
ing material,  which  the  Esquimaux  skillfully  employ  for  the  erection  of  most 
comfortable  dome-shaj^ed  houses.  A  circle  is  first  traced  on  the  smooth  sur- 
face of  the  snow,  and  slabs  for  raising  the  walls  cut  from  within,  so-  as  to  clear 
a  space  down  to  the  ice,  which  is  to  form  the  floor  of  the  dwelling,  and  whose 
evenness  was  previously  ascertained  by  probing.  The  slabs  for  the  dome  are 
cut  from  some  neighboring  spot.  The  crevices  between  the  slabs  are  plugged 
up,  and  the  seams  closed,  by  throwing  a  few  shovelfuls  of  loose  snow  over  the 
fabric.  Two  men  generally  Avork  togethei",  and  when  the  dome  is  completed 
the  one  within  cuts  a  low  door  and  creeps  out.  The  walls  being  only  three  or 
four  inches  thick,  admit  a  veiy  agreeable  light,  which  serves  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses ;  if  more  is  required,  a  window  of  transparent  ice  is  introduced.  The 
proper  thickness  of  the  walls  is  of  some  importance ;  one  of  a  few  inches  ex- 
cludes the  wind,  yet  keeps  down  the  damp  so  as  to  prevent  dripping  from  the 
interior.  The  furniture  of  this  crystal  hut  is  also  formed  of  snow  (the  seats, 
the  table,  the  sleeping-places),  and,  when  covered  with  skins,  is  very  comfort- 
able. By  means  of  antechambers  and  porches,  with  the  opening  turned  to  lee- 
ward, warmth  is  insured,  and  social  intercourse  facilitated  by  contiguous  build- 
ing, doors  of  communication,  and  covered  passages.  By  constant  practice  the 
Esquimaux  can  raise  such  huts  almost  as  quickly  as  we  could  pitch  a  tent. 
When  M'Clintock  for  a  few  nails  hired  four  Esquimaux  to  build  a  hut  for  his 
party,  they  completed  it  in  an  hour,  though  it  was  eight  feet  in  diameter  and 
five  and  a  half  feet  high. 

In  spite  of  its  fragile  materials,  this  snow-house  is  durable,  for  the  wind  has 
little  effect  on  its  dome-like  form,  and  it  resists  the  thaw  until  the  sun  acquires 
a  very  considerable  power.  Of  course  a  strong  fire  could  not  possibly  be  made 
within,  but  such  is  not  needed  by  the  Esquimaux.  The  train-oil  lamp  suffices 
to  dry  his  wet  clothes  and  boots  when  he  returns  from  hunting ;  and  the  crowd- 


THE  ESQUIMAUX.  293 

ing  c^  the  inmates  engenders  a  sufficiently  high  temperature  to  keep  liim 
warm.  Having  also  a  decided  predilection  for  raw  flesh  and  fat,  he  requires 
no  great  expenditure  of  fuel  to  cook  his  dinner.  The  lower  part  of  his  dwell- 
ing being  under  the  surface  of  the  snow,  likewise  proiuotes  its  warmth. 

But  of  whatever  materials  the  hut  of  the  Esquimaux  may  be  constructed— 
of  snow,  as  I  have  just  described,  or,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  of  stones,  or 
earth,  or  drift-wood — everywhere,  from  Bering's  Straits  to  Smith  Sound,  it  is 
equally  well  adapted  to  the  climate  and  to  circumstances.  Thus  when  Dr. 
Scoresby  landed  in  1822  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Greenland,  he  discovered  some 
deserted  Esquimaux  huts,  which  gave  proof  both  of  the  severity  of  the  cli- 
mate, and  of  the  ingenuity  evinced  in  counteracting  its  rigors.  A  horizontal 
tunnel  about  fifteen  feet  long,  and  so  low  as  to  render  it  necessary  to  creep 
through  on  hands  and  feet,  opens  with  one  end  to  the  south,  and  leads  through 
the  other  into  the  interior  of  the  hut.  This  rises  but  little  above  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  and,  as  it  is  generally  overgrown  with  moss  or  grass,  is  scarcely 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  neighboring  soil.  The  floor  of  the  tunnel  is  fre- 
quently on  a  level  with  that  of  the  hut,  but  often  also  it  is  made  to  slant  down- 
ward and  upward,  so  that  the  colder,  and  consequently  heavier,  air  without  is 
still  more  effectually  kept  off  from  the  warmer  air  within ;  and  thus  the  Esqui- 
maux, without  ever  having  studied  physics,  make  a  practical  use  of  one  of  its 
fundamental  laws.  But  their  most  ingenious  invention  is  unquestionably  that 
of  the  one-seated  boat,  the  "  kayak,"  or  the  "  baidar."  A  light,  long,  and  nar- 
row frame  of  wood,  or  seal  or  walrus  bone,  is  covered  water-tight  with  seal- 
skin, leaving  but  one  circular  hole  in  the  middle.  In  this  the  Esquimaux  sits 
with  outstretched  legs,  and  binds  a  sack  (which  is  formed  of  the  intestines  of 
the  whale,  or  of  the  skins  of  young  seals,  and  fits  in  the  opening)  so  tightly 
round  his  middle,  that  even  in  a  heavy  sea  not  a  drop  of  water  can  penetrate 
into  the  boat.  Striking  with  his  light  oar  (which  is  paddled  at  each  extrem- 
ity) alternately  to  the  right  and  to  the  left,  his.  spear  or  harpoon  before  him, 
and  maintaining  his  equilibrium  with  all  the  dexterity  of  a  rope-dancer,  he  flies 
like  an  arrow  over  the  water ;  and  should  a  wave  upset.him,  he  knows  how  to 
right  himself  by  the  action  of  the  paddle.  The  "  oomiak,"  or  women's  boat, 
likewise  consists  of  a  frame-work  covered  with  seal-skins,  and  is  roomy  enough 
to  hold  ten  or  twelve  people,  with  benches  for  the  women  who  row  or  paddle. 
The  mast  supports  a  triangular  sail  made  of  the  entrails  of  seals,  and  easily 
distended  by  the  wind.  The  men  would  consider  it  beneath  their  dignity  to 
row  in  one  of  these  omnibus  boats ;  they  leave  this  labor  entirely  to  the  women, 
who,  to  the  tact  of  a  monotonous  song,  slowly  propel  the  oomiak  through  the 
water.  Judging  of  foreign  customs  by  their  own,  the  Esquimaux  between  the 
Mackenzie  and  Coppermine  rivers  made  the  strange  mistake,  as  Sir  John  Rich- 
ardson relates,  of  supposing  that  the  English  sailors  whom  they  saw  rowing  in 
company  were  women.  One  of  them  even  asked  whether  all  white  females  had 
beards. 

The  weapons  of  the  Esquimaux,  and  their  various  fishing  and  hunting  im- 
plements, likewise  show  great  ingenuity  and  skill.  Their  oars  are  tastefully 
inlaid  with  walrus-teeth  ;  they  have  several  kinds  of  spears  or  darts,  adapted  to 


294  THE   POLAK  WORLD. 

the  size  of  the  various  animals  which  they  hunt ;  and  their  elastic  ^ows, 
strongly  bound  with  strings  of  seal-gut,  drive  a  six-foot  arrow  with  une'rring 
certainty  to  a  distant  mark.  To  biing  down  a  larger  animal,  the  shaft  is 
armed  with  a  sharp  flint  or  a  pointed  bone ;  if  intended  to  strike  a  bird,  it  is 
smaller,  and  blunted. 

The  harpoons  and  lances  used  in  killing  whales  or  seals  have  long  shafts  of 
wood  or  of  the  narwhal's  tooth,  and  the  barbed  point  is  so  constructed  that, 
when  the  blow  takes  effect,  it  is  left  sticking  in  the  body  of  the  animal,  while 
the  shaft  attached  to  it  by  a  string  is  disengaged  from  the  socket,  and  becomes 
a  buoy  of  wood.  Seal-skins,  blown  up  like  bladders,  are  likewise  used  as  buoys 
for  the  whale-spears,  being  adroitly  stripped  from  the  animal  so  that  all  the  nat- 
ural apertures  are  easily  made  air-tight. 

With  equal  industry  and  skill  the  Esquimaux  put  to  use  almost  every  part 
of  the  land  and  marine  animals  which  they  chase.  Knives,  spear-points,  and 
iish-hooks  are  made  of  the  horns  and  bones  of  the  deer.  The  ribs  of  the  Avhale 
are  used  in  roofing  huts  or  in  the  construction  of  sledges,  where  drift-timber  is 
scarce.  Strong  cord  is  made  from  strips  of  seal-skin  hide,  and  the  sinews  of 
musk-oxen  and  deer  furnish  bow-strings,  or  cord  to  make  nets  or  snares.  In 
default  of  drift-wood,  the*bones  of  the  whale  are  employed  for  the  construction 
of  their  sledges,  in  pieces  fitted  to  each  other  Avith  neatness,  and  firmly  sewed 
together. 

During  the  long  confinement  to  their  huts  or  "  igloos  "  in  the  dark  winter 
months,  the  men  execute  some  very  fair  figures  in  bone,  and  in  walrus  or  fossil 
ivory,  besides  making  fish-hooks,  knife-handles,  and  other  instruments  neatly  of 
these  materials,  or  of  metal  or  wood. 

Thus  in  all  these  respects  the  Esquimaux  are  as  superior  to  the  Red  Indians 
as  they  are  in  strength  and  personal  courage;  and  yet  no  Norwegian  can  more 
utterly  despise  the  filthy  Lapp,  and  no  orthodox  Mussulman  look  down  with 
greater  contempt  upon  a  "  giaour,"  than  the  Loucheux  or  Cheppew^ayan  upon 
the  Esquimaux,  who  in  his  eyes  is  no  better  than  a  brute^  and  whom  he  ap- 
proaches only  to  kill. 

In  his  "Voyage  to  the  Coppermine  River"  Ilearne  relates  a  dreadful  instance 
of  this  bloodthirsty  hatred.  The  Indians  who  accompanied  him  having  heard 
that  some  Esquimaux  had  erected  their  summer  huts  near  the  mouth  of  that 
river,  were  at  once  seized  with  a  tiger-like  fury.  Hearne,  the  only  European  of 
the  party,  bad  not  the  power  to  restrain  them,  and  he  might  as  well  have  at- 
tempted to  touch  the  heart  of  an  ice-bear  as  to  move  the  murderous  band  to 
pity.  As  craftily  'and  noiselessly  as  serpents  they  drew  nigh,  and,  when  the 
midnight  sun  verged  on  the  horizon,  with  a  dreadful  yell  they  burst  on  the  huts 
of  their  unsuspecting  victims.  Not  one  of  them  escaped,  and  the  monsters  de- 
lighted to  prolong  the  misery  of  their  death-struggle  by  repeated  wounds.  An 
old  Avoman  had  both  her  eyes  torn  out  before  she  received  the  mortal  bloAV.  A 
young  girl  fled  to  Ilearne  for  protection,  who  used  every  effort  to  save  her, 
1)ut  in  vain.  In  1821  some  human  skulls  lying  on  the  spot  still  bore  testimony 
to  this  cruel  slaughter,  and  the  name  of  the  "  Bloody  Falls,"  given  by  Hearne  to 
the  scene  of  the  massacre,  Avill  convey  its  memory  to  distant  ages.     No  Avonder 


THE  ESQUIMAUX.  295 

that  the  hate  of  the  Esquimaux  is  no  less  intense,  and  that  they  also  pursue  the 
Indians,  wherever  they  can,  Avith  their  spears  and  arrows,  like  wild  beasts. 

"Year  after  year,"  says  Sir  John  Richardson,  "sees  the  Esquimaux  on  the 
Polar  coast  of  America  occupied  in  a  uniform  circle  of  pursuits.  When  the 
rivers  open  in  spring,  they  proceed  to  the  rapids  and  falls  to  spear  the  salmon, 
which  at  that  season  come  swimming  stream  upward.  At  the  same  time,  or 
earlier  in  more  southern  localities,  they  hunt  the  reindeer,  which  drop  their 
young  on  the  coasts  and  islands  while  the  snow  is  only  partially  melted.  Where 
the  open  country  affords  the  huntsman  no  opportunity  of  approaching  his  game 
unperceived,  deep  pits  are  dug  in  the  snowy  ravines,  and  superficially  covered 
with  snow-tablets.  The  wind  soon  effaces  the  traces  of  the  human  hand,  and 
thus  many  reindeer  are  snared." 

In  summer  the  reindeer  are  killed  partly  by  driving  them  from  islands  or 
narrow  necks  of  land  into  the  sea,  and  then  spearing  them  from  their  kayaks, 
and  partly  by  shooting  them  from  behind  heaps  of  stones  raised  for  the  purpose 
of  watching  them,  and  imitating  their  peculiar  bellow  or  grunt.  Among  %e 
various  artifices  which  they  employ  for  tliis  purpose,  one  of  the  most  ingenious 
consists  in  two  men  walking  directly /ro?>i  the  deer  they  wish  to  kill,  when  the 
animal  almost  always  follows  them.  As  soon  as  they  arrive  at  a  large  stone, 
one  of  the  men  hides  behind  it  Avith  his  bow,  while  the  other,  continuing  to 
walk  on,  soon  leads  the  deer  within  range  of 'his  companion's  arrows. 

The  multitudes  of  sv/ans,  ducks,  and  geese  resorting  to  the  morasses  of  the 
northern  coasts  to  breed,  likewise  aid  in  supplying  the  Esquimaux  Avith  food 
during  their  short  but  busy  summer  of  two  months.  For  their  destruction  a 
very  ingenious  instrument  has  been  invented.  Six  or  eight  small  balls  made  of 
walrus-tooth  and  pierced  in  the  middle  are  separately  attached  to  as  many 
thongs  of  animal  sinew,  which  are  tied  together  at  the  opposite  end.  When 
cast  into  the  air  the  diverging  balls  describe  circles — like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel 
— and  woe  to  the  unfortunate  bird  that  comes  Avithin  their  reach. 

On  the  coasts  frequented  by  Avhales,  the  month  of  August  is  devoted  to  the 
pursuit  of  these  animals ;  a  successful  chase  insuring  a  comfortable  Avinter  to 
a  whole  community.  Their  capture  requires  an  association  of  labor;  hence 
along  the  coasts  of  the  Polar  Sea  the  Esquimaux  unite  their  huts  into  villages, 
for  Avhose  site  a  bold  point  of  coast  is  generally  chosen,  Avhere  the  Avater  is 
deep  enough  to  float  a  Avhale. 

When  one  of  these  huge  creatures  is  seen  lying  on  the  water,  a  dozen  kay- 
aks or  more  cautiously  paddle  up  astern  of  him,  till  a  single  canoe,  preceding 
the  rest,  comes  close  to  him  on  one  quarter,  so  as  to  enable  the  men  to  drive 
the  spear  into  the  animal  Avith  all  the  force  of  both  arms.  This  spear  has  a 
long  line  of  thong  and  an  inflated  seal-skin  attached  to  it.  "The  stricken  whale 
immediately  dives  ;  but  when  he  re-appears  after  some  time,  all  the  canoes  again 
paddle  towards  him,  some  AA^arning  being  given  by  the  seal-skin  buoy  floating 
on  the  surface.  Each  man  being  furnished  like  the  first,  they  repeat  tlie  blow 
as  often  as  they  find  an  opportunity,  till  perhaps  every  line  has  been  thus  em- 
ployed. After  chasing  him  in  this  manner  sometimes  for  half  a  day,  he  is  at 
length  so  Avearied  by  the  resistance  of  the  buoys   and  exhausted  by  loss  of 


296  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

blood  as  to  be  obliged  to  rise  more  and  more  often  to  the  surface,  and  is  finally 
killed  and  towed  ashore. 

Though  in  many  parts  seals  are  caught  at  every  season  of  the  year,  yet  the 
great  hunt  takes  place  in  spring,  when  they  play  in  the  open"  lanes  near  the 
coasts,  or  come  out  on  the  ice  to  bask  in  the  sun.  In  spite  of  their  wariness, 
they  are  no  match  for  the  Esquimaux,  who  have  carefully  studied  all  their 
habits  from  infancy.  Sometimes  the  hunter  approaches  them  by  imitating 
their  forms  and  motions  so  perfectly  that  the  poor  aniinals  are  not  undeceived 
until  one  of  them  is  struck  with  his  lance ;  or  else,  by  means  of  a  white  screen 
pushed  forward  on  a  sledge,  the  hunter  comes  within  range  and  picks  out  the 
best-conditioned  of  the  band.  As  the  season  draws  near  midsummer,  the  seals 
are  more  approachable ;  their  eyes  being  so  congested  by  the  glare  of  the  sun 
that  they  are  sometimes  nearly  bUnd.  In  winter  they  are  assaulted  while 
working  at  their  breathing-holes  or  when  coming  up  for  respiration. 

Ii  an  Esquimaux  has  any  reason  to  suppose  that  a  seal  is  busy  gnawing  be- 
i^th  the  ice,  he  immediately  attaches  himself  to  the  place,  and  seldom  leaves 
it,  even  in  the  severest  frost,  till  he  has  succeeded  in  killing  the  animal.  For 
this  purpose  he  first  builds  a  snow-wall  about  four  feet  in  height,  to  shelter  him 
from  the  Avind,  and  seating  himself  under  the  lee  of  it,  deposits  his  spears,  hnes, 
and  other  implements  upon  several  little  forked  sticks  inserted  into  the  snow, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  smallest  noise  being  made  in  moving  them  when  want- 
ed. But  the  most  curious  precaution  consists  in  tying  his  own  knees  together 
with  a  thong  so  securely  as  to  prevent  any  rustling  of  his  clothes,  which  might 
otherwise  alarm  the  animal.  In  this  situation  a  man  will  sit  quietly  sometimes 
for  hours  together,  attentively  listening  to  any  noise  made  by  the  seal,  and 
sometimes  using  the  "  keep-kuttuk  "  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  the  animal 
is  still  at  work  below.  This  simple  little  instrument— which  affords  another 
striking  proof  of  Esquimaux  ingenuity— is  merely  a  slender  rod  of  bone  (as 
delicate  as  a  fine  wire,  that  the  seal  may  not  see  it),  nicely  rounded,  and  having 
a  point  at  one  end  and  a  knob  at  the  other.  It  is  inserted  into  the  ice,  and 
the  knob  remaining  above  the  surface,  informs  the  fisherman  by  its  motion 
whether  the  seal  is  employed  in  making  his  hole;  if  not,  it  remains  undis- 
turbed, and  the  attempt  is  given  up  in  that  place.  When  the  hunter  supposes 
the  hole  to  be  nearly  completed,  he  cautiously  lifts  his  spear  (to  which  the  line 
has  been  previously  attached),  and  as  soon  as  the  blowing  of  the  seal  is  distinctly 
heard— and  the  ice  consequently  very  thin— he  drives  it  into  him  with  the  force  of 
both  arms,  and  then  cuts  away  with  his  "panna,"  or  well-sharpened  knife,  the 
remaining  crust  of  ice,  to  enable  him  to  repeat  the  wounds  and  get  him  out. 
The  "neituk"  {PhocaMsjnda),  being  the  smallest  seal,  is  held,  while  struggling, 
either  simply  by  hand,  or  by  putting  the  line  round  a  spear  with  the  point  stuck 
into  the  ice.  For  the  "  oguke  "  {Fhoca  barbata),  the  line  is  passed  round  the 
man's  leg  or  arm  ;  and  for  a  walrus,  round  his  body,  his  feet  being  at  the  same 
time  firmly  set  against  a  hummock  of  ice,  in  which  position  these  people  .can, 
from  habit,  hold  against  a  very  heavy  strain.  A  boy  of  fifteen  is  equal  to  the 
killing  of  a  "  neituk,"  but  it  requires  a  full-grown  person  to  master  either  of  the 
laro-er  animals.     This  sport  is  not  without  the  danger  which  adds  to  the  ex- 


THE  ESQUBLVUX.  297 

citement  of  success,  particularly  if  the  creature  struck  by  the  hunter  be  a  large 
seal  or  walrus  ;  for  woe  betide  him  if  he  does  not  instantly  plant  his  feet  firmly 
in  the  ice,  and  throw  himself  in  such  a  position  that  the  strain  on  the  line  is  as 
nearly  as  possible  brought  into  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  spine  of  his 
back  and  axis  of  his  lower  limbs.  A  transverse  pull  from  one  of  these  power- 
ful animals  would  double  him  up  across  the  air-hole,  and  perhaps  break  his  back  ; 
or  if  the  opening  be  large,  as  it  often  is  Avhen  the  spring  is  advanced,  he 
would  be  dragged  under  water  and  drowned. 

As  the  Polar  bear  is  as  great  a  seal-hunter  as  the  Esquimaux,  one  of  the 
usual  methods  employed  by  the  latter  to  catch  these  bears  is  to  imitate  the  mo- 
tions of  the  seal  by  lying  flat  on  the  ice  until  the  bear  approaches  sufficiently 
near  to  insure  a  good  aim ;  but  a  gun  is  necessary  to  practise  this  stratagem 
with  success.  Seeman  ("  Voyage  of  the  Herald  ")  mentions  another  ingenious 
mode  of  capturing  the  bear  by  taking  advantage  of  the  well-known  voracity  of 
ihe  animal,  which  generally  swallows  its  food  without  much  mastication.  A 
thick  and  strong  piece  of  whalebone,  about  four  inches  broad  and  two  feet  long, 
is  rolled  iip  into  a  small  compass,  and  carefully  enveloped  in  blubber,  forming 
a  round  ball.  It  is  then  placed  in  the  open  air  at  a  low  temperature,  where  it 
soon  becomes  hard  and  frozen.  The  natives,  armed  with  their  knives,  bows,  and 
arrows,  together  with  this  frozen  bait,  proceed  in  quest  of  the  bear.  As  soon 
as  the  animal  is  seen,  one  of  the  natives  discharges  an  arrow  at  it ;  the  monster, 
smarting  from  this  assault,  chases  the  party,  then  in  full  retreat,  until,  meeting 
with  the  frozen  blubber  dropped  in  his  path,  he  greedily  swallows  it,  and  con- 
tinues the  pursuit — doubtless  fancying  that  there  must  be  more  where  that 
came  from.  The  natural  heat  of  the  body  soon  causes  the  blubber  to  thaw, 
when  the  whalebone,  thus  freed,  springs  back,  and  frightfully  lacerates  the 
stomach.  The  writhing  brute  falls  down  in  helpless  agony,  and  the  Esquimaux, 
hurrying  to  the  spot,  soon  put  an  end  to  his  sufferings. 

The  Esquimaux  of  Smith  Sound  hunt  the  bear  with  the  assistance  of  their 
dogs,  which  are  carefully  trained  not  to  engage  in  contest  with  the  bear,  but  to 
retard  his  flight.  While  one  engrosses  his  attention  ahead,  a  second  attacks 
him  in  the  rear,  always  alert,  and  each  j)rotecting  the  other ;  and  thus  it  rarely 
happens  that  they  are  seriously  injured,  or  that  they  fail  to  delay  the  animal  un- 
til their  masters  come  up.  If  there  be  two  hunters,  the  bear  is  killed  easily ; 
for  one  makes  a  feint  of  thrusting  a  spear  at  the  right  side,  and  as  the  animal 
turns  with  his  arms  towards  the  threatened  attack,  the  left  is  unprotected,  and 
receives  the  death-wound.  But  if  the  hunter  is  alone,  he  grasps  the-  lance  firm- 
ly in  his  hands,  and  provokes  the  animal  to  pursue  him  by  mo^dng  rapidly 
across  its  path,  and  then  running  as  if  to  escape.  But  hardly  is  its  long,  un- 
wieldy body  extended  for  the  chase,  than,  with  a  rapid  jximp,  the  hunter  doubles 
on  his  track,  and  runs  back  towards  his  first  position.  The  bear  is  in  the  act 
of  turning  after  him  again,  when  the  lance  is  plunged  into  the  left  side  b^ow 
the  shoulder.  So  dexterously  has  this  thrust  to  be  made,  that  an  unpractised 
hunter  has  often  to  leave  his  spear  in  the  side  of  his  prey  and  run  for  his  life ; 
but  even  then,  if  well-aided  by  the  dogs,  a  cool,  skillful  man  seldom  fails  to  kill 
his  adversarv. 


398  THE   POLAR   WOELD. 

While  the  seal,  narwhal,  and  white  whale  furnish  the  staple  food  of  the 
more  southern  Greenlander,  the  walrus  is  the  chief  resource  of  the  Smith 
Sound  Esquimaux.  The  manner  of  hunting  this  animal  depends  much  on  the 
season  of  the  year.  In  spring,  or  the  breeding-season,  when  the  walrus  is  in 
his  glory,  he  is  taken  in  two  ways.  Sometimes  he  has  risen  by  the  side  of  an 
iceberg,  where  the  currents  have  worn  away  the  floe,  or  through  a  tide  crack, 
and,  enjoying  the  sunshine  too  long,  finds  his  retreat  cut  off  by  the  freezing  up 
of  the  opening ;  for  like  the  seal,  the  walrus  can  only  work  from  below  at  his 
breathing-hole.  When  thus  caught,  the  Esquimaux,  who  with  keen  hunter- 
craft  are  scouring  the  floes,  scent  him  out  by  their  dogs  and  spear  him.  Fre- 
quently the  female  and  her  calf,  accompanied  by  the  grim-visaged  father,  are 
seen  surging,  in  loving  trios,  from  crack  to  crack,  and  sporting  in  the  openings. 
While  thus  on  their  tour,  they  invite  their  vigilant  enemies  to  the  second  meth- 
od of  capture.  This  also  is  by  the  lance  and  harpoon  ;  but  it  often  becomes  a 
regular  battle,  the  male  gallantly  fronting  the  assault,  and  charging  the  hunters 
with  furious  braveiy.  In  the  fall,  when  the  pack  is  but  partially  closed,  the 
walrus  are  found  in  numbers,  hanging  around  the  neutral  region  of  mixed  ice 
and  water,  and,  as  this  becomes  solid  with  the  advance  of  winter,  following  it 
more  and  more  to  the  south. 

The  Esquimaux  at  this  season  approach  them  over  the  young  ice,  and  as- 
sail them  in  cracks  and  holes  with  harpoon  and  line.  This  fishery,  as  the  sea- 
son grows  colder,  darker,  and  more  tempestuous,  is  fearfully  hazardous.  Kane 
relates  how,  during  a  time  of  famine,  two  of  his  Esquimaux  friends,  Awaklok 
and  Myouk,  determined  to  seek  the  walrus  on  the  open  ice.  They  succeeded  iu 
killing  a  large  niale,  and  were  returning  to  their  village,  when  a  north  wind 
broke  up  the  ice,  and  they  found  themselves  afloat.  The  impulse  of  a  Euro- 
pean Avould  have  been  to  seek  the  land ;  but  they  knew  that  the  drift  was  al- 
ways most  dangerous  on  the  coast,  and  urged  their  dogs  towards  the  nearest 
iceberg.  They  reached  it  after  a  struggle,  and,  by  great  efforts,  made  good 
their  landing,  with  their  dogs  and  the  half-butchered  carcass  of  the  walrus.  It 
was  at  the  close  of  the  last  moonlight  of  December,  and  a  complete  darkness 
settled  around  them.  They  tied  the  dogs  down  to  knobs  of  ice,  to  prevent 
their  losing  their  foothold,  and  prostrated  themselves,  to  escape  being  blown 
off  by  the  violence  of  the  wind.  At  first  the  sea  broke  over  them,  but  they 
gained  a  higher  level,  and  built  a  sort  of  screen  of  ice.  On  the  fifth  night  af- 
terwards, so  far  as  they  could'  judge,  one  of  Myouk's  feet  was  frozen,  and 
Awaklok  lost  his  great  toe  by  frost  bite.  But  they  did  not  lose  courage,  and 
ate  their  walrus-meat  as  they  floated  slowly  to  the  south.  It  was  towards  the 
close  of  the  second  moonlight,  after  a  month's  imprisonment,  such  as  only 
these  iron  men  could  endure,  that  they  found  the  berg  had  grounded.  They 
liberated  their  dogs  as  soon  as  the  young  ice  could  bear  their  weight,  and  at- 
tacking long  lines  to  them,  which  they  cut  from  the  hide  of  the  dead  walrus, 
they  succeeded  in  hauling  themselves  through  the  water-space  which  always 
surrounds  an  iceberg,  and  reaching  safe  ice.  They  returned  to  their  village 
like  men  raised  fi;om  the  dead,  to  meet  a  welcome,  but  to  meet  famine  along 
with  it. 


THE  ESQUIMAUX.  299 

In  the  form  of  their  bodies,  their  short  pricked  ears,  thick  furry  coat,  and 
bushy  tail,  the  dogs  of  the  Esquimaux  so  nearly  resemble  the  wolf  of  these 
regions,  that  when  of  a  light  or  brindled  color,  they  may  easily  at  a  little  dis- 
tance be  mistaken  for  that  animal ;  but  an  eye  accustomed  to  both,  perceives 
that  the  wolf  always  keeps  his  head  down  and  his  tail  between  his  legs  in  run- 
ning, whereas  the  dogs  almost  always  carry  their  tails  handsomely  curled  over 
the  back.  Their  hair  in  the  winter  is  from  three  to  four  inches  long ;  but  be- 
sides this  nature  furnishes  them  during  this  rigorous  season  with  a  thick  un- 
der-coating of  close,  soft  wool,  which  enables  them  to  brave  the  most  inclement 
weather.  They  do  not  bark,  but  have  a  long  melancholy  howl,  like  that  of  the 
wolf.  When  drawing  a  sledge,  they  have  a  simple  harness  of  deer  or  seal  skin 
going  round  the  neck  by  one  "bight,  and  another  for  each  of  the  fore  legs,  with 
a  single  thong  leading  over  the  back,  and  attached  to  the  sledge  as  a  trace. 
Though  they  appear  at  first  sight  to  be  huddled  together  without  regard  to 
regularity,  considerable  attention  is  really  paid  to  their  arrangement,  particular- 
ly in  the  selection  of  a  dog  of  peculiar  spirit  and  sagacity,  who  is  allowed  by  a 
longer  trace  to  precede  the  rest  as  leader,  and  to  whom,  in  turning  to  the  right 
or  left,  the  driver  usually  addresses  himself,  using  certain  words  as  the  carters 
do  with  us.  To  these  a  good  leader  attends  with  admirable  precision  (espec- 
ially if  his  own  name  be  repeated  at  the  same  time),  looking  behind  over  his 
shoulder  with  great  earnestness,  as  if  listening  to  the  directions  of  the  driver, 
who  sits  quite  low  on  the  foi'e  part  of  the  sledge,  his  whip  in  hand,  and  his  feet 
overhanging  the  snow  on  one  side. 

On  rough  ground,  as  among  hummocks  of  ice,  the  sledge  would  be  frequent- 
ly overturned  if  the  driver  did  not  repeatedly  get  off,  and,  by  lifting  or  draw- 
ing it  to  one  side,  steer  it  clear  of  those  obstacles.  At  all  times,  indeed,  except 
on  a  smooth  and  well-made  road,  he  is  pretty  constantly  employed  thus  with 
his  feet,  and  this,  together  with  his  never-ceasing  vociferations  and  frequent 
use  of  the  whip,  renders  the  driving  of  one  of  these  vehicles  by  no  means  a 
pleasant  or  easy  task. 

"  The  whip,'  says  Kane,  who  from  assiduous  practice  at  length  attained  a  con- 
siderable proficiency  in  its  use,  "  is  six  yards  long,  and  the  handle  but  sixteen 
inches — a  short  lever  to  throw  out  such  a  length  of  seal-hide.  Learn  to  do  it, 
however,  with  a  masterly  sweep,  or  else  make  up  your  mind  to  forego  driving 
sledges;  for  the  dogs  are  guided  solely  by  the  lash,  and  you  must  be  able  to 
hit  not  only  any  particular  dog  of  a  team  of  twelve,  but  to  accompany  the 
feat  also  with  a  resoundirig  crack.  After  this  you  find  that,  to  get  your  lash 
back,  involves  another  difficulty  ;  for  it  is  apt  to  entangle  itself  among  the  dogs 
and  lines,  or  to  fasten  itself  cunningly  round  bits  of  ice,  so  as  to  drag  you  head 
over  heels  into  the  snow.  The  secret  by  which  this  complicated  set  of  require- 
ments is  fulfilled  consists  in  properly  describing  an  arc  from  the  shoulder  with 
a  stiff  elbow,  giving  the  jerk  to  the  whip-handle  from  the  hand  and  wrist  alone. 
The  lash  trails  behind  as  you  travel,  and  when  thrown  forward  is  allowed  to 
extend  itself  without  an  effort  to  bring  it  back.  You  wait  patiently,  after  giv- 
ing the  projectile  impulse,  until  it  unwinds  its  slow  length,  reaches  the  end  of  its 
tether,  and  cracks  to  tell  you  that  it  is  at  its  jounrey's  end.     Such  a  crack  on 


300  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

the  ear  or  fore  foot  of  an  uufortunate  dog  is  signalized  by  a  howl  quite  unmis- 
takable in  its  import." 

The  mere  labor  of  using  this  whip  is  such  that  the  Esquimaux  travel  in 
couples,  one  sledge  after  the  other.  The  hinder  dogs  follow  mechanically,  and 
thus  require  no  whip ;  and  the  drivers  change  about  so  as  to  rest  each  other. 

In  the  summer,  when  the  absence  of  snow  prevents  the  use  of  sledges,  the 
dogs  are  still  made  useful,  on  journeys  and  hunting  excursions,  by  being  em- 
plo'^ed  to  carry  burdens  in  a  kind  of  saddle-bags  laid  across  their  shoulders. 
A  stout  dog  thus  accoutred  will  accompany  his  master  laden  with  a  weight 
of  about  twenty  or  twenty-five  pounds. 

The  scent  of  the  Esquimaux  dog  is  excellent,  and  this  property  is  turned  to 
account  in  finding  the  seal-holes,  which  they  will  discover  entirely  by  the  smell 
at  a  very  great  distance.  The  track  of  a  single  deer  upon  the  snow  will  in 
like  manner  set  them  off  at  full  gallop  at  least  a  quarter  of  a  mile  before  they 
arrive  at  it,  and  with  the  same  alacrity  they  pursue  the  bear  or  the  musk-ox. 
Indeed,  the  only  animal  which  they  are  not  eager  to  chase  is  the  wolf,  of  which 
they  seem  to  have  an  instinctive  dread,  giving  notice  at  night  of  their  aj)- 
proach  to  the  huts  by  a  loud  and  continued  howl. 

In  spite  of  their  invaluable  services,  they  are  treated  with  great  severity  by 
their  masters,  who  never  caress  them,  and,  indeed,  scarcely  ever  take  any  no- 
tice of  them  except  to  punish  them.  But  notwithstanding  this  rough  treatment, 
the  attachment  of  the  dogs  to  their  masters  is  very  great,  and  this  they  dis- 
*play,  after  a  short  absence,  by  jumping  up  and  licking  their  faces  all  over  with 
extreme  delight. 

It  may  be  supposed  that  among  so  cheerful  a  people  as  the  Esquimaux  there 
are  many  games  or  sports  practised.  One  of  their  exhibitions  consists  in  mak- 
ing hideous  faces  by  drawing  both  lips  into  the  mouth,  poking  forward  the  chin, 
squinting  frightfully,  occasionally  shutting  one  eye,  and  moving  the  head  from 
side  to  side  as  if  the  neck  had  been  dislocated. 

Another  performance  consists  in  repeating  certain  words  with  a  guttural 
tone  resembling  ventriloquism,  staring  at  the  same  time  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  make  their  eyes  appear  ready  to  burst  out  of  their  sockets  with  the  exertion. 
Two  or  more  will  sometimes  stand  up  face  to  face,  and,  with  great  quickness 
and  regularity,  respond  to  each  other,  keeping  such  exact  time  that  the  sound 
appears  to  come  from  one  throat  instead  of  several.  They  are  fond  of  music, 
both  vocal  and  instrumental,  but  their  singing  is  not  much  better  than  a  howl. 
The  Esquimaux  have  neither  magistrates  nor  laws,  yet  they  are  orderly  in 
their  conduct  towards  each  other.  The  constitution  of  their  society  is  patri- 
archal, but  there  is  no  recognition  of  mastership  except  such  as  may  be  claimed 
by  superior  prowess.  The  rule  of  the  head  of  a  family  lasts  only  as  long  as  he 
has  vigor  enough  to  secure  success  in  hunting.  When  his  powers  of  mind 
and  body  are  impaired  by  age,  he  at  once  sinks  in  the  social  scale,  associates 
with  the  women,  and  takes  his  seat  in  the  oomiak.  They  rarely  quarrel  among 
themselves,  and  settle  their  disputes  either  by  boxing,  the  parties  sitting  down 
and  striking  blows  alternately  until  one  of  them  gives  in,  or  before  a  court  oi 
honor,  where,  after  the  accuser  and  the  accused  have  richlv  abused  and  ridi- 


THE  ESQUIMAUX.  301 

culed  each  other,  the  case  is  decided  by  the  priests  or  "  angekoks."  These 
wonder-workers,  who  enjoy  a  great  reputation  as  sorcerers,  soothsayers,  or  med- 
icine-men, employ  ventriloquism,  swallow  knives,  extract  stones  from  various 
parts  of  their  bodies,  and  use  other  deceptions  to  impress  their  dupes  with  a 
high  opinion  of  their  supernatural  powers.  Like  the  members  of  the  learned 
professions  elsewhere,  they  have  a  certain  language  or  jargon  of  their  own,  in 
which  they  communicate  with  each  other.  The  heathen  Esquimaux  do  not 
appear  to  have  any  idea  of  the  existence  of  one  Supreme  Being,  but  believe  m 
a  number  of  spirits,  with  whom  on  certain  occasions  the  angekoks  pretend  to 
hold  mysterious  intercourse.  Even  in  Old  Greenland  the  influence  and  teach- 
ings of  the  missionaries  have  not  entirely  obliterated  the  old  superstitions,  and 
the  mysteries  of  the  angekok,  though  not  openly  recognized  near  the  Danish 
settlements,  still  hold  their  secret  power  over  many  a  native  who  is  professedly 
a  Christian. 

Captain  Hall  highly  praises  the  good-nature  of  the  Esquimaux ;  but  in  their 
behavior  to  the  old  and  infirm  they  betray  the  insensibility,  or  rather  inhu- 
manity, commonly  found  among  savage  nations,  frequently  abandoning  them 
to  their  fate  on  their  journeys,  and  allowing  them  to  perish  in  the  wilderness. 

Among  themselves  "  Tiglikpok  "  (he  is  a  thief)  is  a  terra  of  reproach,  but 
they  steal  without  scruple  from  strangers,  and  are  not  ashamed  when  detected, 
nor  do  they  blush  when  reproved.  Parry  taxes  them  with  want  of  gratitude ; 
and  though  they  have  no  doubt  rendered  good  services  to  many  of  our 
Arctic  navigators,  yet  sometimes,  when  they  fancied  themselves  the  stronger 
party,  they  have  not  hesitated  to  attack  or  to  murder  the  strangers,  and  their 
good  behavior  can  only  be  relied  upon  as  long  as  there  is  the  power  of  enforc- 
ing it. 

One  of  the  most  amiable  traits  of  their  character  is  the  kindness  with  which 
they  treat  their  children,  whose  gentleness  and  docility  are  such  as  to  occasion 
their  parents  little  trouble,  and  to  render  severity  towards  them  quite  unneces- 
sary. Even  from  their  earliest  infancy  they  possess  that  quiet  disposition,  gen- 
tleness of  demeanor,  and  uncommon  evenness  of  temper  for  which,  in  mature 
age,  they  are  for  the  most  part  distinguished.  "  They  are  just  as  fond  of  play," 
says  Parry,  "  as  any  other  young  people,  and  of  the  same  kind,  only  that  while 
an  English  child  draws  a  cart  of  wood,  an  Esquimaux  of  the  same  age  has  a 
sledge  of  whalebone ;  and  for  the  superb  baby-house  of  the  former,  the  latter 
builds  a  miniature  hut  of  snow,  and  begs  a  lighted  wick  from  her  mother's 
lamp  to  illuminate  the  little  dwelling." 

When  not  more  than  eight  years  old,  the  boys  are  taken  by  their  fathers 
on  their  sealing  excursions,  where  they  begin  to  leai-n  their  future  business ; 
and  even  at  that  early  age  they  are  occasionally  intrusted  to  bring  home  a 
sledge  and  dogs  from  a  distance  of  several  miles  over  the  ice.  At  the  age  of 
eleven  we  see  a  boy  with  his  water-tight  boots,  a  spear  in  his  hand,  and  a  small 
coil  of  line  at  his  back,  accompanying  the  men  to  the  fishery  under  every  cir- 
cumstance ;  and  from  this  time  his  services  daily  increase  in  value  to  the  Avhole 
tribe. 

In  intelligence  and  susceptibility  of  civilization  the  Esquimaux  arc  far  su- 


303  THE   POLAR  WORLD.         ^ 

perior  to  the  neighboring  Indians.  They  have  such  a  good  idea  of  the  hydrog- 
raphy and  bearings  of  tlie  sea-coasts  which  they  frequent  as  to  draw  accurate 
charts  of  them.  Thus  Parry,  in  his  second  voyage,  was  guided  in  his  opera- 
tions by  the  sketches  of  the  talented  Iligliuk ;  and  while  Beechey  was  at  Kotze- 
bue  Sound,  the  natives  constt'ucted  a  chart  of  the  coast  upon  the  sand,  first 
marking  out  the  coast-Une  with  a  stick,  and  regulating  the  distance  by  the  day's 
journey.  The  hills  and  ranges  of  mountains  were  next  shown  by  elevations  of 
sand  or  stone,  and  the  islands  represented  by  heaps  of  pebbles,  their  propor- 
tions being  duly  attended  to.  When  the  mountains  and  islands  were  erected, 
the  villages  and  fishing-stations  were  marked  by  a  number  of  sticks  placed  up- 
rifht,  in  imitation  of  those  which  are  put  up  on  the  coast  wherever  these  peo- 
|)le  fix  their  abode.  In  this  manner  a  complete  hydrographical  plan  Avas  drawn 
from  Cape  Derby  to  Cape  Krusenstern. 

The  Esquimaux  have  a,  decided  predilection  for  commercial  pursuits,  and 
undertake  long  voyages  for  the  purposes  of  trade.  Thus  on  the  continental 
line  of  coast  west  of  the  Mackenzie,  the  Point  Barrow  Esquimaux  proceed 
every  summer,  with  sledges  laden  with  whale  or  seal  oil,  whalebone,  walrus- 
tusks,  thongs  of  walrus  hide,  and  seal-skins,  to  the  Colville  River,  where  they 
meet  the  Esquimaux  from  Kotzebue  Sound,  who  offer  them  in  exchange  arti- 
cles procured  from  the  Tchuktchi  in  the  previous  summer,  such  as  iron  and 
copper  kettles,  knives,  tobacco,  beads,  and  tin  for  making  pipes.  About  ten 
days  are  spent  in  bartering,  dancing,  and  revelry,  on  the  flat  ground  between 
the  tents  of  each  party,  pitched  a  bow-shot  apart.  The  time  is  one  of  pleasant 
excitement,  and  is  passed  nearly  Avithout  sleep.  "About  July  20  this  friendly 
meeting  is  at  an  end :  the  Kotzebue  Sound  Esquimaux  ascend  the  Colville  on 
their  way  homeward,  while  those  from  Point  Barrow  descend  to  the  sea,  to 
pursue  their  voyage  eastward  to  Barter  Reef,  where  they  obtain  in  traflSc  from 
the  eastern  Esquimaux  various  skins,  stone  lamps,  English  knives,  small  white 
beads,  and,  lately,  guns  and  ammunition,  Avhich  in  the  year  following  they  ex- 
change for  the  Kotzebue  Sound  articles  at  the  Colville,  along  with  the  produce 
of  their  own  sea-hunts. 

In  this  manner,  articles  of  Russian  manufacture,  originally  purchased  at  the 
fair  of  Ostrownoje  by  the  Tchuktchi,  or  from  the  factors  of  the  Russian  Fur 
(Jompany  on  Sledge  Island,  in  Bering's  Straits,  find  their  way  from  tribe  to 
tribe  along  the  American  coast  as  far  as  Repulse  Bay,  and  compete  among  the 
tribes  of  the  Mackenzie  with  articles  from  Sheffield  or  Birmingham. 

A  hunter's  life  is  always  precarious — a  constant  alternation  between  abun- 
dance and  want ;  and  though  the  Esquimaux  strikes  many  a  seal,  white-fish,  or 
walrus  in  the  course  of  the  year,  yet  these  animals  do  not  abound  at  all  sea- 
sons, and  there  are  other  causes,  besides  improvidence,  which  soon  exhaust  the 
stores  laid  by  in  times  of  abundance.  Active  exercise  and  constant  exposure 
to  cold  are  remarkable  promoters  of  atomic  change  in  the  human  body,  and  a 
very  large  supply  of  food  is  absolutely  necessary  to  counterbalance  the  effects 
.of  a  rapid  organic  combustion.  As  a  matter  of  curiosity,  Parry  once  tried 
how  much  an  Esquimaux  lad  would,  if  freely  supplied,  consume  in  the  course 
of  a  day.     The  following  articles  were  weighed  before  being  given  to  him : 


THE   ESQUIMAUX.  •  303 

lie  was  twenty  hours  in  getting  through  thetn,  and  certainly  did  not  consider 
the  quantity  extraordinary. 

lbs.  oz. 

Sea-horse  flesh,  hard  frozen 4  4 

"             "       boiled 4  4 

Bread  and  bread-dust ' 1  1"2' 

Total  of  solids 10       4 

The  fluids  were  in  fair  proportion,  viz.,  rich  gravy  soup,  1^  pint ;  raw  spirits,  3  wine-glasses  ;  stronj; 
groj;',  1  tumbler  ;  water,  1  gallon  1  pint.* 

Kane  averages  the  Esquimaux  ration  in  a  season  of  plenty  at  eight  or  ten 
pounds  a  day,  with  soup  and  water  to  the  extent  of  half  a  gallon,  and  finds  in 
this  excessive  consumption — which  is  rather  a  necessity  of  their  peculiar  life 
and  organization  than  the  result  of  gluttony — the  true  explanation  of  the  scarci- 
ty from  which  they  frequently  suffer.  In  times  of  abundance  they  hunt  in- 
domitably without  the  loss  of  a  day,  and  stow  away  large  quantities  of  meat. 
An  excavation  is  made  either  on  the  mainland — or,  what  is  preferred,  on  an  isl- 
and inaccessible  to  foxes — and  the  flesh  is  stacked  inside  and  covered  with 
heavy  stones.  One  such  cache  which  Kane  met  on  a  small  island  contained 
the  flesh-of  ten  wah'uses,  and  he  Knew  of  others  equally  large.  But  by  their  an- 
cient custom,  all  share  with  all ;  and  as  they  migrate  in  numbers  as  their  neces- 
sities prompt,  the  tax  on  each  particular  settlement  is  not  seldom  so  excessive 
that  even  considerable  stores  are  unable  to  withstand  the  drain,  and  soon  make 
way  for  pinching  hunger,  and  even  famine. 

*  Captain  Hall,  who  in  his  search  after  the  remains  of  the  Franklin  expedition  has  now  spent  sev- 
eral years  amonp;  the  Esquimaux,  has  so  far  acquired  their  appetite  that  he  is  able  to  consume  9  lbs. 
of  meat  a  day  without  any  inconvenience. 


304  ■  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


CHAPTER  XXYIII. 

THE  FUR-TRADE  OF  THE  HUDSON'S  BAY  TERRITORIES. 

The  Coureur  des  Bois. — The  Voj'ageur. — The  Birch-bark  Canoe.— The  Canadian  Fur-trade  in  the  last 
Century. — The  Hudson's  Bay  Company. — Bloody  Feuds  between  the  North-west  Company  of  Can- 
ada and  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company. — Their  Amalgamation  into  a  new  Company  in  1821. — Recon- 
struction of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  in  1863.— Forts  or  Houses. — The  Attihawmeg.— Influence 
of  the  Company  on  its  savage  Dependents. — The  Black  Bear,  or  Baribal. — The  Brown  Bear. — The 
Grizzly  Bear.— The  Raccoon.— The  American  Glutton. — The  Pine  Marten.— The  Pekan,  or  Wood- 
shock  —The  Chinga.— The  Mink.— The  Canadian  Fish-otter.— The  Crossed  Fox.— The  Black  or 
Silvery  Fox. — The  Canadian  Lynx,  or  Pishu. — The  Ice-hare. — The  Beaver. — The  Musquash. 

\  S  the  desire  to  reach  India  by  the  shortest  road  first  made  the  civilized 
■^-^  world  acquainted  with  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America,  so  the  exten- 
sion of  the  ftir-trade  has  been  the  chief,  or  rather  the  only,  motive  which  origi- 
nally led  the  footsteps  of  the  white  man  from  the  Canadian  Lakes  and^he  bor- 
ders of  Hudson's  Bay  into  the  remote  interior  of  that  vast  continent. 

The  first  European  fur-traders  in  North  America  were  French  Canadians — 
coitreiirs  des  bois — a  fitting  surname  for  men  habituated  to  an  Indian  forest- 
life.  Three  or  four  of  these  "  irregular  spirits  "  agreeing  to  make  an  expedi- 
tion into  the  backwoods  would  set  out  in  their  birch-bark  canoe,  laden  with 
goods  received  on  trust  from  a  merchant,  for  a  voyage  of  great  danger  and 
hardship,  it  might  be  of  several  years,  into  the  wilderness. 

On  their  return  the  merchant  who  had  given  them  credit  of  course  received 
the  lion's  share  of  the  skins  gathered  among  the  Hurons  or  the  Iroquois ;  the 
small  portion  left  as  a  recompense  for  their  own  labor  was  soon  spent,  as  sailors 
spend  their  hard-earned  wages  on  their  arrival  in  port ;  and  then  they  started 
on  some  new  adventure,  until  finally  old  age,  infirmities,  or  death  prevented 
their  revisiting  the  forest. 

The  modern  "  voyageur^''  who  has  usurped  the  j)lace  of  the  old  "  coureurs,^'' 
is  so  like  them  in  manners  and  mode  of  life,  that  to  know  the  one  is  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  other.  In  short,  the  voyageur  is  merely  a  coureur  subject 
to  strict  law  and  serving  for  a  fixed  pay ;  -while  the  coureur  was  a  voyageur 
trading  at  his  own  risk  and  peril,  and  acknowledging  no  control  when  once 
beyond  the  pale  of  European  colonization. 

The  camel  is  frequently  called  the  "  shij)  of  the  desert,"  and  with  equal  jus- 
tice the  birch-bark  canoe  might  be  named  the  "  camel  of  the  North  American 
wilds."  For  if  we  consider  the  rivers  which,  covering  the  land  like  a  net-work, 
are  the  only  arteries  of  communication;  the  frequent  rapids  and  cataracts;  the 
shallow  waters  flowing  over  a  stony  ground  whose  sharp  angles  would  infalli- 
bly cut  to  pieces  any  boat  made  of  wood ;  and  finally  the  surrounding  deserts, 
where,  in  case  of  an  accident,  the  traveller  is  left  to  his  own  resources,  we  must 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  in  such  a  country  no  intercourse  could  possibly  be 


i_ 


THE   FUR-TRADE   OF   THE   HUDSON'S   BAY   TERRITORIES.  305 

carried  on  without  a  boat  made  of  materials  at  once  flexible  and  toiigli,  and  ca- 
pable moreover  of  being  easily  repaired  Avithout  the  aid  of  hammer  and  nails, 
of  saw  and  plane.  This  invaluable  material  is  supplied  by  the  rind  of  the  ])aper- 
birch,  a  tree  whose  uses  in  the  Hudson's  Bay  territories  are  almost  as  manifold 
as  those  of  the  palm-trees  of  the  tropical  zone.  Where  the  skins  of  animals 
are  rare,  the  pliant  bark,  peeled  off  in  large  pieces,  serves  to  cover  the  Indian's 
tent.  Carefully  sewn  together,  and  ornamented  with  the  quills  of  the  jiorcupine, 
it  is  made  into  baskets,  sacks,  dishes,  plates,  and  drinking-cups,  and  in  fact  is,  in 
one  word,  the  chief  material  of  which  the  household  articles  of  the  Crees  are 
formed.  The  wood  serves  for  the  manufacture  of  oars,  snow-shoes,  and  sledges ; 
and  in  spi'ing  the  sap  of  the  tree  furnishes  an  agreeable  beverage,  which,  by 
boiling,  may  be  inspissated  into  a  sweet  syrup.  Beyond  the  Arctic  Circle  the 
paper-birch  is  a  rare  and  crooked  tree,  but  it  is  met  with  as  a  shrub  as  far  as 
69°  N".  lat.  It  grows  to  perfection  on  the  northern  shores  of  Lake  Superior, 
near  Fort  William,  where  the  canoes  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  are  chief- 
ly manufactured. 

A  birch-bark  canoe  is  between  thirty  and  forty  feet  long,  and  the  rinds  of 
which  it  is  built  are  sewn  together  with  filaments  of  the  root  of  the  Canadian 
fir.  In  cas8  of  a  hole  being  knocked  into  it  during  the  journey,  it  can  be  patch- 
ed like  an  old  coat,  and  is  then  as  good  as  new.  As  it  has  a  flat  bottom,  it  does 
not  sink  deep  into  the  water ;  and  the  river  must  be  almost  dried  up  which 
could  not  carry  such  a  boat.  The  cargo  is  divided  into  bales  "or  parcels  of  from 
90  to  100  pounds-;  .and  although  it  frequently  amounts  to  more  than  four  tons, 
yet  the  canoe  itself  is  so  light  that  the  crew  can  easily  transport  it  upon  their 
shoulders.  This  crew  generally  consists  of  eight  or  ten  men,  two  of  whom 
must  be  experienced  boatmen,  who  receive  double  pay,  and  are  placed  one  at 
the  helm,  the  other  at  the  poop.  When  the  wind  is  fair,  a  sail  is  unfurled,  and 
serves  to  lighten  the  toil. 

The  Canadian  voyageur  combines  the  light-heartedness  of  the  Frenchman 
with  the  apathy  of  the  Indian,  and  his  dress  is  also  a  mixture  of  that  of  the 
Red-skins  and  of  the  European  colonists.  Frequently  he  is  himself  a  mixture 
of  Gallic  and  Indian  blood — a  so-called  "  bois-brille,"  and  in  this  case  doubly 
light-hearted  and  unruly.  With  his  woollen  blanket  as  a  surcoat,  his  shirt  of 
striped  cotton,  his  pantaloons  of  cloth,  or  his  Indian  stockings  of  leather,  his 
moccasins  of  deer-skin,  and  his  sash  of  gaudily-dyed  wool,  in  which,  his 
knife,  his  tobacco-bag,  and  various  other  utensils  are  stuck,  he  stands  high  in 
his  own  esteem.  His  language  is  a  French  jargon,  richly  interlarded  with 
Indian  and  English  words — d,  jumble  fit  to  drive  a  grammarian  mad,  but 
which  he  thinks  so  euphonious  that  his  tongue  is  scarce^  ever  at  rest.  His 
supply  of  songs  and  anecdotes  is  inexhaustible,  and  he  is  always  ready  for 
a  dance.  His  politeness  is  exemplary :  he  never  calls  his  comrades  otherwise 
than  "  mon  frere,"  and  "  mon  cousin."  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  remai-k  that 
he  is  able  to  handle  his  boat  with  the  same  ease  as  an  expert  rider  manages 
his  horse. 

When  after  a  hard  day's  work  they  rest  for  the  night,  the  axe  is  immediately 
at  work  in  the  nearest  forest,  and  in  less  than  ten  minutes  the  tent  is  erected 

20 


306  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

and  the  kettle  simmering  on  the  fire.  While  the  passengers — perhaps  some 
chief  trader  on  a  voyage  to  some  distant  fort,  or  a  Back  or  a  Richardson  on  his 
way  to  the  Polar  Ocean — are  warming  or  drying  themselves,  the  indefatigable 
"  voyagem-s"  drag  the  unloaded  canoe  ashore,  turn  it  over,  and  examine  it  care- 
fully, either  to  fasten  again  some  loose  stitches,  or  to  paint  over  some  damaged 
part  with  fresh  resin.  Under  the  cover  of  their  boat,  which  they  turn  against 
the  wind,  and  with  a  flaming  fire  in  the  foreground,  they  then  bid  defiance  to 
the  weather.  At  one  o'clock  in  the  morning  "  Leve  !  leve  !  leve  !"  is  called  ; 
in  half  an  hour  the  encampment  is  broken  up,  and  the  boat  reladen  and  launched. 
At  eight  in  the  morning  a  halt  is  made  for  breakfast,  for  which  three-quarters 
of  an  hour  are  allowed.  About  two  in  the  afternoon  half  an  hour's  rest  suftices 
for  a  cold  dinner.  Eighteen  hours'  work  and  six  hours"  rest  make  out  the  day. 
The  labor  is  incredible;  yet  the-"  voyageur"  not  only  supports  it  without  a 
murmur,  but  with  the  utmost  cheerfulness.  Such  a  life  requires,  of  course,  an 
iron  constitution.  In  rowing,  the  arms  and  breast  of  the  "  voyageur  "  are  ex- 
erted to  the  utmost ;  and  in  shallow  places  he  drags  the  boat  after  him,  wading 
up  to  the  knees  and  thighs  in  the  water.  Where  he  is  obliged  to  force  his  way 
against  a  rapid,  the  drag-rope  must  be  pulled  over  rocks  and  stumps  of  trees, 
through  swamps  and  thickets ;  and  at  the  portages  the  cargo  and  the  boat 
have  to  be  carried  over  execrable  roads  to  tbe  next  navigable  water.  Then 
the  "  voyageur  "  takes  upon  his  back  two  packages,  each  weighing  90  pounds, 
and  attached  by  a  leathern  belt  running  over  the  forehead,  that  his  hands  may 
be  free  to  clear  the  way ;  and  such  portages  sometimes  occur  ten  or  eleven 
times  in  one  day. 

For  these  toils  of  his  wandering  life  he  has  many  compensations,  in  the 
keen  appetite,  the  genial  sensation  of  muscular  strength,  and  the  flow  of  spirits 
engendered  by  labor  in  the  pure  and  bracing  air.  Surely  many  would  rather 
breathe  with  the  "  voyageur  "  the  fragrance  of  the  pine  forest,  or  share  his  rest 
upon  the  borders  of  the  stream,  than  lead  the  monotonous  life  of  an  artisan, 
pent  up  in  the  impure  atmosphere  of  a  city. 

During  the  first  period  of  the  American  fur-trade  the  "coureurs  des  bois  " 
used  to  set  out  on  their  adventurous  expeditions  from  the  village  "  La  Chine," 
one  of  the  oldest  and  most  famous  settlements  in  Canada,  whose  name  points 
to  a  time  when  the  St.  Lawrence  was  still  supposed  to  be  the  nearest  way  to 
China.  How  far  some  of  them  may  have  penetrated  into  the  interior  of  the 
continent  is  unknown ;  but  so  much  is  certain,  that  their  regular  expeditions 
extended  as  far  as  the  Saskatchewan,  2500  miles  beyond  the  remotest  European 
settlements.  Several  factories  or  forts  protected  their  interests  on  the  banks 
of  that  noble  river ;  and  the  French  would  no  doubt  have  extended  their  do- 
minion to  the  Rocky  Mountains  or  to  the  Pacific  if  the  conquest  of  Canada  by 
England,  in  1761,  had  not  completely  revolutionized  the  fur-trade.  The  change 
of  dominion  laid  it  prostrate  for  several  years,  but  our  enterprising  countrymen 
soon  opened  a  profitable  intercourse  with  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  west,  as  their 
predecessors  had  done  before  them.  Noav,  however,  the  adventurous  "  coureur 
des  bois,"  Avho  had  entered  the  wilds  as  a  semi-independent  trader,  was  obliged 
to  serve  in  the  pay  of  the  British  merchant,  and  to  follow  him,  as  his  "  voya- 


THE   FUE-TRADE   OF  THE   HUDSON'S   BAY  TERRITORIES.  307 

geur,"  deeper  and  deeper  into  the  wilderness,  until  finally  tliey  reached  on  the 
xVthabasca  and  the  Churchill  River  the  Indian  hunters  who  used  to  sell  their 
skins  in  the  settlements  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 

This  company  was  founded  in  the  year  1G70  by  a  body  of  adventurers  and 
merchants  under  the  patronage  of  Prince  Rupert,  second  cousin  of  Charles  II. 
The  charter  obtained  from  the  Crown  was  wonderfully  hberal,  comprising  not 
only  the  grant  of  the  exclusive  trade,  but  also  of  full  territorial  possession  to 
all  perpetuity  of  the  vast  lands  within  the  watershed  of  Hudson's  Bay.  The 
Company  at  once  established  some  forts  along  the  shores  of  the  great  inland 
sea  from  Avhich  it  derived  its  name,  and  opened  a  very  lucrative  trade  with  the 
Indians,  so  that  it  never  ceased  paying  rich  dividends  to  the  fortunate  share- 
holders until  towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  w^hen,  as  I  have  already  men- 
tioned, its  prosperity  began  to  be  seriously  affected  by  the  energetic  competi- 
tion of  the  Canadian  fur-traders. 

In  spite  of  the  flourishing  state  of  its  affairs,  or  rather  because  the  monop- 
oly which  it  enjoyed  allowed  it  to  prosper  without  exertion,  the  Company,  as 
long  as  Canada  remained  in  French  hands,  had  conducted  its  aifairs  in  a  very 
indolent  manner,  waiting  for  the  Indians  to  bring  the  produce  of  their  chase  to 
the  Hudson's  Bay  settlements,  instead  of  following  them  into  the  interior  and 
stimulating  them  by  offering  greater  facilities  for  exchange. 

For  eighty  years  after  its  foundation  the  Company  possessed  no  more  than 
four  small  forts  on  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay ;  and  only  when  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  Canadians  at  length  roused  it  from,  its  torpor,  did  it  resolve  like- 
wise to  advance  into  the  interior,  and  to  establish  a  fort  on  the  eastern  shore 
of  Sturgeon  Lake,  in  the  year  1774.  Up  to  this  time,  with  the  exception  of 
the  voyage  of  discovery  which  Hearne  (1770-71)  made  under  its  auspices  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Coppermine  River,  it  had  done  but  little  'for  the  promotion 
of  geographical  discovery  in  its  vast  territory. 

Meanwhile  the  Canadian  fur-traders  had  become  so  hateful  to  the  Indians 
that  these  savages  formed  a  conspiracy  for  their  total  extirpation. 

Fortunately  for  the  white  men,  the  small-pox  broke  out  about  this  time 
among  the  Redskins,  and  swept  them  away  as  the  fire  consumes  the  parched 
grass  of  the  prairies.  Their  unburied  corpses  were  torn  by  the  Avolves  and 
wild  dogs,  and  the  survivors  were  too  weak  and  dispirited  to  be  able  to  under- 
take any  thing  against  the  foreign  intruders.  The  Canadian  fur-traders  now 
also  saw  the  necessity  of  combining  their  efforts  for  their  mutual  benefit,  instead 
of  ruining  each  other  by  an  insane  competition ;  and  consequently  formed,  in 
1783,  a  society  which,  under  the  name  of  the  North-west  Company  of  Canada, 
at  first  consisted  of  sixteen,  later  of  twenty  partners  or  shareholders,  some  of 
whom  lived  in  Canada,  while  the  others  were  scattered  among  the  various 
stations  in  the  interior.  The  whole  Canadian  fur-trade  was  now  greatly  de- 
veloped ;  for  Avhile  previously  each  of  the  associates  had  blindly  striven  to  do 
as  much  harm  as  possible  to  his  present  partners,  and  thus  indirectly  damaged 
his  own  interests,  they  now  all  vigorously  united  to  beat  the  rival  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  out  of  the  field.  The  agents  of  this  North-west  Con\pany,  in 
defiance  of  their  charter,  were  indefatigable  in  exploring  the  lakes  and  woods, 


308  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

the  plains  and  the  mountains,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  new  trading-sta- 
tions at  all  convenient  points. 

The  most  celebrated  of  these  pioneers  of  commerce,  Alexander  Mackenzie, 
reached,  in  the  year  1789,  the  mouth  of  the  great  river  which  bears  his  name, 
and  saw  the  white  dolphins  gambol  about  in  the  Arctic  Sea.  In  a  second  voy- 
age he  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  followed  the  course  of  the  Fraser 
River  until  it  discharges  its  waters  into  the  Georgian  Gulf  opposite  to  Van- 
couver's Island.  Here  he  wrote  with  perishable  vermilion  the  following  in- 
scription on  a  rock-wall  fronting  the  gulf : — 

A.  Mackenzie 

arrived  from  Canada  by  land, 

22  July,  1792. 

The  words  were  soon  effaced  by  wind  and  weather,  but  the  fame  of  the  ex- 
plorer will  last  as  long  as  the  English  language  is  spoken  in  America. 

The  energetic  North-west  Company  thus  ruled  over  the  whole  continent 
fi'om  the  Canadian  Lakes  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  1806  it  even  crossed 
that  barrier  and  established  its  forts  on  the  northern  tributaries  of  the  Colum- 
bia River.  To  the  north  it  likewise  extended  its  operations,  encroaching  more 
and  more  upon  the  privileges  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  which,  roused  to 
energy,  now  also  pushed  on  its  posts  farther  and  farther  into  the  interior,  and 
established  in  1812  a  colony  on  the  Red  River  to  the  south  of  Winipeg  Lake, 
thus  driving,  as  it  were,  a  sharp  thorn  into  the  side  of  its  rival.  But  a  power 
like  the  North-west  Company,  which  had  no  less  than  50  agents,  70  interpret- 
ers, and  1120  voyageurs  in  its  pay,  and  whose  chief  managers  used  to  apj^ear 
at  their  annual  meetings  at  Fort  William,  on  the  banks  of  Lake  Superior,  with 
all  the  pomp  and  pride  of  feudal  barons,  was  not  inclined  to  tolerate  this  en- 
croachment ;  and  thus,  after  many  quarrels,  a  regular  war  broke  out  between 
the  two  parties,  which,  after  two  years'  duration,  led  to  the  expulsion  of  the 
Red  River  colonists  and  the  murder  of  their  governor,  Semple.  This  event 
took  place  in  the  year  1816,  and  is  but  one  episode  of  the  bloody  feuds  which 
continued  to  reign  between  the  two  rival  companies  until  1821.  At  first  sight 
it  may  seem  strange  that  such  acts  of  violence  should  take  place  between 
British  subjects  and  on  British  soil,  but  then  we  must  consider  that  at  that 
time  European  law  had  little  power  in  the  American  wilderness. 

The  dissensions  of  the  fur-traders  had  most  deplorable  consequences  for 
the  Redskins;  for  both  companies,  to  swell  the  number  of  their  adherents, 
lavishly  distributed  spirituous  liquors — a  temptation  which  no  Indian  can  re- 
sist. 

The  whole  of  the  hunting-grounds  of  the  Saskatchewan  and  Athabasca, 
were  but  one  scene  of  revelry  and  bloodshed.  Already  decimated  by  the 
small-pox,  the  Indians  now  became  the  victims  of  drunkenness  and  discord, 
and  it  was  to  be  feared  that  if  the  war  and  its  consequent  demoralization  con- 
tinued, the  most  important  tribes  would  soon  be  utterly  swept  away. 

The  finances  of  the  belligerent  companies  were  in  an  equally  deplorable 
state  •  the  produce  of  the  chase  diminished  from  year  to   year  with  the  in- 


THE   FUR-TRADE   OF   THE   HUDSON'S   BAY  TERRITORIES.  309 

crease  of  their  expenditure ;  and  thus  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  Avhich  used 
to  gratify  its  shareholders  with  dividends  of  50  and  25  per  cent.,  was  unable, 


1808  to  1814,  to  distribute  a  single  shilling  among  them.     At  length  wis- 
prevailed  over  passion,  and  the  enemies  came  to  a  resolution  Avhich,  if 


310  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

taken  from  the  very  beginning,  would  have  saved  them  both  a  great  deal  of 
treasure  and  many  crimes.  Instead  of  contimiing  to  swing  the  tomahawk, 
they  now  smoked  the  calumet,  and  amalgamated  in  1821,  under  the  name  of 
the  "  Hudson's  Bay  Company,"  and  under  the  wing  of  the  charter.  The  Brit- 
ish Government,  as  a  dowry  to  the  impoverished  couple,  presented  them  with  a 
license  of  exclusive  trade  throughout  the  whole  of  that  territory  which,  under 
the  name  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  and  North-west  territories,  extends  from  Lab- 
rador to  the  Pacific,  and  from  the  Red  River  to  tlie  Polar  Ocean.  This  license 
was  terminable  in  21  years,  but  in  1838  it  was  renewed  again  for  the  same  pe- 
riod. The  good  effects  of  peace  and  union  soon  became  apparent,  for  after  a 
few  years  the  Company  was  enabled  to  pay  half-yearly  dividends  of  five  per 
cent.,  and  the  Indians,  to  whom  brandy  was  now  no  longer  supplied  unless  as  a 
medicine,  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  a  more  sober  life. 

About  1848  the  Imperial  Government,  fearing  that  Vancouver's  Island 
might  be  annexed  by  the  United  States,  resolved  to  place  it  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  This  was  accordingly  done  in  1849.  A 
license  of  exclusive  trade  and  management  was  granted  for  ten  years,  termina- 
ble therefore  in  1859  (the  time  of  expiration  of  the  similar  license  over  the 
Indian  territory). 

These  were  the  palmy  days  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  They  held 
Rupert's  Land  by  the  royal  charter,  which  was  perpetual;  they  held  Vancou- 
ver's Island  and  the  whole  Indian  territory  to  the  Pacific  by  exclusive  licenses, 
terminable  in  1859  ;  and  thus  maintained  under  their  sole  sway  about  4,000,000 
square  miles — a  realm  larger  than  the  whole  of  Europe. 

For  the  -ten  years  ending  May  31,  1862,  the  average  net  annual  profits  of  the 
Company  amounted  to  £81,000  on  a  paid-up  capital  of- £400,000,  but  a  portion 
only  of  this  income  was  distributed  as  dividend. 

In  1863  the  Company  was  reconstructed,  with  a  capital  of  £2,000,000,  for  the 
purpose  of  enlarging  its  operations — such  as  opening  the  southei'o^nd  more 
fruitful  districts  of  the  Saskatchewan  or  the  Winipeg  to  Eui'opean  coloniza- 
tion ;  but  the  northern,  and  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  the  vast  domains  over 
which,  after  the  dismemberment  of  British  Columbia  and  the  Stikine  territory, 
it  still  holds  sway,  have  too  severe  a  climate  ever  to  be  cultivated,  and,  unless 
their  mineral  wealth  be  made  available,  must  ever  be  what  they  are  now — a 
fur-bearing  region  of  gloomy  pine-forests,  naked  barren  -  grounds,  lakes,  and 
morasses. 

Over  this  vast  extent  of  desert  the  Company  has  established  about  150  trad- 
ing-posts, called  "  houses^''  or  ''forts,''^  which,  however,  consist  merely  of  a  few 
magazines  and  dwelling-houses,  protected  by  a  simple  wall,  stockade,  or  palisade 
sufficiently  strong  to  resist  any  sudden  attack  of  the  Indians.  Among  the  tribes,' 
with  whom  a  friendly  intercourse  has  long  subsisted,  and  whose  fidelity  may 
implicitly  be  trusted,  no  guard  is  ever  kept,  and  it  is  only  in  forts  more  recent- 
ly built  in  remote  parts  that  precautions  are  taken. 

These  forts  are  always  situated  on  the  borders  of  a  lake  or  river,  both  for  fa- 
cility of  transport  and  for  the  purpose  of  catching  fish,  particularly  the  species 
of  Coregonus,  or  white-fish,  which,  from  its  importance  to  all  the  natives  of 


THE    FUR-TRADE    OF   THE   HUDSON'S   BAY   TERRITORIES.  311 

Rupert's  Laud  between  the  great  Canada  lakes  and  tlie  Arctic  Sea,  the  Crees 
call  Attihawmeg,  or  the  "  reindeer  of  the  waters."     In  many  of  the  trading- 


posts  it  forms  the  chief  food  of  the  wliite  residents;  and  it  is  asserted  that 
though  deprived  of  bread  and  vegetables,  a  man  may  live  upon  it  for  montlis  or 


313 


THE    POLAK  AVORLD. 


even  yeavs  without  tiring.  According  to  Sir  John  Richardson,  no  fish  in  any 
country  or  sea  excels  the  white-fish  in  flavor  and  wholesomeness,  and  it  is  the 
most  beneficial  article  of  diet  to  the  Red  Indians  near  the  Arctic  Circle,  being 
obtained  with  more  certainty  than  the  reindeer,  and  with  less  change  of  abode 
in  summer  and  winter. 

Each  of  the  principal  forts  is  the  seat  of  a  chief  factor,  or  general  adminis- 
trator of  a  district,  and  of  a  chief  trader,  who  transacts  the  business  with  the 
Indians. 

Besides  these  principal  functionaries — out  of  whom  the  governor  is  chosen 
— the  Company  employed,  in  1860,  5  surgeons,  8Y  clerks,  67  postmasters,  1200 
permanent  servants,  and  500  voyageurs,  besides  temporary  employes  of  differ- 
ent ranks,  so  that  the  total  number  of  persons  in  its  jjay  was  at  least  3000. 
Besides  this  little  army  of  immediate  dependents,  the  whole  male  Indian  popu- 
lation of  its  vast  territory,  amounting  to  about  100,000  hunters  and  trappers, 
may  be  considered  as  actively  employed  in  the  service  of  the  Company,  Arm- 
ed vessels,  both  sailing  and  steam,  are  employed  on  the  north-west  coast  to  cai'- 
ry  on  the  fur-trade  with  the  warlike  natives  of  that  distant  region.  More  than 
twenty  years  ago  this  trade  alone  gave  employment  to  about  1 000  men,  occupy- 
ing 21  permanent  establishments,  or  engaged  in  navigating  five  armed  sailing- 
vessels  and  one  armed  steamer,  varying  from  100  to  300  tons  in  burden. 

The  influence  of  the  Company  over  its  savage  dependents  may  justly  be 
called  beneficial.  Both  from  motives  of  humanity  and  self-interest,  every  effort 
is  made  to  civilize  them.     No  expense  is  spared  to  preserve  them  from  the 


tkadek's  camp. 


THE   FUR-TRADE   OF   THE    HUDSON^S   BAY    TERRITORIES.  013 

want  into  which  their  improvidence  too  often  phmges  them ;  and  the  example 
of  an  inflexible  straightforwardness  serves  to  gain  tlieir  confidence.  This  moral 
preponderance,  and  the  admiration  of  the  Indian  for  the  superior  knowledge 
and  arts  of  the  Europeans,  explain  how  a  mere  handful  of  white  men,  scattered 
over  an  enormous  territory,  not  only  lead  a  life  of  perfect  security,  but  exercise 
an  almost  absolute  power  over  a  native  population  outnumbering  them  at  least 
several  hundred  times.  The  Indians  have  in  course  of  time  acquired  many  new 
wants,  and  have  thus  become  more  and  more  dependent  on  the  white  traders. 
The  savage  hunter  is  no  longer  the  free,  self-dependent  man,  who,  without  any 
foreign  assistance,  was  able  to  make  and  manufacture,  with  his  own  hands,  all 
the  wea'pons  and  articles  needed  for  his  maintenance.  Without  English  tire- 
arms  and  fishing-gear,  without  iron-ware  and  woollen  blankets,  he  could  no  long- 
er exist,  and  the  ixnfortun ate  tribe  on  which  the  Company  should  close  its  stores 
would  soon  perish  for  want.  "  History,"  says  Professor  Hind, "  does  not  fur- 
nish another  example  of  an  association  of  private  individuals  exerting  a  power- 
ful influence  over  so  large  an  extent  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  administering 
their  affairs  with  such  consummate  skill  and  unwavering  devotion  to  the  origi- 
nal objects  of  their  incorpoi'ation." 

The  standard  of  exchange  in  all  mercantile  transactions  with  the  natives  is  a 
beaver  skin,  the  relative  value  of  which,  as  originally  established  by  the  traders, 
differs  considerably  from  the  present  worth  of  the  articles  represented  by  it ; 
but  the  Indians  are  averse  to  change.  They  receive  their  principal  outfit  of 
clothing  and  ammunition  on  credit  in  the  autumn,  to  be  repaid  by  their  Avinter 
hunts ;  the  amount  intrusted  to  each  of  the  hunters  varying  with  their  reputa- 
tions for  industry  and  skill. 

The  furs  Avhich,  in  the  course  of  the  year,  are  accumulated  in  the  various 
forts  or  trading-stations,  are  transported  in  the  short  time  during  which  the 
rivers  and  lakes  are  navigable,  and  in  the  manner  described  at  the  beginning  of 
the  chapter,  to  York  Factory,  or  Moose  Factory,  on  Hudson's  Bay,  to  Montreal 
or  Vancouver,  and  shipped  from  thence  mostly  to  London.  From  the  more 
distant  posts  in  the  interior,  the  transport  often  requires  several  seasons ;  for 
travelUng  is  necessarily  very  slow  when  rapids  and  portages  continually  inter- 
rupt navigation,  and  the  long  winter  puts  a  stop  to  all  intercourse  whatever. 

The  goods  from  Europe,  consisting  (besides  those  mentioned  above)  of 
printed  cotton  or  silk  handkerchiefs,  or  neck-cloths,  of  beads,  and  the  universal 
favorite  tobacco,  require  at  least  as  much  time  to  find  their  w^ay  into  the  distant 
interior ;  and  thus  the  Company  is  not  seldom  obliged  to  wait  for  four,  five, 
or  six  years  before  it  receiv.es  its  returns  for  the  articles  sent  from  London. 
It  must,  however,  be  confessed,  that  it  amply  repays  itself  foi*  the  tediousness 
of  delay,  for  Dr.  Armstrong  was  told  by  the  Esquimaux  of  Cape  Batliurst— a 
tribe  in  the  habit  of  trading  with  the  Indians  from  the  Mackenzie,  who  are  in 
direct  communication  with  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  agents — that  for  three 
silver-fox  skins — which  sometimes  fetch  as  high  a  price  as  twenty-five  or  thirty 
guineas  apiece  at  the  annual  sale  of  the  Company — they  had  got  from  the  trad- 
ers cooking  utensils  which  might  be  worth  eight  shillings  and  sixpence ! 

The  value  of  the  skins  annually  imported  into  England  by  the  Company 


314 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


amounts  to  about  £150,000  or  £200,000.     Besides,  many  of  its  furs  are  bartered 
for  Russian-American  peltry,  nnd  n,  laro-e  quantity  is  exported  direct  to  China. 


After  this  brief  account  of  one  of  the  most  remarkable  mercantile  associa- 
tions of  any  age,  some  remark  on  the  chief  fur-bearing  animals  of  the  Hudson's 


THE   FUR-TRADE   OF   THE    HUDSON'S    BAY   TERRITORIES.  315 

Bay  territory  may  not  be  without  interest.  Among  these,  the  black  boar, 
•Inuskwa,  or  baribal  {Ursus  americanus),is  one  of  the  most  vahiable,  as  his  long 
]iair — unlike  that  of  the  brown  or  the  white  bear — is  beautifully  smooth  and 
glossy.  He  inhabits  the  forest  regions  of  North  America,  but  migrates  accord- 
ing to  the  seasons.  In  spring  he  seeks  his  food  in  the  thickets  along  the  banks 
of  the  rivers  or  lakes ;  in  summer  he  retreats  into  the  forests ;  in  winter  he 
either  wanders  farther  to  the  south,  or  hollows  out  a  kind  of  lair  beneath  the 
root  of  an  overthrown  tree,  where,  as  the  cold  is  more  or  less  severe,  he  either 
finds  a  retreat  after  his  excursions,  or  hibernates  buried  in  the  snow.  He  feeds 
chiefly  on  berries,  grain,  acorns,  roots,  eggs,  and  honey ;  though,  when  pressed 
by  hunger,  he  will  attack  other  quadrupeds.  He  climbs  upon  trees  or  rocks 
with  great  agility,  and,  being  very  watchful,  is  not  easily  got  at  in  summer. 
Sometimes,  however,  his  caution  brings  about  his  destruction ;  for,  from  fear 
of  some  possible  danger,  or  at  the  slightest  noise,  he  rises  on  his  hind  legs  to 
look  over  the  bushes  under  which  he  lies  concealed,  and  thus  offers  a  mark  to 
the  bullet  of  the  hunter.  In  the  winter,  when  the  snow  betrays  his  traces,  he 
is  more  easily  shot,  and  his  skin  and  flesh  are  then  also  in  the  best  condition. 
In  spite  of  his  apparent  clumsiness  and  stolidity,  the  muskwa  is  more  alert 
than  the  brown  bear,  whom  he  nearly  approaches  in  size ;  he  runs  so  fast  that  no 
man  can  overtake  him,  and  m  an  excellent  swimmer  and  climber.  When  attacked, 
he  generally  retreats  as  fast  as  possible  into  the  forest ;  but  if  escape  is  im- 
possible, he  turns  furiously  upon  his  pursuers,  and  becomes  exceedingly  danger- 
ous. Dogs  alone  are  incapable  of  mastering  him,  as  he  is  always  ready  to  re- 
ceive them  with  a  stroke  of  his  fore  paw ;  but  they  are  very  useful  in  driving 
him  up  a  tree,  and  thus  giving  the  hunter  an  opportunity  of  hitting  him  in  the 
right  spot.  When  in  a  state  of  captivity,  the  baribal,  in  his  mild  and  good- 
humored  disposition,  is  distinguished  from  the  brown  and  white  bear.  His 
fur  is  also  much  more  valuable  than  that  of  the  brown  bear. 

It  is  not  yet  fully  ascertained  whether  the  American  brown  bear  is  identical 
with  that  of  Europe ;  the  resemblance,  however,  is  close.  In  summer  he  wan- 
ders to  the  shores  of  the  Polar  Sea,  and  indulges  more  frequently  in  animal 
food  than  the  baribal.  He  is  even  said  to  attack  man  when  pressed  by  hunger ; 
but  all  those  whom  Sir  John  Richardson  met  with  ran  away  as  soon  as  they 
saw  him. 

As  the  grizzly  bear  {Ursus  ferox)  is  found  on  the  Rocky  jNIountains  up  to 
the  latitude  of  61°,  he  undoubtedly  deserves  a  place  among  the  sub-arctic  ani- 
mals. The  skin  of  this  most  formidable  of  the  ursine  race,  who  is  about  nine 
feet  long,  and  is  said  to  attain  the  weight  of  eight  hundred  pounds,  is  but  little 
prized  in  the  fur-trade.  He  is  the  undoubted  monarch  of  his  native  wilds,  for 
even  the  savage  bison  flies  at  his  approach. 

Although  the  raccoon  {Procyon  lotoi')  is  more  commonly  found  in  Canada 
and  the  United  States,  yet  he  is  also  an  inhabitant  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  terri- 
tories, where  he  is  met  with  up  to  56°  N.  lat.  This  interesting  little  animal, 
which,  like  the  bears,  applies  the  sole  of  its  foot  to  the  ground  in  walking,  has 
an  average  length  of  two  feet  from  the  nose  to  the  tail,  Avhich  is  about  ten  inch- 
es long.     Its  color  is  grayish-brown,  with  a  dusky  line  running  from  the  top  of 


316  THE   POLAR  WOELD. 

the  head  down  the  middle  of  the  face,  and  endmg  below  the  eyes.  The  tail  is 
very  thickly  covered  with  hair,  and  is  annulated  Avith  several  black  bars  on  a* 
yellowish-white  ground..  Its  face  is  very  like  that  of  the  fox,  whom  it  equals 
in  cunning,  while  its  active  and  jDlayful  habits  resemble  those  of  the  monkey. 
Its  favorite  haunts  are  the  woods,  near  streams  or  lakes,  for  one  of  its  most 
marked  peculiarities,  from  which  it  has  received  its  specific  name  of  lotor,  or  the 
washer,  is  its  habit  of  plunging  its  dry  food  into  water  before  eating  it.  The 
raccoon  devours  almost  any  thing  that  comes  in  his  way — fruits  and  grain  of  all 
sorts,  birds'  nests,  mice,  grasshoppers,  beetles :  while  the  waters  yield  him  fishes, 
crabs,  and  oysters,  Avhich  he  is  very  expert  in  opening.  His  fur  forms  no  in- 
considerable article  of  commerce,  and  is  very  fashionable  in  Russia.  In  1841, 
11 1,3 16  raccoon  skins  were  imported  into  St.  Petersburg,  and  more  than  half  a 
million  were  stapled  in  Leipzig,  intended,  no  doubt,  for  smuggling  across  the 
frontier. 

The  fur  of  the  American  glutton,  or  wolverine,  is  much  used  for  muffs  and 
linings ;  yet,  from  its  being  a  notorious  robber  of  their  traps,  the  animal  is  as 
much  hated  by  the  Indian  hunters  as  the  dog-fish  by  the  northern  fishermen. 

The  Hudson's  Bay  territories  can  not  boast  of  the  sable,  but  the  American 
pine  marten  {3Iartes  aUetum)  is  not  much  inferior  in  value,  as  its  dark-brown 
fur  is  remarkably  fine,  thick,  and  glossy.  It  frequents  the  woody  districts, 
where  it  preys  on  birds,  and  all  the  smaller  quadrupeds  from  the  hare  to  the 
mouse.  Even  the  squirrel  is  incapable  of  escaping  the  pine  martenj  and  after 
having  vaulted  and  climbed  from  tree  to  tree,  sinks  at  last  exhausted  into  its 
gripe. 

The  pekan,  or  woodshock  {3Iart€S  canadensis),  the  largest  of  the  marten  fam- 
ily, is  also  the  one  Avhich  most  richly  supplies  the  fur-market.  It  is  found  over 
the  whole  of  North  America,  and  generally  lives  in  burrows  near  the  banks  of 
rivers,  as  it  principally  feeds  on  the  small  quadrupeds  that  frequent  the  water. 

Several  species  of  ermine  inhabit  the  Hudson's  Bay  territories,  but  their 
skins  are  of  no  great  importance  in  the  fur-trade.  Like  many  other  species  of 
the  marten  family,  they  eject,  when  irritated  or  alarmed,  a  fluid  of  a  fetid  odor : 
but  in  this  respect  they  are  far  surpassed  by  the  chinga  {Ifephitis  chinga), 
whose  secretion  has  so  intolerable  a  smell  that  the  least  quantity  sufiices  to  pro- 
duce nausea  and  a  sense  of  suffocation.  This  animal  is  frequently  found  near 
Hudson's  Bay,  whence  it  extends  farther  to  the  north.  In  spite  of  the  formi- 
dable means  of  defense  with  which  it  has  been  armed  by  nature,  it  is  of  use  to 
man,  for  its  black  and  white  striped  fur  (which,  as  may  easily  be  supposed, 
never  appears  in  the  European  market)  provides  the  Indians  with  coverings 
or  tobacco-pouches.  Before  seizing  the  chinga,  they  irritate  it  with  a  long- 
switch  until  it  has  repeatedly  emptied  the  glands  from  which  the  noxious  va- 
por issues ;  then  suddenly  springing  upon  it,  they  hold  it  up  by  the  tail  and 
dispatch  it. 

The  mink  {Vison  americanus),  another  member  of  the  weasel  family,  is  one 
of  the  most  important  fur-bearing  animals  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  territories.  It 
resembles  the  small  European  fish-otter  {Vison  lutreola),  but  its  skin  is  far  more 
valuable — the  brown  hair  with  which  it  is  covered  beino;  much  softer  and  thick* 


THE   FUR-TRADE    OF   THE   HUDSON'S   BAY   TERRITORIES.  317 

er.  As  its  toes  are  connected  by  a  small  web,  it  is  an  excellent  swimmer,  and 
as  formidable  to  the  salmon  or  trout  in  the  water  as  to  the  hare  on  land. 

The  Canadian  fish-otter  {Lutra  canadensis)  far  surpasses  the  European  spe- 
cies, both  in  size  and  in  the  beauty  of  its  glossy  brown  skin.  It  occurs  as  far 
northward  as  66°  or  67°  lat.,  and  is  generally  taken  by  sinking  a  steel  trap 
near  the  mouth  of  its  burrow.  It  has  the  habit  of  sliding  or  climbing  to  the 
top  of  a  ridge  of  snow  in  winter,  or  of  a  sloping  moist  bank  in  summer,  where, 
lying  on  the  belly,  with  the  fore  feet  bent  backward,  it  gives  itself  with  the 
hind  legs  an  impulse  Avhich  sends  it  swiftly  down  the  eminence.  This  school- 
boy sport  it  continues  for  a  long  time. 

The  red  fox  {J^ulpes  falvus),\/h\c\i  is  found  throughout  the  Hudson's  Bay 
territories,  has  likewise  a  much  finer  fur  than  our  common  fox.  It  is  of  a  bright 
ferruginous  red  on  the  head,  back,  and  sides ;  beneath  the  chin  it  is  white, 
while  the  throat  and  neck  are  of  a  dark  gray,  and  the  under  parts  of  the  body, 
toward  the  tail,  are  of  a  very  pale  red.  The  crossed  fox  {Canis  decussatus), 
thus  named  from  the  black  cross  on  its  shoulders,  is  still  more  valuable ;  its 
skin — the  color  of  which  is  a  sort  of  gray,  resulting  from  the  mixture  of  black 
and  Avhite  hair — being  worth  four  or  five  guineas.  Peltry  still  more  costly  is 
furnished  by  the  black  or  silvery  fox  {Canis  argentatus),  whose  copious  and 
beautiful  fur  is  of  a  rich  and  shining  black  or  deep  brown  color,  with  the  long- 
er or  exterior  hairs  of  a  silvery  white.  Unfortunately  it  is  of  such  rare  occur- 
rence that  not  more  than  four  or  five  are  annually  brought  to  a  trading-post. 

The  Canada  lynx,  or  pishu  {Lynx  canadensis),  is  smaller  than  the  European 
species,  but  has  a  finer  fur,  those  skins  being  most  valued  which  approach  to  a 
pale  or  whitish  color,  and  on  which  the  spots  are  most  distinct.  It  chiefly  feeds 
on  the  hare  {Lepus  americanus),  which  is  not  much  larger  than  a  rabbit,  and 
is  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Mackenzie  as  far  north  as  68°  or  69°. 

Still  neai-er  to  the  Pole,  the  ice-hare  {Lepus  glacialis)  i-anges  as  far  as  the 
Parry  Islands  (75°  N.  lat.),  where  it  feeds  on  the  ai'Ctic  willow,  and  other  high 
northern  plants.  Its  favorite  resorts  are  the  stony  districts,  where  it  easily 
finds  a  refuge ;  in  winter  it  burrows  in  the  snow.  In  summer  its  back  is  gray- 
ish white,  but  as  the  cold  increases,  it  becomes  white,  with  the  exception  of  the 
tips  of  the  ears,  which  remain  constantly  black. 

Formerly  the  beaver  {Castor  Jihe?^)  was  the  most  important  of  the  fur-bear- 
ing animals  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  territories.  In  th^  year  1743,  127,000  beaver 
skins  were  exported  from  Montreal  to  La  Rochelle,  and  26,700  by  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  to  London.  At  present,  the  exportation  hardly  amounts  to  one- 
third  of  this  quantity.  As  the  beaver  chiefly  lives  on  the  barks  of  the  willow, 
the  beech,  and  the  poplar,  it  is  not  found  beyond  the  forest  region  ;  but  along 
the  banks  of  the  Mackenzie  it  reaches  a  very  high  latitude. 

The  musk-rat,  ondatra  or  musquash  {Fiber  zihethicus) — which  is  about  the 
size  of  a  small  rabbit,  and  of  a  reddish-brown  color — is  called  by  the  Indians 
the  younger  brother  of  the  beaver,  as  it  has  similar  instincts.  Essentially  a 
bank-haunting  animal,  it  is  never  to  be  seen  at  any  great  distance  from  the 
water,  where  it  swims  and  dives  with  consummate  ease,  aided  greatly  by  the 
webs  which  connect  the  hinder  toes.     It  drives  a  large  series  of  tunnels  into 


^18 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


tlie  bank  branching  out  in  various  directions,  and  having  several  entrances,  all 
of  which  open  under  the  surface  of  the  Avater.  If  the  animal  happens  to  live 
upon  a  marshy  and  uniformly  wet  soil,  it  becomes  a  builder,  and  lives  in  curi- 
ously-constructed huts,  from  three  to  four  feet  in  height,  plastered  with  great . 
neatness  in  the  inside,  and  strengthened  externally  with  a  kind  of  basket-work 
of  rushes,  carefully  interlaced  together.  The  judgment  of  the  animal  shows 
itself  in  the  selection  of  the  site,  invariably  choosing  some  ground  above  the 
reach  of  inundation,  or  else  raising  its  hut  on  an  artificial  foundation;  for, 
though  obliged  to  reside  near  flat, 'submerged  banks,  where  the  soft  soil  is  full 
of  nourishing  roots,  it  requii-es  a  dry  home  to  rest  in. 

In  winter  the  musquash  villages — for  the  huts  are  sometimes  built  in  such 
numbers  together  as  to  deserve  that  name — are  generally  covered  Avith  thick 
snow,  under  which  this  rodent  is  able  to  procure  w^atei",  or  to  reach  the  i^rovis- 
ions  laid  up  in  its  storeliouse.  Thus  it  lives  in  ease  and  plenty,  for  the  marten 
is  too  averse  to  the  water,  and  the  otter  too  bulky  to  penetrate  into  its  tunnel!>. 
But  when  the  snow  melts,  and  the  huts  of  the  musquash  appear  above  the 
o-round,  the  Indian,  taking  in  his  hand  a  large  four-barbed  spear,  steals  up  to 
the  house,  and  driving  his  weapon  through  the  walls,  is  sure  to  pierce  the  ani- 
mals inside.  Holding  the  spear  firmly  with  one  hand,  he  takes  his  tomahawk 
from  his  belt,  dashes  the  house  to  pieces,  and  secures  the  inmates.  Another 
method  employed  by  the  Indians  to  capture  the  musquash  is  to  block  up  the 
different  entrances  to  their  tunnels,  and  then  to  intercept  the  animals  as  they 
try  to  escape.  Sometimes  the  gun  is  used,  but  not  very  frequently,  as  the  mus- 
quash is  so  wary  that  it  dives  at  the  least  alarm,  and  darts  into  one  of  its  holes. 
The  trap,  however,  is  the  ordinary  means  of  destruction.  The  soft  and  glossy 
fur  of  the  musquash,  though  Avorth  no  more  than  from  Qd.  to  9f?.,  is  still  a  not 
inconsiderable  article  of  trade,  as  no  less  than  half  a  million  skins  are  annually 
imported  into  England  for  hat-making ;  nor  is  there  any  fear  of  the  musquash 
being  extirpated,  in  spite  of  its  many  enemies,  as  it  multiplies  very  fast,  and  is 
found  near  every  swamp  or  lake  Avith  grassy  banks  as  far  as  the  confines  of  tlie 
Polar  Sea. 


THE   CREE   INDIANS,  OR  EYTHINYUWUK. 


31i) 


<  s    ~     -^  >-■»■ 


HUNTING  BISON  IN   THE   SNOW. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

THE  CREE  INDIANS,  OR  EYTHINYUWUK. 

The  various  Tribes  of  the  Crees.— Their  Conquests  and  subsequent  Defeat.— Their  Wars  with  the  Black- 
feet.— Their  Character.— Tattooing.— Their  Dress.— Fondness  for  their  Children.— The  Cree  Cradle.— 
Vapor  Baths. — Games. — Their  religious  Ideas.' — The  Cree  Tartarus  and  Elysium. 

THE  various  tribes  of  the  Crees,  or  Eythinyiawuk,  range  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  plains  of  the  Saskatchewan  to  the  swampy  shores  of 
Hudson's  Bay.  Towards  the  west  and  north  they  border  on  the  Tinne,  towards 
the  east  and  south,  on  the  Ojibbeway  or  Sauteurs,  who  belong  like  them  to  the 
great  family  of  the  Lenni-lenape  Indians,  and  inhabit  the  lands  between  Lake 
AVinipeg  and  Lake  Superior. 

About  sixty  years  since,  at  the  time  when  Napoleon  was  deluging  Europe 
with  blood,  the  Crees  likewise  played  the  part  of  conquerors,  and  subdued  even 
more  extensive,  though  less  valuable  domains. 

Provided  with  fire-arras,  which  at  that  time  Avere  unknown  to  their  northern 
and  western  neighbors,  they  advanced  as  far  as  the  Arctic  Circle,  imposing 
tribute  on  the  various  tribes  of  the  Tinne.  But  their  triumphs  were  not  more 
durable  than  those  of  the  great  European  conqueror. 

The  sraall-pox  broke  out  among  them  and  swept  them  away  by  thousands. 
Meanwhile  the  Tinne  tribes  had  remained  untouched  by  this  terrible  scourge ; 
and  as  the  agents  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  advancing  farther  and  farther 
to  the  west  and  north,  had  likewise  made  them  acquainted  with  tlie  use  of  fire- 
arms, they  in  their  turn  became  the  aggressors,  and  drove  the  Crees  before  them. 


320 


THE   POLAR  WORLD. 


Their  former  conquerors  now  partly  migrated  to  the  south,  and  leaving  the 
forest  region,  where  they  had  hunted  the  reindeer  and  the  elk,  spread  over  the 
prairies  of  the  Saskatchewan,  where  they  now  pursued  the  herds  of  bison, 
soiiaetimes  driving  them  over  a  precipice,  or  chasing  them  on  foot  through  the 
snow.  But  in  their  new  abodes  they  became  engaged  in  constant  feuds  with 
their  new  neighbors  the  Assiniboins  and  Blackfeet,  who  of  course  resented 
their  intrusion. 

The  romance  in  which  the  manners  and  character  of  the  Indians  are  por- 
trayed might  lead  us  to  attribute  to  these  people  a  loftiness  of  soul  for  which 
it  would  be  vain  to  look  in  the  present  day,  and  which  without  much  skepticism 
we  may  assert  they  never  really  possessed.  Actions  prompted  only  by  the  ca- 
price of  a  barbarous  people  have  been  considered  as  the  results  of  refined  sen- 
timent;  and  savage  cunning,  seen  through  the  false  medium  of  prejudice,  as- 
sumed the  nobler  proportions  of  a  far-sighted  policy.  But  though  the  history 
of  the  wars  of  the  Indians  among  themselves  and  with  the  Europeans  affords 
but  few  instances  of  heroism,  it  abounds  in  traits  of  revolting  cruelty,  and  in 
pictures  of  indescribable  wretchedness. 

A  large  party  of  Blackfeet  once  made  a  successful  foray  in  the  territory  of 
the  Ci'ees.  But  meanwhile  the  latter  surprised  the  camp  where  the  aggressors 
had  left  their  wives  and  children ;  and  thus,  when  the  Blackfeet  returned  to 
their  tents,  they  found  desolation  and  death  where  they  looked  for  a  joyful  wel- 
come. In  their  despair  they  cast  away  their  arms  and  their  booty,  and  retired 
to  the  mountains,  where  for  three  days  and  nights  they  wailed  and  mourned. 


'->^^. 


A   HEKD   OF   BISON. 


THE   CREE   INDIANS,  OR  EYTHINYUWUK. 


331 


*.s     ^^^-iS» 


DRIVING    BISON  OVER  A  PRECIPICE. 


In  the  year  1 840  a  bloody  war  broke 
out  between  the  Crees  and  the  Black- 
feet,  arising  as  in  general  from  a  very 
trifling  cause.  Peace  was  at  length  con- 
cluded, but  while  the  two  nations  weie 
celebrating  this  fortunate  event  with 
games  and  races,  a  Cree  stele  a  ragged 
blanket,  and  a  new  fight  immediately 
began.  Returning  home,  the  Blackfeet 
met  a  Cree  chief  tain,  with  two  of  his 
Avarriors,  and  killed  them  after  a  short 
altercation.  Soon  after  the  Crees  sur- 
prised and  murdered  some  of  the  Black- 
feet,  and  thus  the  war  raged  more  furiously  than  ever.  Sir  George  Simpson, 
who  was  travelling  through  the  country  at  the  time,  visited  the  hut  of  a  Cree 
who  had  been  wounded  in  the  conflict  at  the  peace  meeting.  As  in  his  flight 
he  bent  over  his  horse's  neck,  a  ball  had  struck  him  on  the  right  side,  and  re- 
mained sticking  near  the  articulation  of  the  left  shoulder.  In  this  condition  lie 
had  already  lain  for  three-and-thirty  days,  his  left  arm  frightfully  swollen,  and 
the  rest  of  his  body  emaciated  to  a  skeleton.  Near  the  dying  savage,  Avhose 
glassy  eye  and  contracted  features  spoke  of  the  dreadful  pain  of  Avhich  he  dis- 
dained to  speak,  lay  his  child,  reduced  to  skin  and  bones,  and  expressing  by  a 
perpetual  moaning  the  pangs  of  illness  and  hunger,  while  most  to  be  pitied 
perhaps  of  this  wretched  family  was  the  wife  and  mother,  who  seemed  to 
be  sinking  under  the  double  load  of  care  and  fatigue.  During  the  night  the 
"medicine-man"  was  busy  beating  his  magic  drum  and  driving  away  the  evil 
spirits  from  the  hut. 

Although  the  Crees  show  great  fortitude  in  enduring  hunger  and  the  other 
evils  incident  to  a  hunter's  life,  yet  any  unusual  accident  dispirits  them  at  once, 
and  they  seldom  venture  to  meet  their  enemies  in  open  warfare,  or  even  to  sur- 
prise them,  unless  they  have  a  great  advantage  in  point  of  numbers.  Instances 
of  personal  bravery  like  that  of  the  Esquimaux  are  rare  indeed  among  them. 
Superior  in  personal  appearance  to  the  Tinne,  they  are  less  honest,  and  though 
perhaps  not  so  much  given  to  falsehood  as  the  Tinno,  are  more  turbulent  and 
more  prompt  to  invade  the  rights  of  their  countrymen,  as  well  as  of  neighbor- 
ing nations. 

21 


323 


THE   POLAR  WORLD. 


Tattooing  is  almost  universal  among  them.     The  women  are  in  general  con- 
tent with  having  one  or  two  lines  drawn  from  the  corners  of  the  mouth  towards 


IP' 


|r 


the  angles  of  the  lower  jaw,  but  some  of  the  men  have  their  bodies  covered 
with  lines  and  figures.     It  seems  to  be  considered  by  most  rather  as  a  proof  of 


THE   CREE   INDIANS,  OR  EYTHINYUWUK.  323 

courage  than  an  ornament,  as  the  oi^eration  is  both  painful  and  tedious.  The 
lines  on  the  face  are  formed  by  dexterously  running  an  awl  under  the  cuticle, 
and  then  drawing  a  cord,  dipped  in  charcoal  and  water,  through  the  canal  thus 
formed.  The  punctures  on  the  body  are  made  by  needles  of  various  sizes,  set 
in  a  frame.  A  number  of  hawk-bells  attached  to  this  frame  serve,  by  their  noise, 
to  cover  the  groans  of  the  sufferer,  and  probably  for  the  same  reason  the  process 
is  accomj^anied  with  singing.  An  indelible  stain  is  produced  by  rubliing  a  lit- 
tle finely-powdered  willow-charcoal  into  the  puncture.  A  half-breed,  whose  arm 
was  amputated  by  Sir  John  Richardson,  declared  that  tatooing  was  not  only 
the  more  painful  operation  of  the  two,  but  rendered  infinitely  more  difficult  to 
bear  by  its  tediousness,  having  lasted,  in  his  case,  three  days. 

The  Crees  are  also  fond  of  painting  their  faces  with  vermilion  and  charcoal. 
In  general  the  dress  of  the  male  consists  of  a  blanket  thrown  over  the  shoulders, 
a  leathern  shirt  or  jacket,  and  a  piece  of  cloth  tied  round  the  middle.  The 
women  have  in  addition  a  long  petticoat,  and  both  sexes  wear  a  kind  of  wide 
hose,  which,  reaching  from  the  ankle  to  the  middle  of  the  thigh,  are  suspended 
by  strings  to  the  girdle.  These  hose,  or  "  Indian  stockings,"  are  commonly  or- 
namented Avith  beads  or  ribands,  and  from  their  convenience  have  been  univer- 
sally adopted  by  the  white  residents,  as  an  essential  part  of  their  winter-cloth- 
ing. Their  shoes,  or  rather  soft  boots  (for  they  tie  round  the  ankle),  are  made 
of  dressed  moose-skins;  and  during  the  winter  they  wrap  several  pieces  of 
blanket  round  their  feet.  They  are  fond  of  European  ai'ticles  of  dress,  such  as 
great-coats,  shawls,  and  calicoes,  which,  however  showy  they  may  be  at  first,  are 
soon  reduced  to  a  very  filthy  condition  by  their  custom  of  greasing  the  face  and 
hair  with  soft  fat  or  marrow.  This  practice  they  say  preserves  the  skin  soft,  and 
protects  it  from  cold  in  the  winter  and  the  mosquitoes  in  summer ;  but  it  ren- 
ders their  presence  disagreeable  to  Europeans  who  may  chance  to  be  seated 
near  them  in  a  close  tent  and  near  a  hot  fire. 

The  Cree  women  are  not  in  general  treated  harshly  by  their  husbands :  a 
great  part  of  the  labor,  however,  falls  to  the  lot  of  the  Avife.  She  makes  the 
hut,  cooks,  dresses  the  skins,  and  for  the  most  part  carries  the  heaviest  load ; 
but  when  she  is  unable  to  perform  her  task,  the  husband  does  not  consider  it 
beneath  his  dignity  to  assist  her. 

The  Crees  are  extremely  indulgent  to  their  children.  The  father  never 
chastises  them ;  and  the  mother,  though  mo*-e  hasty  in  her  temper,  seldom  be- 
stows a  blow  on  a  troublesome  child. 

The  cradle  in  use  among  them  is  Avell  adapted  to  their  mode  of  life,  and  is 
one  of  their  neatest  articles  of  furniture,  being  generally  ornamented  with  beads 
and  bits  of  scarlet  cloth,  but  it  bears  a  very  strong  resemblance  in  its  form  to  a 
mummy-case.  The  infant  is  placed  in  this  bag,  having  its  lower  extremities 
Avrapped  up  in  soft  sphagnum,  or  bog-moss,  and  may  be  hung  up  in  the  tent  or 
to  the  branch  of  a  tree,  without  the  least  danger  of  tumbling  out ;  or,  in  a  jour- 
ney may  be  suspended  on  the  mother's  back  by  a  band  Avhich  crosses  the  fore- 
head so  as  to  leave  her  hands  free.  The  sphagnum  forms  a  soft  elastic  bed, 
Avhich  absorbs  moisture  very  readily,  and  affords  such  a  ])rotection  from  the 
Avinter  cold  tliat  its  place  Avould  be  ill  supplied  by  any  other  material. 


324 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


f  Ml 


VliEE,   VILLAGE. 


The  ordinary  wigwams,  skin  tents,  or  "  lodges  "  of  the  Tinne  and  Crees  are 
exactly  aUke  in  form,  being  extended  on  poles  set  up  in  a  conical  manner ;  but 
as  a  general  rule  the  tents  of  the  latter  are  more  commodious  and  more  fre- 
quently supplied  with  a  fresh  lining  of  the  spray  of  the  balsam-fir.  They  also 
occasionally  erect  a  larger  dwelling  of  lattice-Avork,  covered  with  birch-bark,  in 
which  forty  men  or  more  can  assemble  for  feasting,  debating,  or  performing 
some  of  their  religious  ceremonies.  The  entire  nation  of  the  Eythinyuwuk  cul- 
tivate oratory  more  than  their  northern  neighbors,  who  express  themselves  ?nore 
simply  and  far  less  fluently. 

Vapor  baths  are  in  common  iise  with  the  Crees,  and  form  one  of  the  chief 
remedies  of  their  medicine-men.  The  operator  shuts  himself  up  with  his  patient 
in  the  small  sweating-house — in  Which  red-hot  stones  besprinkled  with  water, 
and  having  a  few  leaves  of  a  species  of  prunus  strewed  around  them,  produce 
a  damp  atmosphere  of  a  stifling  heat — and  shampoos  him,  singing  all  the  time  a 
kind  of  hymn.  As  long  as  the  medicine-man  can  hold  out,  so  long  must  the 
patient  endure  the  intense  heat  of  the  bath,  and  then,  if  the  invalid  be  able  to 
move,  they  both  ])lunge  into  the  river.  If  the  patient  does  not  recover,  he  is  at 
least  more  speedily  released  from  his  sufferings  by  this  powerful  remedy. 

The  Crees  are  a  vain,  fickle,  improvident,  indolent,  and  ludicrously  boastful 
race.  They  are  also  great  gamblers,  but,  instead  of  cards  or  dice,  they  play 
with  the  stones  of  a  species  of  2)ri(m(s.  The  difiiculty  lies  in  guessing  tlie  num- 
ber of  stones  which  are  tossed  out  of  a  small  wooden  dish,  and  the  hunters 
will  spend  whole  nights  at  this  destructive  sport,  staking  their  most  valuable 


THE   CREE   INDIANS,  OR  EYTHINYUWUK.  325 

articles.  They  have,  however,  a  much  more  manly  amusement,  termed  the 
"cross,"  although  they  do  not  engage  even  in  it  without  depositing  consider- 
able stakes.  An  extensive  meadow  is  chosen  for  this  sport,  and  the  articles 
staked  are  tied  to  a  post,  or  deposited  in  the  custody  of  two  old  men.  The  com- 
batants being  stripped  and  painted,  and  each  provided  with  a  kind  of  racket, 
in  shape  resembling  the  letter  P,  with  a  handle  about  two  feet  long,  and  a  head 
loosely  wrought  with  net-work,  so  as  to  form  a  shallow  bag,  range  themselves 
on  different  sides.  A  ball  being  now  tossed  up  in  the  middle,  each  party  en- 
deavors to  drive  it  to  their  respective  goals,  and  much  dexterity  and  agility  is 
displayed  in  the  contest.  "When  a  nimble  runner  gets  the  ball  in  his  cross,  he 
sets  off  towards  the  goal  with  the  utmost  speed,  and  is  followed  by  the  rest,  who 
endeavor  to  jostle  him  and  shake  it  out,  but,  if  hard  pressed,  he  discharges  it 
with  a  jerk,  to  be  forwarded  by  his  own  party  or  bandied  back  by  their  oppo- 
nents until  the  victory  is  decided  by  its  passing  the  goal. 

Neither  the  Esquimaux  nor  the  Tinne  have  any  visible  objects  of  worship, 
but  the  Crees  carry  with  them  small  wooden  figures  rudely  carved,  or  merely 
the  tops  of  a  few  willow-bushes  tied  together,  as  the  representatives  of  a  mali- 
cious, or  at  least  capricious  being,  called  Kepoochikann.  Their  most  common 
petition  to  this  being  is  for  plenty  of  food,  but  as  they  do  not  trust  entirely  to 
his  favor,  they  endeavor  at  the  same  time  to  propitiate  the  animal,  an  imagina- 
ry representative  of  the  whole  race  of  larger  quadrupeds  that  are  objects  of  the 
chase. 

Though  often  referring  to  the  Kitche-manito,  the  "  Great  Spirit,"  or  "  Mas- 
ter of  Life,"  they  do  not  believe  that  he  cares  for  his  creatures,  and  consequent- 
ly never  think  of  praying  to  him.  They  have  no  legend  about  the  creation,  but 
they  speak  of  a  deluge  caused  by  an  attempt  of  the  fish  to  drown  Woesack-oo- 
tchacht,  a  kind  of  demi-god,  with  whom  they  had  quarrelled.  Having  construct- 
ed a  raft,  this  being  embarked  with  his  family  and  all  kinds  of  birds  and  beasts. 
After  the  flood  had  continued  for  some  time,  he  ordered  several  waterfowl  to 
dive  to  the  bottom.  They  were  all  drowned ;  but  a  miisk-rat,  dispatched  on 
the  same  errand,  returned  with  a  mouthful  of  mud,  out  of  which  Woesack- 
ootchacht,  imitating  the  mode  in  which  the  rats  construct  their  houses,  formed 
a  new  earth.  First  a  small  conical  hill  of  mud  appeared  above  the  water ;  by- 
and-by,  its  base  gradually  spreading  out,  it  became  an  extensive  bank,  which 
the  rays  of  the  sun  at  length  hardened  into  firm  land.  Notwithstanding  the 
■  power  that  Woesack-ootchacht  here  displayed,  his  person  is  held  in  very  little 
reverence  by  the  Indians,  who  do  not  thmk  it  worth  while  to  make  any  effort 
to  avert  his  wrath. 

Like  the  Tinne,  the  Crees  also  have  a  Tartarus  and  an  Elysixmi.  The  souls 
of  th6  departed  are  obliged  to  scramble  with  great  labor  up  the  sides  of  a  steep 
mountain,  upon  attaining  the  summit  of  which  they  are  rewarded  with  the 
prospect  of  an  extensive  plain  aboimding  in  all  sorts  of  game,  and  interpersed 
here  and  there  with  new  tents  pitched  in  pleasant  situations.  While  they  are 
absorbed  in  the  contemplation  of  this  delightful  scene,  they  are  descried  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  happy  land,  who,  clothed  in  new  skin  dresses,  approach  and 
welcome,  with  every  demonstration  of  kindness,  those  Indians  who  have  led 


336  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

good  lives,  but  the  bad  Indians  are  told  to  return  from  whence  they  came,  and 
without  more  ceremony  are  hurled  do^\^l  the  precipice. 

As  yet  Christianity  has  made  but  little  progress  among  the  Indians  of  Brit- 
ish North  America,  its  benefits  being  hitherto  confined  to  the  Ojibbeways  of 
Lake  Huron,  and  to  a  small  number  of  the  Crees  of  the  Hudsoti's  Bay  territory. 
The  well-fed  Sauteurs  of  the  Winipeg  are  as  disinclined  to  be  converted  as  the 
buffalo-hunters  of  the  prairies. 


THE  TINNt  INDIANS.  327 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

THE    TINNE    INDIANS. 

The  various  Tribes  of  the  Tinne  Indians.— The  Dng-ribs. — Clothing. — The  Hare  Indians.— Degraded 
State  of  tiie  Women. — Practical  Socialists. — Character. — Cruelty  to  the  Aged  and  Infirm. 

THE  Tinne  Indians,  whose  various  tribes  range  from  the  Lower  Mackenzie 
to  the  Upper  Saskatchewan,  and  from  New  Caledonia  to  the  liead  of  Ches- 
terfield Inlet,  occupy  a  considerable  part  of  the  territories  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company.  To  their  race  belong  the  Strongbows  of  the  Rocky  INIountains  ;  the 
Beaver  Indians,  between  Peace  River  and  the  west  branch  of  the  Macken- 
zie ;  the  Red-knives,  thus  named  from  the  copper  knives  of  which  their  native 
ores  furnish  the  materials,  and  who  roam  between  the  Great  Fish  River  and  the 
Coppermine ;  the  Hare  Indians,  who  inhabit  the  thickly  wooded  district  of  the 
Mackenzie  from  Slave  Lake  downward ;  the  Dog-ribs,  who  occupy  the  inland 
country  on  the  east  from  Martin  Lake  to  the  Coppermine;  the  Athabascans, 
who  frequent  the  Elk  and  Slave  Rivers,  and  many  other  tribes  of  inferior  note. 
The  Tinne,  in  general,  have  more  regular  features  than  the  Esquimaux,  and, 
taken  on  the  whole,  exhibit  all  the  characteristics  of  the  red  races  dwelling- 
farther  south ;  but  their  utter  disregard  of  cleanliness  and  their  abject  be- 
havior (for  when  in  the  company  of  white  people  they  exhibit  the  whine  and 
air  of  inveterate  mendicants)  give  them  a  wretched  appearance.  Mackenzie, 
the  first  European  who  became  acquainted  Avith  the  Dog-ribs,  describes  them 
as  an  ugly  emaciated  tribe,  covered  with  dirt  and  besmeared  with  grease  from 
head  to  foot.  More  than  sixty  years  have  passed  since  Mackenzie's  journey, 
but  his  account  of  them  is  true  to  the  present  day.  The  wotnen  are  even 
uglier  and  more  filthy  than*  the  men,  for  the  latter  at  least  paint  their  unwaslied 
faces  and  wear  trinkets  on  festive  occasions,  while  the  females  leave  even  their 
hair  without  any  other  dressing  than  wiping  their  greasy  hands  on  the  matted 
locks,  when  they  have  been  rubbing  their  bodies  with  man-ow.  The  elothing 
of  the  men  in  summer  consists  of  reindeer  leather  dressed  like  shammy,  which, 
when  newly  made,  is  beautifully  white  and  soft.  "  A  shirt  of  this  material," 
says  Sir  John  Ricliardson,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  best  account  of  the 
various  nations  inhabiting  the  Hudson's  Bay  territorj'^,  "  cut  evenly  below, 
reaches  to  the  middle ;  the  ends  of  a  piece  pi  cloth  secured  to  a  waist-band 
hang  down  before  and  behind;  the  hose, or  Indian  stockings,- descend  from  the 
top  of  the  thigh  to  the  ankle,  and  a  pair  of  moccasins  or  shoes  of  the  same  soft 
leather  with  tops  which  fold  round  the  ankle,  complete  the  costume.  When 
the  hunter  is  equipped  for  the  chase  he  wears,  in  addition,  a  stripe  of  wiute 
hare-skin,  or  of  the  belly  part  of  a  deer-skin,  in  a  bandana  round  the  head,  with 
his  lank,  black  elf-locks  strenniing  from  beneath ;  a  shot-pouch  susi)ended  by 
an  embroidered  belt,  a  fire-bag  or  tobacco-pouch  tucked  into  the  girdle,  and  u 


328  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

Ion o- fowling-piece  thrown  carelessly  across  the  arm,  or  balanced  on  the  back  of- 
the  neck.  The  several  articles  here  enumerated  are  ornamented  at  the  seams 
and  hems  with  leather  thongs  wound  round  with  porcupine  quills,  or  more  or 
less  embroidered  with  bead-work,  according  to  the  industry  of  the  wife  or 
wives.  One  of  the  young  men,  even  of  the  slovenly  Dog-ribs,  when  newly 
equipped,  and  tripping  jauntily  over  the  mossy  ground  with  an  elastic  step,  dis- 
plays his  slim  and  not  ungraceful  figure  to  advantage.  But  this  fine  dress  once 
donned  is  neither  laid  aside  nor  cleaned  while  it  lasts,  and  soon  acquires  a  dingy 
look,  and  an  odor  which  betrays  its  owner  at  some  distance.  In  the  camp  a 
greasy  blanket  of  English  manufacture  is  worn  over  the  shoulders  by  day,  and 
forms  with  the  clothes  the  bedding  by  night." 

In  winter  they  clothe  themselves  with  moose  or  reindeer  skins,  retaining  the 
hair,  while  a  large  robe  of  the  same  material  is  thrown  over  the  shoulders,  and 
hangs  down  to  the  feet  in  place  of  the  blanket.  The  women's  dress  resembles 
the  men's,  but  the  skirt  is  somewhat  longer,  and  generally  accompanied  by  a 
petticoat  which  reaches  nearly  to  the  knee.  The  form  of  dress  here  described 
is  common  to  the  Avhole  Tinne  nation,  and  also  to  the  Crees,  but  the  material 
varies  with  the  district.  Thus  moose-deer,  red-deer,  and  bison  leather  are  in 
use  _ among  the  more  southern  and  western  tribes,  and  the  Hare  Indians  make 
their  skirts  of  the  skins  of  the  animal  from  which  they  derive  their  surname. 
As  this,  however,  is  too  tender  to  be  used  in  the  ordinary  way,  it  is  torn  into 
narrow  strips,  twisted  slightly,  and  plaited  or  worked  into  the  required  shape. 
Such  is  the  closeness  and  fineness  of  the  fur  that  these  hare-skin  dresses  are 
exceedingly  warm,  notwithstanding  the  closeness  of  their  texture. 

The  Hare  Indian  and  Dog-rib  women  are  certainly  at  the  bottom  of  the 
scale  of  humanity  in  North  America.  Not  that  they  are  treated  with  cruelty, 
but  that  they  are  looked  upon  as  inferior  beings,  and  in  this  belief  they  them- 
selves acquiesce.  lu  early  infancy  the  boy  discovers  that  he  may  show  any 
amount  of  arrogance  towards  his  sisters,  who,  as  soon  as  they  can  walk,  are 
harnessed  to  a  sledge,  while  the  tiny  hunter  struts  in  his  snow-shoes  after  the 
men  and  apes  their  contempt  of  the  women.  All  thfe  work,  except  hunting  and 
fishing,  falls  to  their  share ;  yet  they  are  in  general  not  discontented  with  their 
lot. 

It  would  be  vain  to  look  among  the  Dog-ribs  for  the  stoicism  popularly 
attributed  to  the  Indians,  for  they  shrink  from  pain,  shed  tears  readily,  and  are 
very  timorous  ;  but  all,  young  and  old,  enjoy  a  joke  heartily,  and  when  young 
are  lively  and  cheerful.  When  bands  of  their  nation  meet  each  other  after  a 
long  absence,  they  perform  a  kind  of  dance.  A  piece  of  ground  is  cleared  for 
the  purpose,  and  the  dance  freqijently  lasts  for  two  or  three  days,  the  parties 
relieving  each  other  as  they  get  tired.  The  two  bands  commence  the  dance 
with  their  backs  turned  to  each  other,  the  individuals  following  one  another  in 
Indian  file,  and  holding  the  bow  in  the  left  hand  and  an  arrow  in  the  right. 
They  approach  obliquely  after  many  turns,  and  when  the  two  bands  are  closely 
back  to  back,  they  feign  to  see  each  other  for  the  first  time,  and  the  bow  is  in- 
stantly transferred  to  the  right  hand  and  the  arrow  to  the  left,  signifying  that 
it  is  not  their  intention  to  use  them  against  their  friends.     Their  dancing,  which 


THE  TINNlfi   INDIANS.  329 

they  accompany  by  a  chorus  of  groans,  compared  by  Sir  John  Richardson  to 
the  deep  sigh  of  a  pavior  as  he  brings  liis  rammer  down  upon  the  pavement,  has 
not  the  Least  pretensions  to  grace ;  their  knees  and  body  are  half  bent,  and,  from 
their  heavy  stamping,  they  appear  as  if  desirous  of  sinking  into  the  ground. 

The  Dog-ribs  are  practical  socialists,  and  their  wretched  condition  results 
in  a  great  measure  from  this  cause.  All  may  avail  themselves  of  the  produce 
of  a  hunter's  energy  or  skill,  and  do  not  even  leave  him  the  distribution  of  his 
own  game.  "When  it  becomes  known  in  a  camp  that  deer  have  been  killed,  the 
old  men  and  women  of  each  family  sally  forth  with  their  sledges  and  divide  the 
quarry,  leaving  the  owner  nothing  but  the  ribs  and  tongue — all  he  can  claim  of 
right.  Unable  to  restrain  their  appetite,  all  the  community  feast  in  times  of 
abimdance,  however  little  many  of  the  men  (and  there  are  not  a  few  idle  ones) 
may  have  contributed  to  the  common  good.  Taught  by  frequent  sufferings, 
the  more  active  hunters  frequently  withdraw  from  the  worthless  drones,  leav- 
ing them  at  some  fishing-station,  where,  with  proper  industry,  they  may  subsist 
comfortably.  Fish-diet  is,  however,  not  agreeable  to  their  taste,  and  as  soon  as 
reports  of  a  successful  chase  arrive,  a  general  movement  to  the  hunting-ground 
ensues.  If  on  their  march  the  craving  multitude  discover  a  hoard  of  meat,  it  is 
devoured  on  the  spot ;  but  they  are  not  always  so  fortunate.  The  deer  and  the 
hunters  may  have  gone  off,  and  then  they  are  obliged  to  retrace  their  stei:)S, 
many  perishing  by  the  way. 

The  Dog-ribs  are  not  conspicuous  for  hospitalityo  When  a  stranger  enters 
a  tent  he  receives  no  welcome  and  proffer  of  food,  though  he  may  help  himself 
from  a  piece  of  meat  hanging  on  the  wall  or  join  the  repast.  Though  great 
liars,  they  do  not  steal  the  white  man's  property  like  the  Esquimaux  and  Crees, 
and  when  visiting  a  fort,  they  may  be  trusted  in  any  of  the  rooms.  As  to  their 
religious  belief,  the  majority  of  the  nation  recognize  a  Great  Spirit,  while  others 
doubt  his  existence,  assigning  as  a  reason  their  miserable  condition.  They  are 
in  great  fear  of  evil  spirits,  which,  as  they  imagine,  assume  the  forms  of  the 
bear,  wolf,  and  wolverine,  and  in  the  woods,  waters,  and  desert  places  they  fancy 
they  hear  them  howling  in  the  winds  or  moaning  by  the  graves  of  the  dead. 
They  never  make  offerings  to  the  Great  Spirit,  but  deprecate  the  wrath  of  an 
evil  being  by  the  promise  of  a  sacrifice,  or  by  scattering  a  handful  of  deer-hair 
or  a  few  feathers.  They  believe  in  a  state  of  future  happiness  or  torment. 
The  soul,  after  death,  crosses  a  broad  river  in  a  boat,  and  thus  endeavors  to 
reach  the  opposite  shore,  which  is  adorned  with  all  the  beauties  of  paradise.  If 
laden  with  crime,  the  boat  sinks  under  the  weight,  and  the  unfortunate  soul,  im- 
mersed in  water,  strives  in  vain  to  reach  the  blissful  abode  from  which  it  is  for- 
ever banished. 

Formerly  when  a  Tinne  warrior  died,  it  was  customary  for  the  family  to 
abandon  every  article  they  possessed,  and  betake  themselves,  in  a  perfectly  des- 
titute condition,  to  the  nearest  body  of  their  own  people  or  trading-post.  The 
advice  of  traders  is  gradually  breaking  down  this  absurd  practice,  which  would 
alone  suftice  to  keep  this  people  in  a  state  of  perpetual  poverty.  In  other  re- 
spects also,  European  influence  begins  to  make  itself  felt.  Since  1846  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries' are  at  work  among  the  Chepewyans,  and  have  taught  many 


330 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


of  their  converts  to  read  and  Avrite.  The  Athabascans  had  formerly  but  a  small 
breed  of  do^-s,  now  a  stouter  race  has,  in  some  resjoects,  ameliorated  the  condi- 
tion of  the  females,  and  the  introduction  of  the  horse,  which  has  more  recently 
taken  place,  holds  out  prospects  of  a  still  greater  improvement.  The  Tinne  are 
as  giddy  and  thoughtless  as  ^children.  When  accompanied  by  a  white  man 
they  will  perform  a  long  journey  carefully,  but  can  not  be  depended  upon  to 
carry  letters,  however  high  the  reward  may  be  that  has  been  promised  them  on 
reaching  their  destination,  as  the  least  whim  suffices  to  make  them  forget  their 
commission. 

They  are  generally  content  with  one  wife  at  a  time,  and  none  but  the  chiefs 
liave  more  than  two.  The  successful  wrestler  takes  the  wife  of  his  weaker 
countryman,  who  consoles  himself  for  his  loss  by  endeavoring  to  find  one  weaker 
than  himself. 

Tender  and  affectionate  parents,  the  Tinne  are  totally  indifferent  to  the  sor- 
rows of  helpless  age.  During  the  stay  of  Sir  George  Back  at  Fort  Reliance, 
an  old  woman  arrived  there  on  Easter  Sunday,  clothed  in  ragged  reindeer  skins, 
worn  down  to  a  skeleton,  and  grasping  with  both  her  hands  a  stick  to  support 
l\er  body,  bent  double  by  age  and  want.  The  story  of  the  poor  creature  was 
soon  told.  She  had  become  a  burden  to  her  family ;  her  former  services  had 
all  been  forgotten,  and  she  had  been  told  "  that  though  she  still  seemed  to  live, 
she  was  in  reality  dead,  and  must  be  abandoned  to  her  fate.  In  the  new  fort 
she  might  find  assistance,  for  the  white  strangers  were  powerful  medicine-men." 
This  had  happened  a  month  before,  and  all  this  time  she  had  slowly  crept  along, 
appeasing  her  hunger  with  the  beri-ies  she  found  here  and  there  on  the  way. 
When  she  reached  the  fort  it  was  too  late ;  she  died  a  few  days  after  her 
arrival. 


THE   LOUCHEUX,  OR  KUTCHIN  INDIANS.  331 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

THE  LOUCHEUX,  OR  KUTCHIN  INDIANS. 

The  Countries  thej'  inhabit. — Their  Appearance  and  Dress. — Their  Love  of  Finery. — Condition  of  the 
Women. — Strange  Customs. — Character. — Feuds  with  the  Esquimaux. — Their  suspicious  and  timo- 
rous Lives. — : Pounds  for  catching  Reindeer. — Their  Lodges. 

OiSr  the  banks  of  the  Lower  Mackenzie,  to  the  west  of  Great  Bear  Lake,  in 
the  territories  drained  by  the  Peel  River  and  by  the  Upper  Yukon, 
dwell  the  Loucheux,  or  Kutchin  Indians,  whose  language  is  totally  different 
from  that  of  the  other  North  American  tribes,  and  whose  customsfand  manners 
also  vary  considerably  from  those  of  all  their  neighbors,  both  Red-skins  and 
Esquimaux. 

They  are  an  athletic  and  line-looking  people,  with  regular  features  and  a 
complexion  of  a  lighter  copper  color  than  that  of  the  other  Red  Indians,  so  that 
many  of  their  women  would  be  reckoned  handsome  in  any  country.  The  fe- 
males tattoo  their  chins  and  use  a  black  pigment  when  they  paint  their  faces, 
while  the  men  employ  both  red  and  black  on  all  occasions  of  ceremony,  and  al- 
ways to  be  ready,  each  carries  a  small  bag  with  red  clay  and  black  lead  suspend- 
ed to  his  neck.  Most  commonly  the  eyes  are  encircled  with  black,  a  stripe  of 
the  same  runs  down  the  middle  of  the  nose,  and  a  blotch  is  daubed  on  the  upper 
part  of  each  check.  The  forehead  is  crossed  by  many  narrow  red  stripes,  and 
the  skin  is  streaked  alternately  with  red  and  black. 

The  outer  shirt  of  the  Kutchin  is  made  of  the  skins  of  fawn  reindeer,  dress- 
ed with  the  hair  on  after  the  manner  of  the  Hare,  Dog-rib,  and  other  Chepe- 
wyan  tribes,  but  resembles  in  form  the  analogous  garment  of  the  Esquimaux, 
being  furnished  with  peaked  skirts,  though  of  smaller  size.  The  men  wear 
these  skirts  before  and  behind ;  the  women  have  larger  back  skirts,  but  none  in 
front.  In  winter  shirts  of  hare-skin  are  worn,  and  the  pantaloons  of  deer-skin 
have  the  fur  next  the  skin. 

None  of  the  neighboring  nations  pay  so  much  attention  to  personal  cleanli- 
ness, or  are  so  studious  in  adorning  their  persons.  A  broad  band  of  beads  is 
worn  across  the  shoulders  and  breast  of  the  shirt,  and  the  hinder  part  of  the 
dress  is  fringed  with  tassels  wound  round  with  dyed  porcupine  quills  and  strung 
with  the  silvery  fruit  of  the  oleaster  {Ekeagnics  argentea) ;  a  stripe  of  beads, 
strung  in  alternate  red  and  "wdiite  squares,  ornament  the  seams  of  the  trowsers, 
and  bands  of  beads  encircle  the  ankles.  The  poorer  sort,  or  the  less  fortunate 
hunters,  who  are  unable  to  procure  these  costly  trinkets  in  the  same  enviable 
abundance  as  the  rich,  strive  to  wear  at  least  a  string  of  beads,  and  look  down 
with  contemptuous  pity  upon  the  still  more  needy  class,  Avhich  is  reduced  to 
adorn  itself  with  porcupine  quills  only. 

In  consequence  of  this  passionate  fondness  for  beads,  tliese  ornaments  serve 


332       •  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

as  a  medium  of  exchange  among  the  Kutchin,  and  Sir  John  Richardson  re- 
marks that  no  such  near  ajjproach  to  money  has  been  invented  by  the  nations 
to  the  eastward  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  standard  bead,  and  one  of  the 
most  value,  is  a  large  one  of  white  enamel,  manufactured  in  Italy  only,  and  is 
with  difficulty  procured  in  sufficient  quantity  to  satisfy  the  demand,  as  beads 
are  more  prized  than  English  cloth  and  blankets. 

Another  article  very  much  in  request  among  the  Kutchin  is  the  large  ribbed 
dentalium  shell  which  is  collected  in  the  archipelago  between  Oregon  and  Cape 
Fairweather,  and  passes  by  trade  from  tribe  to  tribe  until  it  finds  its  way  at 
length  to  the  Yukon.  With  this  shell  they  adorn  their  mittens,  and  even  at- 
tach it  to  their  guns,  which  have  been  lately  mtroduced,  and  are  in  great  de- 
mand. All  men  carry  powder  and  ball,  whether  they  own  a  gun  or  not,  and 
obtain  for  it  a  share  of  the  game. 

The  tribes  on  the  Yukon  tie  their  hair  behind  in  a  cue,  or  "  chignon,"  and 
daub  it  witlf  grease,  and  the  down  of  geese  and  ducks,  until,  by  the  repeti- 
tion of  the  process  continued  from  infancy,  it  swells  to  an  enormous  thickness, 
so  that  the  wxnght  of  the  accumulated  load  of  hair,  dirt,  and  ornaments  causes 
the  wearer  to  stoop  forward  habitually.  The  tail-feathers  of  the  eagle  and 
fishing-hawk  are  stuck  into  the  hair  on  the  back  of  the  head,  and  are  removed 
only  when  the  owner  retires  to  sleep,  or  when  he  wishes  to  wave  them  to  and 
fro  in  a  dance. 

The  principal  fnen  have  two  or  three  wives  each,  while  the  bad  hunters  are 
obliged  to  remain  bachelors.  A  good  wrestler,  however,  even  though  poor,  can 
always  obtain  a  wife. 

The  women  do  all  the  drudgery  in  winter  except  cooking,  and  do  not  eat 
till  the  husband  is  satisfied.  In  summer  they  labor  little,  except  in  drying 
meat  or  fish  for  its  preservation.  The  men  alone  paddle  while  the  women  sit 
as  passengers,  and  husbands  even  carry  their  wives  to  the  shore  on  their  arms, 
that  they  may  not  wet  their  feet— an  instance  of  gallantry  almost  unparalleled  in 
savage  life.  The  Esquimaux  women  row  their  own  "  oomiaks,"  and  the  Chepe- 
wyan  women  assist  the  men  in  paddling  their  canoes.  On  the  whole,  the  so- 
cial condition  of  the  Kutchin  Avomen  is  far  superior  to  that  of  the  Tinne  women, 
but  scarcely  equal  to  that  of  the  Esquimaux  dames. 

They  do  not  carry  their  children  in  their  hoods  or  boots  like  the  Esquimaux, 
nor  do  they  stuff  them  into  a  bag  with  moss  like  the  Tinne  and  Crees,  but  they 
place  them  in  a  seat  of  birch-bark,  with  a  back  and  sides  like  those  of  an  arm- 
,  chair,  and  a  pommel  in  front  resembling  the  peak  of  a  Spanish  saddle,  by  which  • 
they  hang  it  from  their  back.  The  child's  feet  are  bandaged  to  prevent  them 
growing,  small  feet  being  thought  handsome,  and  consequently  short  unshapely 
feet  are  characteristic  of  the  people  of  both  sexes.  A  more  ridiculous  or  insane 
custom  can  hardly  be  imagined  among  a  nation  of  hunters. 

The  Kutchin  are  a  hvely,  cheerful  people,  fond  of  dancing  and  singing,  in 
which  they  excel  all  other  Indians  ;  leaping,  wrestling,  and  other  athletic  exer- 
cises are  likewise  favorite  amusements.  They  are  inveterate  talkers.  Every 
new-comer  arriving  at  a  trading-post  makes  a  long  speech,  which  must  not  be 
interrupted.     The  belief  in  Shamanism  is  still  in  full  vigor  among  them. 


THE   LOUCHEUX,  OR  KUTCHIN  INDIANS.  333 

Though  a  treacherous  people,  they  have  never  yet  imbrued  their  hands  in 
European  blood,  but  there  are  frequent  feuds  among  their  various  tribes,  by 
which  one-half  of  the  population  of  the  banks  of  the  Yukon  has  been  cut  of£ 
within  the  last  twenty  years.  From  a  constant  dread  of  ambuscade,  they  do 
not  travel  except  in  large  parties;  and  thus  a  perpetual  feeling  of  insecurity 
embitters  their  lives,  which  are  already  rendered  sufficiently  hard  by  the  sever- 
ity of  an  Arctic  climate.  The  agents  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  have  en- 
deavored by  good  advice,  and  the  distribution  of  large  presents,  to  establish 
peace,  but  have  only  met  with  partial  success. 

Like  the  Tinne,  the  Kutchin  are  in  a  state  of  perpetual  warfare  with  the  Es- 
quimaux ;  and  though  they  always  charge  the  latter  with  treachery,  yet  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  accusation  might,  with  full  justice,  be  retorted  upon 
themselves.  One  of  the  hostile  encounters,  mentioned  by  Sir  J.  Richardson,  de- 
serves notice,  on  account  of  its  resemblance  in  some  particulars  to  the  meeting 
of  Joab  and  Abner,  recorded  in  the  Second  Book  of  Samuel.  A  party  of  each  of 
the  two  nations  having  met  on  the  banks  of  a  river,  the  young  men  of  both 
parties  rose  up  as  if  for  a  friendly  dance.  The  stream  glides  peacefully  along, 
the  setting  sun  gilds  the  pine  forest  and  sparkles  in  the  waters ;  all  nature 
breathes  peace.  But  the  Esquimaux  having,  according  to  their  custom,  con- 
cealed their  long  knives  in  the  sleeves  of  their  deer-skin  shirts,  suddenly  draw 
them  in  one  of  the  evolutions  of  the  dance  and  plunge  them  into  their  oppo- 
nents. A  general  conflict  ensues,  in  which  the  Kutchin,  thanks  to  their  guns, 
ultimately  prove  victorious.  "Another  incident,"  says  Sir  John  Richardson, 
"  which  occurred  on  the  banks  of  the  Yukon  in  1845,  gives  us  a  farther  insight 
into  the  suspicious  and  timorous  lives  of  these  people.  One  night  four  stran- 
gers from  the  lower  part  of  the  river  arrived  at  the  tent  of  an  old  man  who  was 
sick,  and  who  had  with  him  only  two  sons,  one  of  them  a  mere  boy.  The  new- 
comers entered  in  a  friendly  manner,  and  when  the  hour  of  repose  came,  lay 
down ;  but  as  they  did  not  sleep,  the  sons,  suspecting  from  their  conduct  that 
they  meditated  evil,  feigned  a  desire  of  visiting  their  moose-deer  snares.  They 
intimated  their  purpose  aloud  to  their  father  and  went  out,  taking  with  them 
their  bows  and  arrows.  Instead,  however,  of  continuing  their  way  into  the 
wood,  they  stole  back  quietly  to  the  tent,  and  listening  on  the  outside,  discover- 
ed, as  they  fancied,  from  the  conversation  of  the  strangers,  that  their  father's 
life  was  in  danger.  Knowing  the  exact  position  of  the  inmates,  they  thereupon 
shot  their  arrows  through  the  skin  covering  of  the  tent  and  killed  two  of  the 
strange  Indians ;  and  the  other  two,  in  endeavoring  to  make  their  escape  by  the 
door,  shared  the  fate  of  their  companions.  This  is  spoken  of  in  the  tribe  as  an 
exceedingly  brave  action." 

During  the  summer  the  Yukon  Kutchin  dry,  for  their  winter  use,  the  -white- 
fish  {Coregonus  albiis),  which  they  catch  by  planting  stakes  across  the  smaller 
rivers  and  narrow  parts  of  the  lakes  and  closing  the  openings  with  wicker-bas- 
kets. They  take  the  moose-deer  in  snares,  and  towards  spring  mostly  resort  to 
the  mountains  to  hunt  reindeer  and  lay  in  a  stock  of  dried  venison.  On  the 
open  pasture-grounds  frequented  by  this  animal  they  construct  large  pounds. 
Two  rows  of  posts  firmly  planted  in  the  ground,  and  united  by  the  addition  of 


334  THE  POLAK  WORLD. 

strong  horizontal  bars  into  a  regular  fence,  extend  their  arms  for  nearly  the 
length  of  a  mile  in  the  form  of  a  Roman  V.  The  extremity  of  the  avenue  is 
closed  by  stakes  with  sharp  ^^oints  sloping  towards  the  enti-ance,  on  which  the 
reindeer,  driven  together  and  hotly  pursued  by  the  Indians,  may  impale  them- 
selves in  their  desperate  flight.  The  structure  is  erected  with  great  labor,  as 
the  timber  has  to  be  transported  into  the  open  country  from  a  considerable  dis- 
tance. Some  of  these  may  be  a  century  old,  and  they  are  the  hereditary  pos- 
session of  the  families  or  tribes  by  whom  they  Avere  originally  constructed. 

But  in  spite  of  all  their  contrivances  and  the  use  of  fire-arms,  the  Kutchin, 
whose  numbers  on  the  banks  of  the  Yukon  are  estimated  at  about  a  thousand 
men  and  boys  able  to  hunt,  are  frequently  reduced  to  great  distress.  Hence 
the  old  and  infirm  are  mercilessly  left  to  their  fate  when  game  is  scarce,  and 
famine  makes  itself  felt.  Attempts  have  been  vainly  made  to  better  the  con- 
dition of  the  northern  Indians  by  inducing  them  to  tame  the  reindeer.  Their 
superstition  is  one  of  the  obstacles  against  this  useful  innovation,  for  they  fear 
that  were  they  to  make  some  of  the  reindeer  their  cajjtives,  the  remainder  would 
immediately  leave  the  country.  "  And  why,"  they  add,  "  should  we  follow  like 
slaves  a  herd  of  tame  animals,  Avhen  the  forest  and  the  barren  ground  provide 
us  Avith  the  elk,  the  wild  reindeer,  and  the  musk-ox,  and  our  rivers  and  lakes  are 
filled  Avith  fishes  that  cost  us  nothing  but  the  trouble  of  catching  them  ?" 

Each  family  possesses  a  deer-skin  tent  or  lodge,  which  in  summer,  when  in 
quest  of  game,  is  rarely  erected.  The  winter  encampment  is  usually  in  a  grove 
of  spruce-firs;  the  ground  being  cleared  of  snow,  the  skins,  Avhich  are  prepared 
with  the  hair,  are  extended  over  flexible  willow  poles  which  take  a  semicircular 
form.  This  hemispherical  shape  of  lodges  is  not  altogether  unknown  among 
the  Chepewyans  and  Crees,  being  that  generally  adapted  for  their  vapor  baths, 
framed  of  willow  poles,  but  their  dwelling-places  are  conical,  as  stiff  poles  are 
used  for  their  construction. 

When  the  tent  is  erected  the  snow  is  packed  on  outside  to  half  its  height, 
and  it  is  fined  equally  high  Avithin  Avith  the  young  spray  of  the  spruce-fir,  that 
the  bodies  of  the  inmates  may  not  rest  against  the  cold  Avail.  The  doorway  is 
filled  up  by  a  double  fold  of  skin,  and  the  apartment  has  the  closeness  and 
warmth  but  not  the  elegance  of  the  Esquimaux  snoAV  hut,  AAdiich  it  resembles 
in  shape.  Though  only  a  very  small  fire  is  kept  in  the  centre  of  the  lodge,  yet 
the  Avarmth  is  as  great  as  in  a  log-house.  The  provisions  are  stored  on  the 
outside  under  fir  branches  and  snow,  and  further  protected  from  the  dogs  by 
sledges  being  placed  on  top. 


ARCTIC   VOYAGES   OF   DISCOVERY.  335 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

ARCTIC  VOYAGES  OF  DISCOVERY,  FROM  THE  CAB0T9'  TO  BAFFIN. 

First  Scandinavian  Discoverer  of  America. — Tlie  Cabots. — Willoiigliby  and  Chancellor  (1553-1554). — 
Stephen  Burrough  (1556). — Frobisher  (1576-1578). — Davis  (1585-1587). — Barentz,  Cornells,  and 
Brant  (1594).— Wintering  of  the  Dutch  JSTavigators  in  Nova  Zambia  (1596-1597). — John  Knight 
(1606).— Murdered  by  the  Esquimaux.— Henry  Hudson  (1607-1609).— Baffin  (1616). 

LONG  before  Columbus  sailed  from  the  port  of  Palos  (1492)  on  that  ever- 
memorable  voyage  Avhich  changed  the  geography  of  the  world,  the  Scan- 
dinavians had  already  found  the  way  to  North  America.  From  Greenland, 
which  was  known  to  them  as  early  as  the  ninth  century,  and  which  they  began 
to  colonize  in  the  year  985,  they  sailed  farther  to  the  west,  and  gradually  extend- 
ed their  discoveries  from  the  coasts  of  Labrador,  Nova  Scotia,  and  Newfound- 
land, to  those  of  the  present  State  of  Rhode  Island,  which,  from  the  wild  vines 
they  there  found  growing  in  abundance,  they  called  the  "  good  Vinland." 

But  a  long  series  of  disasters  destroyed  their  Greenland  colonies  about  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  as  Scandinavia  itself  had  at  that  time  but 
very  little  intercourse  with  the  more  civilized  nations  of  Southern  Europe,  it  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at  that,  despite  the  discoveries  of  Giinnbjorn  and  Eric  the 
Red,  the  great  western  continent  remained  unknoAvn  to  the  world  in  general. 

One  of  the  first  consequences  of  the  achievements  of  Columbus  was  the  re- 
(liscovery  of  the  northern  part  of  America,  for  the  English  merchants  longed 
to  have  a  share  of  the  commerce  of  India;  and  as  the  Pope  had  assigned  the 
eastern  route  to  the  Portuguese  and  the  western  one  to  the  Spaniards,  they  re- 
solved to  ascertain  whether  a  third  and  shorter  way  to  the  Spice  Islands,  or  to 
the  fabulous  golden  regions  of  the  east,  might  not  be  found  by  steering  to  the 
north-west.  In  pursuance  of  these  views  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot  sailed  in 
1497  from  Bristol,  at  that  time  our  first  commercial  port,  and  discovered  tlie 
whole  American  coast  from  Labrador  to  Virginia.  They  failed  indeed  in  the 
object  of  their  mission,  but  they  laid  the  first  foundations  of  the  future  colonial 
greatness  of  England. 

A  second  voyage,  in  1498,  by  Sebastian  Cabot  alone,  without  the  companion- 
ship of  his  father,  had  no  important  results,  but  in  a  third  voyage  which  he 
undertook  in  search  of  a  north-west  passage,  at  Henry  VIII.'s  expense,  in  1516 
or  1517,  it  is  tolerably  certain  that  that  great  navigator  discovered  the  two 
straits  which  now  bear  the  names  of  Davis  and  Hudson. 

The  French  expeditions  of  Verazzani  (1523)  and  Jacques  Cartier  (1524), 
however  memorable  in  other  respects,  having  been  as  unsuccessful  as  those  of 
Cortereal  (1500)  or  Gomez  (1524)  in  discovering  the  desired  north-western  pas- 
sage, Sebastian  Cabot,  Avho  in  1549  was  created  Grand  Pilot  of  England,  start- 
ed in  his  old  age  another  idea,  which  has  become  almost  equally  momentous  in 


336  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

the  history  of  Arctic  discovery — the  search  for  a  north-eastern  route  to  China. 
Accordingly,  in  the  year  1553,  a  squadron  of  three  small  vessels,  under  the 
command  of  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby,  Chancellor,  and  Durfoorth,  set  sail  from 
Ratcliffe,  with  the  vain  hope  of  reaching  India  by  sailing  round  North  Asia, 
the  formation  and  vast  extent  of  Avhich  were  at  that  time  totally  unknown. 

OfE  Senjfin,  an  island  on  the  Norwegian  coast  in  lat.  69^°,  the  ships  parted 
company  in  a  stormy  night,  never  to  meet  again.  Willoughby  and  Durfoorth 
reached  the  coast  of  Nova  Zembla,  and  ultimately  sought  a  harbor  in  Lap- 
land on  the  west  side  of  the  entrance  into  the  AVhite  Sea,  where  the  captain- 
general,  officers,  and  crews  of  both  ships  were  miserably  frozen  to  death,  as  some 
Russian  fishermen  ascertained  in  the  following  spring.  How  long  they  sus- 
tained the  severity  of  the  weather  is  not  known,  but  the  journals  and  a  will 
found  on  board  the  "  Admiral "  proved  tliat  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby  and  most 
of  that  ship's  company  were  alive  in  January,  1554.  They  died  the  victims  of 
inexperience ;  for  had  they,  as  Sir  John  Richardson  remarks,  been  skilled  in 
hunting  and  clothing  themselves,  and  taken  the  precaution  moreover  of  laying 
in  at  the  beginning  of  the  winter  a  stock  of  mossy  turf  such  as  the  country 
produces  for  fuel,  and  above  all  had  they  secured  a  few  of  the  very  many  seals 
and  belugoe  which  abounded  in  the  sea  around  them,  they  might  have  preserved 
their  lives  and  passed  an  endurable  winter. 

Chancellor  was  either  more  fortunate  or  more  skillful,  for  after  having  long 
been  buffeted  about  by  stormy  weather,  he  eventually  reached  St.  Nicholas,  in 
the  White  Sea.  From  thence  he  proceeded  overland  to  Moscow,  and  delivered 
his  credentials  to  the  Czar,  Ivan  Vasilovitch,  from  whom  he  obtained  many 
privileges  for  the  company  of  merchants  who  had  fitted  out  the  expedition.  In 
1554  he  returned  to  England,  and  shortly  afterwards  was  sent  back  to  Russia 
by  Queen  Mary  for  the  purpose  of  negotiating  a  treaty  of  commerce  between 
the  two  nations.  Having  satisfactorily  accomplished  his  mission,  he  once  more 
set  sail  from  the  White  Sea,  accompanied  by  a  Muscovite  ambassador.  But 
this  time  the  return  voyage  was  extremely  unfortunate,  for  Chancellor,  after 
losing  two  of  his  vessels  off  the  coast  of  Norway,  was  carried  by  a  violent  tem- 
pest into  the  Bay  of  Pitsligo,  in  Scotland,  where  his  ship  was  wrecked.  He  en- 
deavored to  save  the  ambassador  and  himself  in  a  boat,  but  the  small  pinnace 
was  upset;  and  although  the  Russian  safely  reached  the  strand,  the  English- 
man, after  having  escaped  so  many  dangers  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  was  drowned 
within  sight  of  his  native  shores. 

In  1556  the  Muscovy  Company  fitted  out  the  Serchthrift  pinnace,  under  the 
command  of  Stephen  Burrough,  for  discoA'^ery  towards  the  River  Obi  and  farther 
search  for  a  north-east  passage.  This  small  vessel  reached  the  strait  between 
Nova  Zembla  and  Vaigats,  called  by  the  Russians  the  Kara  Gate^  but  the 
enormous  masses  of  ice  that  came  floating  through  the  channel  compelled  it  to 
return. 

In  spite  of  these  repeated  disappointments,  the  desire  to  discover  a  northern 
i-oute  to  India  was  too  great  to  allow  an  enterprising  nation  like  the  Enghsh  to 
abandon  the  scheme  as  hopeless. 

Thus  in  the  days  of  Elizabeth  the  question  of  the  north-west  passage  was 


ARCTIC   VOYAGES   OF  DISCOVERY.  337 

again  revived,  and  Martin  Frobisher,  who  had  solicited  merchants  and  nobles 
during  fifteen  years  for  means  to  undertake  "  the  only  r/reat  thing  left  undone  in 
the  xoorld^''  sailed  in  the  year  1576  with  three  small  vessels  of  35,  30,  and  10  tons, 
on  no  less  an  errand  than  the  circumnavigation  of  Northern  America.  The 
reader  may  smile  at  the  ignorance  which  encouraged  such  efforts,  but  he  can 
not  fail  to  admire  the  iron-hearted  man  who  ventured  in  such  wretched  nutshells 
to  face  the  Arctic  seas.  The  expedition  safely  reached  the  coasts  of  Greenland 
and  Labrador,  and  brought  home  some  glittering  stones,  the  lusti-e  of  which 
was  erroneously  attributed  to  gold.  This  belief  so  inflamed  the  zeal  for  new 
expeditions  to  "  Meta  Incognita,"  as  Frobisher  had  named  the  coasts  he  had 
discovered,  that  he  found  no  difficulty  in  equijjping  three  ships  of  a  much  larger 
size,  that  they  might  be  able  to  hold  more  of  the  anticipated  treasure.  At  the 
entrance  of  the  straits  which  still  bear  his  name,  he  was  prevented  by  the  o-ales 
and  drift-ice  from  forcing  a  passage  to  the  sea  beyond,  but  having  secured  about 
200  tons  of  the  supposed  golden  ore,  the  expedition  was  considered  eminently 
successful.  A  large  squadron  of  fifteen  vessels  was  consequently  fitted  out  in 
1578  for  a  third  voyage,  and  commissioned  not  only  to  bring  back  an  untold 
amount  of  treasure,  but  also  to  take  out  materials  and  men  to  establish  a  colony 
on  those  desolate  shores.  But  this  grand  expedition,  which  sailed  with  such 
extravagant  hopes,  was  to  end  in  disappointment.  One  of  the  largest  vessels 
was  crushed  by  an  iceberg  at  the  entrance  of  the  strait,  and  the  others  were  so 
beaten  about  by  storms  and  obstructed  by  fogs  that  they  were  at  length  glad 
to  return  to  England  without  having  done  any  thing  for  the  advancement  of 
geographical  knowledge.  The  utter  worthlessness  of  the  glittering  stones 
having  meanwhile  been  discovered,  Frobisher  relinquished  all  further  attempts 
to  push  his  fortunes  in  the  northern  regions,  and  sought  new  laurels  in  a  sunnier 
clime.  He  accompanied  Drake  to  the  West  Indies,  commanded  subsequently 
one  of  the  largest  vessels  opposed  to  the  Spanish  Armada,  and  ended  his  heroic 
life  while  attacking  a  small  French  fort  in  behalf  of  Henry  IV.  during  the  war 
with  the  League. 

The  discovery  of  the  North-western  Passage  was,  however,  still  the  great 
enterprise  of  the  day,  and  thus  sundry  London  merchants  again  "  cast  in  their 
adventure,"  and  sent  out  John  Davis,  in  1585,  with  his  two  ships,"  Sunshine" 
and  "  Moonshine,"  carrying,  besides  their  more  necessary  equipments,  a  band 
of  music  "  to  cheer  and  recreate  the  spirits  of  the  natives."  Davis  arrived  in 
sight  of  the  south-western  coast  of  Greenland,  where  he  saw  a  high  mountain 
(Sukkertoppen)  towering  like  a  cone  of  silver  over  the  fog  which  veiled  the 
dismal  shore.  The  voyagers  were  glad  to  turn  from  the  gloomy  scene,  and  to 
steer  through  the  open  Avater  to  the  north-west,  where,  on  August  6,  they  dis- 
covered land  in  latitude  66°  40'  altogether  free  from  "  the  pesters  of  ice,  and 
ankered  in  a  very  fair  rode."  A  friendly  understanding  was  established  with 
the  Esquimaux,  and  a  lively  traffic  opened,  the  natives  eagerly  giving  their 
skins  and  furs  for  beads  and  knives,  until  a  brisk  wind  separated  the  strange 
visitants  from  their  simple-minded  friends.  The  remainder  of  the  season  was 
spent  in  exploring  Cumberland  SOund  and  the  entrance  to  Frobisher's  and 
Hudson's  Straits. 

22 


338  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

In  tlie  following  year  Davis  undertook  a  second  voyage  to  the  nortli-west, 
for  which  the  "  Sunshine  "  and  "  Moonshine  "  were  again  engaged,  with  two 
other  vessels.  On  June  29,  1586,  he  landed  on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  in  lati- 
tude 64°,  and  soon  after  steered  to  the  west.  The  enormous  ice-floes  which,  as 
is  well  known,  come  drifting  from  Baffin's  Bay  until  the  season  is  far  advanced, 
opposed  his  progress.  For  some  days  he  coasted  these  floating  islands,  when  a 
fog  came  on,  during  which  ropes,  sails,  and  cordage  were  alike  fast  frozen,  and 
the  seamen,  hopeless  of  accomplishing  the  passage,  warned  their  commander 
that  "  by  his  over-boldness  he  might  cause  their  widows  and  fatherless  children 
to  give  him  bitter  curses." 

Touched  by  this  appeal,  Davis  ordered  two  of  his  ships  to  return  home,  and 
pushing  on  in  the  "  Moonshine  "  with  the  boldest  of  his  followers,  he  reached 
the  American  shore,  which  he  coasted  from  67°  to  57°  of  latitude.  Off  the 
coast  of  Labrador  two  of  his  sailors  were  killed  by  the  natives,  and  September 
being  ushered  in  by  violent  gales,  he  gave  up  further  attempts  for  the  year,  and 
returned  to  England. 

On  June  16,  1587,  we  once  more  find  him  on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  in  his 
old  tried  bark  the  "  Sunshine,"  in  company  with  the  "  Elizabeth  "  and  a  pin- 
nace. The  supplies  for  this  third  voyage  being  furnished  under  the  express 
condition  that  the  expenses  should  be  lightened  as  much  as  possible  by  fishing 
at  all  suitable  times,  the  two  larger  ships  were  stationed  for  the  purpose  near 
the  part  of  the  coast  which  they  had  formerly  visited,  while  Davis  steered  for- 
ward in  the  small  and  ill-conditioned  vessel  which  alone  remained  at  his  dispo- 
sal. He  first  sailed  along  the  Greenland  coast  as  far  as  72°  lat.,  where,  having 
fairly  entered  Baffin's  Bay,  he  named  the  point  at  which  he  touched  Sander- 
son's Hope,  in  honor  of  his  chief  patron,  and  then  steered  to  the  west,  until  he 
once  more  fell  in  Avith  the  ice-barrier  which  had  jDrevented  his  progress  the 
year  before.  Time  and  perseverance,  howevei',  overcame  all  obstacles,  and  by 
July  19  he  had  crossed  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  strait  which  bears  his  name. 
He  then  sailed  for  two  days  up  Cumberland  Strait — which,  it- will  be  remem- 
bered, he  discovered  on  his  first  expedition — but  believing  this  passage  to  be 
an  inclosed  gulf,  he  returned,  and  again  passing  the  entrance  to  Hudson's  Bay 
without  an  effort  to  investigate  it,  repaired  to  the  rendezvous  appointed  for  the 
two  whaling-vessels  to  meet  him  on  their  way  to  England.  But  who  can 
paint  his  astonishment  and  consternation  when  he  found  that  his  companions 
had  sailed  away,  leaving  him  to  find  his  way  home  in  his  miserable  pinnace, 
which,  however,  landed  him  safely  on  his  native  shores  ?  This  was  the  last  of 
the  Arctic  voyages  of  that  great  navigator,  for  the  spirit  of  the  nation  was 
chilled  by  his  three  successive  disappointments ;  and  all  the  zeal  with  which  he 
pleaded  for  a  fourth  expedition  proved  fruitless. 

He  subsequently  made  five  voyages  to  the  East  Indies,  and  was  killed  on 
December  27, 1605,  on  the  coast  of  Malacca,  in  a  fight  with  the  Malays. 

Seven  years  after  Davis's  last  Arctic  voyage  the  Dutch  made  their  first  ap- 
pearance on  the  scene  of  northern  discovery.  This  persevering  people  had  just 
then  succeeded  in  casting  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  and  was  now  striving  to  gain, 
by  the  development  of  his  maritime  trade,  a  position  among  the  neighboring 


ARCTIC   VOYAGES   OF  DISC0\T:RY.  339 

states,  which  the  sraaUness  of  its  territory  seemed  to  deny  to  it.  All  the 
known  avenues  to  the  treasures  of  the  south  were  at  that  time  too  well  guard- 
ed by  the  fleets  of  Portugal  and  Spain  to  admit  of  any  rivalry ;  but  if  fortune 
favored  them  in  finding  the  yet  unexplored  northern  passage  to  India,  they 
might  still  hope  to  secure  a  lion's  share  in  that  most  lucrative  of  trades. 

Animated  by  this  laudable  spirit  of  enterprise,  the  merchants  of  Amstei-- 
dam,  Enkhuizen,  and  Middelburg  fitted  out  in  1594  an  expedition  in  quest  of 
the  north-eastern  passage,  which  they  intrusted  to  the  command  of  Cornelius 
Corneliszoon,  Brant  Ysbrantzoon,  and  William  Barentz,  one  of  the  most  ex- 
perienced seamen  of  the  day.  The  three  vessels  sailed  from  the  Texel  on  June 
6,  and  having  reached  the  coast  of  Lapland,  separated  into  two  divisions ; 
Barentz  choosing  the  bolder  course  of  coasting  the  west  side  of  Nova  Zem- 
bla  as  far  as  the  islands  of  Orange,  the  most  northerly  points  of  the  archipel- 
ago; w^hile  his  less  adventur-ous  comrades  were  contented  to  sail  along  the 
Russian  coast  until  they  reached  a  strait,  to  which  they  gave  the  very  appro- 
priate name  of  Vaigats,  or  "  Wind-hole."  Forcing  their  way  through  the  ice, 
which  almost  constantly  blocks  up  the  entrance  to  the  Kara  Sea,  they  saw,  on 
rounding  a  promontory  at  the  other  end  of  the  strait,  a  clear  expanse  of  blue 
open  sea,  stretching  onward  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  while  the  continent 
trended  away  rapidly  towards  the  south-east.  They  now  no  longer  doubted 
that  they  had  sailed  round  the  famous  Cape  Tabin — a  fabulous  headland,  which, 
according  to  Pliny  (an  indisputable  authority  in  those  times  of  geographical 
ignorance),  formed  the  northern  extremity  of  Asia,  from  whence  the  voyage 
was  supposed  to  be  easy  to  its  eastern  and  southern  shores.  Little  did  Brant 
and  Cornelius  dream  that  within  the  Arctic  Circle  the  Asiatic  coast  still 
stretched  120°  to  the  east ;  and  fully  trusting  their  erroneous  impressions,  they 
started  in  full  sail  for  Holland,  eag^r  to  bring  to  their  countrymen  the  news  of 
their  imaginary  success.  Off  Russian  Lapland  they  fell  in  with  Barentz,  who, 
having  arrived  at  the  northern  extremity  of  Nova  Zembla — a  higher  latitude 
than  any  navigator  is  recorded  to  have  reached  before — had  turned  back  be- 
fore strong  opposing  Avinds  and  floating  ice,  and  the  three  vessels  returned  to- 
gether to  Texel. 

Such  were  the  hoj^es  raised  by  the  discovery  of  the  imaginary  Cape  Tabin 
that,  losing  sight  of  their  habitual  caution,  the  merchants  of  Middelburg,  Enk- 
huizen, Rotterdam,  and  Amsterdam  immediately  fitted  out  a  fleet  of  six  ships, 
laden  with  all  sorts  of  merchandise  fit  for  the  Indian  market.  A  little  yacht 
was  added,  which  was  to  accompany  the  fleet  as  far  as  that  promontory,  and 
thence  to  return  with  the  good  news  that  the  squadron  had  been  left  steering 
with  a  favorable  wind  right  off  to  India.  But,  as  may  well  be  supposed,  ttcse 
sanguine  hopes,  built  on  the  unsubstantial  fabric  of  a  vision,  were  doomed  to  a 
woful  disappointment,  for  the  "  Wind-hole  Strait,"  doing  full  justice  to  its 
^name,  did  not  allow  the  vessels  to  pass ;  and  after  fruitless  efforts  to  force 
their  way  through  the  ice-blocks  which  obstructed  that  inhospitable  channel, 
they  returned  crestfallen  to  the  port  whence  they  had  sailed  a  few  months  be- 
fore with  such  brilliant  expectations. 

Although  great  disappointment  was  felt  at  this  failure,  the  scheme  of  sailing 


840 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


round  Cape  Tabiu  to  India  was,  however,  not  abandoned  by  the  persevermg 
Amsterdaraers  ;  and,  on  May  16,  1596,  Heemskerk,  Barentz,  and  Cornells  Ryp 
once  more  started  for  the  north-east.  Bear  Island  and  Spitzbergen  were  dis- 
covered, whereupon  the  ships  separated,  Cornells  and  Heemskerk  returning 
to  Holland,  while  Barentz,  slowly  making  his  way  through  the  fog  and  ice,  ad- 
vanced to  Uie  most  northern  point  of  Xova  Zenibla,  the  crew  being  encouraged 
by  the  tidings  that  from  the  high  cliffs  of  Orange  Island  clear  open  water  had 
been  seen  to  the  south-east.  The  effort  to  reach  this  inviting  channel  was  frus- 
trated by  the  ice,  which  gathered  about  the  ship  as  it  lay  near  shore,  and  grad- 
ually collecting  under  and  around  it,  raised  it  far  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
All  hope  of  return  before  the  next  summer  now  vanished,  but  these  braxe 
sailors  submitted  with  resignation  to  their  fate,  "  though  much  grieved,"  says 
Gerrit  de  Veer,  who  was  himself  an  eye-witness  of  all  the  incidents  he  relates, 
"  to  live  there  all  that  cold  winter,  which  we  knew  would  fall  out  to  be  ex- 
tremely bitter.""  Fortunately  a  quantity  of  drift-wood  was  found  on  the  strand, 
which  served  the  Dutchmen  both  for  the  construction  of  a  small  hut  and  for 
fuel. 

As  early  as  September  the  ground  was  frozen  so  hard  that  they  tried  in 
vain  to  dig  a  grave  for  a  dead  comrade,  and  their  cramped  fingers  could  hardly 
build  the  hut,  which  was  the  more  necessary,  as  the  vessel,  cracking  under  the 
pressure  of  the  ice,  gave  signs  of  speedily  breaking  up  altogether.  By  the  middle 
of  October  the  rude  dweUing  was  completed,  and  though  its  accommodation  was 
scanty,  they  were  glad  to  take  ixp  their  abode  in  it  at  once.  The  best  place  by 
the  central  fire  was  assigned  to  a  sick  comrade,  while  all  the  rest  arranged 
their  beds  as  best  they  could  on  shelves  which  had  been  built  round  the  walls. 
An  examination  into  the  state  of  their  provisions  showed  the  necessity  of  re- 
ducing their  daily  rations  of  bread,  cheese,  fmd  wine,  but  by  setting  traps  they 
caught  a  good  many  Arctic  foxes,  which  gave  them  an  occasional  ^supply  of 
fresh  food.  The  sun  had  now  entirfely  taken  his  departure,  and  the  long  winter 
night  of  the  75°  43'  of  latitude  set  in,  during  which  snowdrifts  and  impetuous 
winds  confined  them  to  their  miserable  hut. 

"  We  looked  pitifully  one  upon  the  other,"  says  De  Veer,  "  being  in  great 
fear  that  if  the  extremity  of  the  cold  grew  to  be  more  and  more,  we  should  all 
die  there  of  cold,  for  that  what  fire  soever  we  made  would  not  warm  us." 

The  ice  was  now  two  inches  thick  upon  the  walls,  and  even  on  the  sides  of 
their  sleeping  cots  and  the  very  clothes  they  wore  were  whitened  with  frost. 
Yet  in  the  midst  of  all  their  sufferings  these  brave  men  maintained  cheerful 
hearts ;  and  so  great  was  their  elasticity  of  spirit  that,  remembering  January  5 
was^jTwelfth  Eve,  they  resolved  to  celebrate  it  as  best  they  might.  "  And  then," 
says  the  old  clironicler,  "  we  prayed  our  Maister  that  we  might  be  merry  that 
night,  and  said  that  we  were  content  to  spend  some  of  the  wine  that  night 
which  we  had  spared,  and  which  was  our  share  (one  glass)  every  second  day,^ 
and  whereof  for  certaine  days  we  had  not  dranke,  and  so  that  night  we  made 
merry  and  drew  for  king.  And  therewith  we  had  two  pounds  of  meal,  where- 
of we  made  pancakes  with  oyle,  and  every  man  had  a  white  biscuit  which  we 
sopt  in  the  wine.     And  so  supposing  that  we  were  in  our  owne  country  and 


ARCTIC   VOYAGES   OF  DISCOVERY.  341 

amongst  our  friends,  it  comforted  us  well  as  if  we  had  made  a  great  banquet 
in  our  owne  house.  And  we  also  made  trinkets,  and  our  gunner  was  king  of 
N"ovaya  Zemlya,  which  is  at  least  800  miles  long  and  lyeth  between  two  seas." 

On  January  24  the  edge  of  the  sun  appeared  above  the  horizon,  and  the 
sight  was  a  joyful  one  indeed.  Now  also  the  furious  snow-storm  ceased,  and 
though  the  severity  of  the  cold  continued  unabated,  they  were  better  able  to 
brave  the  outer  air  and  to  recruit  their  strength  by  exercise.  With  the  re- 
turn of  daylight  the  bears  came  again  about  the  house,  and  some  being  shot,  af- 
forded a  very  seasonable  supply  of  grease,  so  that  they  were  able  to  burn  lamps 
and  pass  the  time  in  reading. 

When  summer  returned  it  was  found  impossible  to  disengage  the  ice-bound 
vessel,  and  the  only  hopes  of  escaping  from  this  dreary  prison  now  rested  on 
two  small  boats,  in  which  they  finally  quitted  the  scene  of  so  much  suffering 
on  June  14,  1596o  On  the  fourth  day  of  their  voyage  their  barks  became 
surrounded  by  enormous  masses  of  floating  ice,  which  so  crushed  and  injured 
them  that. the  crews,  giving  up  all  hope,  took  a  solemn  leave  of  each  other. 
But  in  this  desperate  crisis  they  owed  their  preservation  to  the  presence  of 
inind  and  agility  of  De  Veer,  Avho,  with  a  well-secured  rope,  leaped  from  one 
ice-block  to  another  till  he  reached  a  larger  floe,  on  which  first  the  sick,  then 
the  stores,  the  crews,  and  finally  the  boats  themselves  v/ere  faij-ly  landed.  Here 
they  were  obliged  to  remain  while  the  boats  underwent  the  necessary  repairs, 
and  during  this  detention  upon  a  floating  ice  raft  the  gallant  Barentz  closed  the 
eventful  voyage  of  his  life.  He  died  as  he  had  lived,  calmly  and  bravely,  think- 
ing less  of  himself  than  of  the  welfai-e  of  his  fellow-sufferers,  for  his  last  words 
were  directions  as  to  the  course  in  which  they  were  to  steer.  His  death  was 
bitterly  mourned  by  the  rough  men  under  his  command,  and  even  the  i^rospect 
of  a  return  to  their  homes  could  not  console  them  for  the  loss  of  their  beloved 
leader.  After  a  most  tedious  passage  (for  by  July  28  they  had  only  reached 
the  southern  extremity  of  Nova  Zembla)  they  at  length,  at  the  end  of  August, 
arrived  at  Kola,  in  Russian  Lapland,  where,  to  their  glad  surprise,  they  found 
their  old  comrade,  John  Cornelison  Ryp,  with  whom  they  returned  to  Am- 
sterdam. 

Meanwhile  the  spirit  of  discovery  had  once  more  recovered  in  England  from 
the  chill  thrown  upon  it  by  so  many  previous  disappointments.  In  1602,  Wey- 
mouth, while  attempting  to  sail  up  the  promising  inlet,  now  so  well-known  as 
the  entrance  to  Hudson's  Bay,  Avas  repulsed  by  a  violent  storm,  and  in  1006  a 
melancholy  issue  awaited  the  next  expedition  to  the  north-west,  which  sailed 
under  the  command  of  John  Knight,  a  brave  and  experienced  sailor.  Driven 
by  stormy  weather  among  the  drift-ice  on  the  coast  of  Labrador,  Knight  was 
fain  to  take  shelter  in  the  first  cove  that  presented  itself,  and  lost  no  time  in  or- 
dering his  damaged  ship  of  forty  tons  to  be  drawn  high  up  on  the  dry  sand  be- 
yond the  tide  mark,  where  she  might  undergo  the  necessary  repairs. 

This  position,  however,  not  proving  satisfactory,  he  manned  his  boat  next 
day,  and  while  the  rest  of  the  crew  Avere  busy  at  work,  sailed  across  to  the 
other  side  of  the  inlet  to  seek  for  some  more  convenient  anchorage.  Leaving 
two  men  in  charge  of  the  boat,  he  landed  with  his  mate  and  three  of  his  men  to 


343  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

explore  the  sti-ange  coast.  They  climbed  the  steep  acclivity  of  the  shore,  lin- 
o-ered  for  a  moment  on  the  summit  of  the  cliffs,  and  before  disappearing  ou  the 
other  side  exchanged  greetings  of  farewell  with  their  messmates  in  the  boat, 
who  little  imagined  that  it  was  a  parting  forever.  Evening  came  on,  and  then 
darkened  into  night ;  muskets  were  fired  and  trumpets  sounded,  but  no  answer 
was  made,  and  eleven  o'clock  arriving  without  any  sign  or  signal  of  the  missing 
party,  the  men  who  had  tarried  on  shore  mournfully  returned  to  the  ship  with 
the  dismal  tidings  of  the  loss  of  their  brave  commander  and  his  cornrades. 

During  this  melancholy  night,  passed  in  alternate  lamentations  and  plans  for 
search  and  rescue,  the  ice  had  so  accumulated  in  the  channel  which  the  unfor- 
tunate Knight  crossed  the  day  before,  that  though  the  boat  was  speedily  rigged 
for  the  expedition,  and  the  party  Avho  occupied  it  were  one  and  all  uncontrolla- 
bly eager  to  start,  the  morning  light  convinced  the  most  sanguine  of  the  utter 
impossibility  of  forcing  their  way  across  the  gulf.  Thus  passed  two  wretched 
days  of  uncertainty,  rendered  doubly  miserable  by  the  inactivity  to  which  they 
M^ere  condemned,  when  on  the  night  of  tlie  second  day  the  little  encampment 
was  attacked  by  a  large  party  of  natives,  whose  hostility  left  no  doubt  about 
the  fate  which  had  befallen  tlieir  missing  friends.  A  volley  of  musketry  soon 
dispersed  the  savages,  but  fearing  future  attacks,  the  crew,  now  only  eight  in 
number,  at  once  resolved  to  put  to  sea  in  their  crazy  bark,  which,  though  de- 
prived of  its  rudder,  and  so  leaky  that  the  pumps  were  obliged  to  be  constantly 
at  work,  safely  carried  them  to  Newfoundland. 

In  the  year  1607  Henry  Hudson  made  the  first  attempt  to  sail  across  the 
Xorth  Pole,  a  jDlan  started  in  1527  by  Robert  Thorne,but  not  yet  acted  upon 
by  any  one  during  the  eighty  years  that  had  since  passed.  He  reached  the  east 
coast  of  Greenland  in  73°  of  latitude,  and  then  proceeded  to  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  Spitzbergen,  but  all  his  efforts  to  launch  forth  into  the  unknown 
ocean  beyond  were  baffled  by  the  ice-fields  that  opposed  his  progress. 

In  his  next  voj^age  (1608)  he  vainly  tried  for  the  north-east  passage,  but  his 
third  voyage  (1609),  which  he  performed  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch,  led  to  the 
discovery  of  the  magnificent  river  which  still  bears  his  name,  and  at  whose 
mouth  the  "Empire  City  "  of  the  great  American  republic  has  arisen. 

In  April,  1610,  we  find  him  setting  sail  on  the  last  and  most  celebrated  of 
his  voyages.  In  all  but  its  commander,  this  expedition  was  miserably  inade- 
quate to  the  object  of  its  mission,  for  it  consisted  only  of  one  vessel  of  fifty-five 
tons  provisioned  for  six  months,  and  manned  by  a  crew  who  speedily  proved 
themselves  to  be  utterly  unworthy  of  their  leader.  On  entering  Hudson's 
Straits,  the  large  masses  of  ice  which  encumbered  the  surface  of  the  water  and 
the  thickness  of  the  constant  fogs  made  them  lose  all  courage,  and  they  earnest- 
ly begged  their  commander  to  return  at  once  to  England.  But  Hudson  pressed 
on  until  at  last  his  httle  bark  emerged  into  a  vast  open  Avater  rippling  and 
sparkling  in  the  morning  sunshine.  Hudson's  Bay  expanded  before  him,  and 
the  enraptured  discoverer  was  fully  convinced  that  the  north-western  route  to 
India  now  lay  open  to  the  mariners  of  England. 

It  was  the  beginning  of  August,  and  the  dastardly  crew  considering  the  pas- 
sage effected,  urged  an  immediate  return ;  but  Hudson  was  determined  on 


ARCTIC   VOYAGES   OF   DISCOVERY.  343 

completing  the  adventure,  and  wintering,  if  possible,  on  the  sunny  shores  of 
India.  For  three  months  he  continued  tracking  the  south  coasts  of  that  vast 
northern  Mediterranean,  but  all  his  hopes  of  finding  a  new  channel  opening  to 
the  south  proved  vain,  until  at  length  the  ship  was  frozen  in  on  November  10 
in  the  south-east  corner  of  James's  Bay.  A  dreary  winter  awaited  the  ice-bound 
seamen,  with  almost  exhausted  provisions,  and  unfortunately  without  that 
heroic  patience  and  concord  which  had  sustained  the  courage  of  Barentz  and 
his  companions  under  trials  far  more  severe.  But  spring  came  at  last,  and 
revived  the  spirits  of  their  leader.  His  ship  was  once  more  afloat,  once  more 
his  fancy  indulged  in  visions  of  the  sunny  East,  when,  as  he  stepped  on  deck  on 
the  morning  of  June  21,  his  ai'ms  Avere  suddenly  pinioned,  and  he  found  him- 
self in  the  power  of  th  ree  of  his  men. 

Inquiry,  remonstrance,  entreaty,  command,  all  failed  to  draw  a  word  f)'om 
the  stubborn  mutineers,  and  Hudson  resigned  himself  bravely  to  his  fate,  and, 
Avith  the  quiet  dignity  of  a  noble  nature,  looked  on  calmly  at  the  ominous  prep- 
arations going  forward.  A  small  open  boat  was  in  waiting,  and  into  this 
Hudson — his  hands  being  previously  tied  behind  his  back — was  lowered  ;  some 
powder  and  shot  and  the  carpenter's  box  came  next,  followed  by  the  carpenter 
himself,  John  King,  whose  name  ought  to  be  held  in  honorable  remembrance, 
as  he  alone  among  the  crew  remained  true  to  his  master.  Six  invalids  Avere 
also  forced  into  the  boat,  which  was  then  cut  adrift,  and  the  vessel  sailed  on- 
ward on  its  homeward  course.  Nothing  more  was  ever  heard  of  Hudson; 
but  the  ringleaders  of  that  dark  conspiracy  soon  paid  a  terrible  penalty.  Some 
fell  in  a  fight  Avith  the  Esquimaux,  and  others  died  on  the  homcAvard  voyage, 
during  Avhich  they  suffered  from  the  extremest  famine. 

The  account  of  the  great  expanse  of  sea  Avhich  had  been  reached  gave  ncAv 
vigor  to  the  spirit  of  discovery,  and  new  expeditions  sallied  forth  (Sir  Thomas 
Button,  1612,  Gibbons,  1614,  Bylot,  1615),  to  seek  along  the  western  shores  of 
Hudson's  Bay  the  passage  Avhich  was  to  open  the  way  to  India.  All  efforts  in 
this  direction  Avere  of  course  doomed  to  disappointment,  but  Bafiin,  Avho  sailed 
in  1616,  Avith  directions  to  try  his  fortune  beyond  Davis's  Straits,  enriched 
geography  Avith  a  new  and  important  conquest  by  sailing  round  the  enormous 
bay  Avhich  still  bears  his  name.  During  this  voyage  he  discovered  the  en- 
trances of  Smith's,  Jones's,  and  Lancaster  Sounds,  without  attempting  to  inves- 
tigate these  broad  highways  to  fields  of  later  exploration.  He  believed  them 
to  be  merfe  inclosed  gulfs,  and  this  behef  became  so  firmly  grounded  in  the 
public  mind  that  two  full  centuries  elapsed  before  any  new  attempt  Avas  made 
to  seek  for  a  Avestern  passage  in  this  direction,  Avhile  Jens  Munk,  a  Dane,  sent 
out  in  1619  with  two  good  vessels,  under  the  patronage  of  his  king,  Christian 
IV.;  Fox  and  James  (1631-1 632),  Knight  and  Barlow  (1719),  Middleton  (1741), 
Moor  and  Smith  (1746),  confined  their  efforts  to  Hudson's  Bay,  and,  by  their 
repeated  disappointments,  made  all  expeditions  in  quest  of  a  north-western 
passage  appear  Avell-uigh  as  chimerical  as  those  of  the  knight-errants  of 
romance. 


344  THE  POLAR   WORLD. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

ARCTIC  VOYAGES  OF  DISCOVERY,  FROIM  BAFFIN  TO  M'CLINTOCK. 

Buchan  and  Franklin. — Ross  and  Parr}'  (1818). — Discovery  of  Melville  Island. — Winter  Harbor  (1819- 
1820). —  Franklin's  first  land  Journev. —  Dreadful  Sufferings.— Parry's  second  Voyage  (1821-18-23). 
—  Iligliuk. —  Lyon  (1824). —  Parry's  third  Voyage  (1824). — Franklin's  second  land  Journey  to  the 
Shores  of  the  Polar  Sea. — Beechey. — Parry's  sledge  Journey  towards  the  Pole. — Sir  John  Ross's 
second  Journey. — Five  Years  in  the  Arctic  Ocean. — Back's  Discovery  of  Great  Fish  River. — Dease 
and  Simpson  (1837-1839). — Franklin  and  Crozier's  last  Voyage  (1845). — Searching  Expeditions. — 
Richardson  and  Rae.— Sir  James  Ross. — Austin. — Penny.— De  Haven. — Franklin's  first  Winter- 
quarters  discovered  by  Ommaney. — Kennedy  and  Bellot. — Inglefield.— Sir  E.  Belcher.— Kellett.— 
M'Clure's  Discovery  of  the  North-west  Passage.— Collinson.— Beliefs  Death.— Dr.  Rae  learns  the 
Death  of  the  Crews  of  the  "  Erebus  "  and  "  Terror." — Sir  Leopold  M'Clintock. 

npHE  failure  of  Captain  Phipps  (afterwards  Lord  Mulgrave)  in  the  Spitzber- 
-■-  gen  seas  (1773),  and  that  of  the  illusti'ious  Cook  (1776),  in  his  attempt  to 
circumnavigate  the  northern  shores  of  America  or  Asia  by  way  of  the  Straits  of 
Bering,  entirely  damped,  for  the  next  forty  years,  the  spirit  of  Arctic  discov- 
ery ;  but  hope  revived  when  it  became  known  that  Captain  Scoresby,  on  a  whal- 
ing expedition  in  the  Greenland  seas  (1806),  had  attained  81°  30'  N.  lat,,  and 
thus  approached  the  pole  to  within  540  miles.  No  previous  navigator  had 
ever  reached  so  far  to  the  north ;  an  open  sea  lay  temptingly  before  him,  and 
the  absence  of  the  ice-blink  proved  that  for  miles  beyond  the  visible  horizon  no 
ice-field  or  snow-covered  land  opposed  his  onward  course;  but  as  the  object  of 
Scoresby's  voyage  was  strictly  commercial,  and  he  himself  answerable  to  the 
owners  of  his  vessel,  he  felt  obliged  to  sacrifice  his  inclinations  to  his  duty,  and 
to  steer  again  to  the  south. 

During  the  Continental  war,  indeed,  England  had  but  little  leisure  to  prose- 
cute discoveries  in  the  Arctic  Ocean  ;  but  not  long  after  the  conclusion  of  peace, 
four  stout  vessels  (1818)  were  sent  out  on  that  mission  by  Government.  Two 
of  these,  the  "  Dorothea,"  Captain  Buchan,  and  the  "  Trent,"  Commander  Lieu- 
tenarit  John  Franklin,  were  destined  to  proceed  northward  by  way  of  Spitzber- 
gen,  and  to  endeavor  to  cross  the  Polar  Sea.  After  unnumbered  difficulties,  the 
expedition  Avas  battling  with  the  ice  to  the  north-west  of  that  wintry  archipela- 
go, when,  on  July  30,  a  sudden  gale  compelled  the  commander,  as  the  only 
chance  of  safety,  to  "  take  the  ice  " — that  is,  to  thrust  the  ships  into  an  opening 
among  the  moving  masses  that  could  be  perceived.  In  this  very  hazardous  op- 
eration, the  "Dorothea" — having  received  so  much  injury  that  she  was  in  dan- 
ger of  sinking^was  therefore  turned  homeward  as  soon  as  the  storm  subsided, 
and  the  "  Trent "  of  necessity  accompanied  her. 

The  other  two  ships,  which  sailed  in  the  same  year,  the  "  Isabella,"  command- 
ed by  Captain  John  Ross,  and  the  "  Alexander,"  by  Lieutenant  William  Ed- 
ward Parry,  had  been  ordered  to  proceed  up  the  middle  of  Davis's  Strait  to  a 


ARCTIC   VOYAGES,  FROM  BAFFIN  TO  M'CLINTOCK.  345 

high  northern  latitude,  and  then  to  stretch  across  to  the  westward,  in  the  hope 
of  being  able  to  pass  the  northern  extremity  of  America,  and  reach  Bering's 
Strait  by  that  route.  As  respects  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  sent  out,  this 
expedition  likewise  ended  in  disappointment ;  for  though  Ross  defined  more 
clearly  the  Greenland  coast  to  the  north  of  the  Danish  possessions  between 
Cape  Melville  and  Smith's  Sound,  he  was  satisfied  with  making  a  very  cursory 
examination  of  all  the  great  channels  leading  from  Baffin's  Bay  into  the  Polar 
Sea.  After  sailing  for  some  little  distance  up  Lancaster  Sound,  he  was  arrest- 
ed by  the  atmospheric  deception  of  a  range  of  mountains,  extending  right 
across  the  passage,  and  concluding  it  useless  to  persevere,  he  at  once — to  the 
great  astonishment  and  mortification  of  his  officers — abandoned  a  course  which 
was  to  render  his  successor  illustrious.  As  may  easily  be  imagined,  the  man- 
ner in  which  Ross  had  conducted  this  expedition  failed  to  satisfy  the  authori- 
ties at  home ;  and  thus,  in  the  following  year,  the  "  Hecla  "  and  "  Griper  "  were 
commissioned  for  the  purpose  of  exploring  the  sound,  whose  entrance  only  had 
been  seen  by  Baffin  and  Ross.  The  former  ship  was  placed  under  the  Com- 
mand of  Parry,  and  the  latter  under  that  of  Lieutenant  Matthew  Liddon. 

With  this  brilliant  voyage,  the  epoch  of  modei'n  discoveries  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean  may  properly  be  said  to  begin.  Sailing  right  through  Lancaster  Sound, 
over  the  site  of  Ross's  imaginary  Croker  Mountains,  Parry  passed  Barrow's 
Strait,  and  after  exploring  Prince  Regent  Lilet,  whence  the  ice  compeUed 
him  to  I'eturn  to  the  main  channel,  he  discovered  Wellington  Channel  (August 
22),  and  soon  after  had  the  satisfaction  of  announcing  to  his  men  that,  having 
reached  110°  W.  long.,  they  were  entitled  to  the  king's  bounty  of  £5000,  se- 
cured by  order  of  council  to  "  such  of  His  Majesty's  subjects  as  might  succeed 
in  penetrating  thus  far  to  the  west  within  the  Arctic  Circle."  After  jDassing  and 
naming  Melville  Island,  a  little  progress  was  stiU  made  westward ;  but  the  ice 
was  now  rapidly  gathering,  the  vessels  were  soon  beset,  and,  after  getting  free 
with  great  difficulty,  Parry  was  only  too  glad  to  turn  back  and  settle  down  in 
Winter  Harbor.  It  was  no  easy  task  to  attain  this  dreary  port,  as  a  canal,  two 
miles  and  a  third  in  length,  had  first  to  be  cut  through  solid  ice  of  seven  inches 
average  thickness ;  yet  such  was  the  energy  of  the  men  that  the  herculean 
labor  was  executed  in  three  days.  The  two  vessels  were  immediately  unrigged, 
the  decks  housed  over,  a  heating  apparatits  arranged,  and  every  thing  made  as 
comfortable  as  possible.  To  relieve  the  monotony  of  the  long  winter's  night, 
plays  were  acted  every  fortnight,  a  school  established,  and  a  newspaper  set  on 
foot — certainly  the  first  periodical  ever  issued  in  so  high  a  latitude.  During 
the  day  the  men  were  employed  for  exercise  in  banking  up  the  ships  with  snow 
or  making  excursions  within  a  certain  distance;  and  when  the  weather  forbade 
their  leaving  shelter,  they  were  obliged  to  run  round  the  decks  to  the  tune  of  a 
barrel-organ. 

In  January  the  cold  became  more  and  more  intense.  On  the  12th  it  was 
51°  below  zero  in  the  open  air,  and  on  the  14tli  the  thermometer  fell  to  54°. 
On  February  24  a  fire  broke  out  in  a  small  house  Avhich  had  been  built  near 
the  ships,  to  serve  as  an  observatory  for  Captain  Sabine,  who  accompanied  tlie 
expedition  as  astronomer.      All  hands  rushed  to  the  spot  to  endeavor  to  sub- 


346  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

due  the  flames,  but  having  only  snow  to  throw  on  it,  it  was  found  impossible  to 
extinguish  it.  The  snow,  however,  covered  the  astronomical  instruments,  and 
secured  them  from  the  fire.  The  thermometer  was  at  the  time  44°  below  zero, 
and  the  faces  of  nearly  the  whole  party  grew  white  and  frost-bitten  after  five 
minutes'  exposure,  so  that  the  surgeon  and  two  or  three  assistants  were  busily 
employed  in  rubbing  the  faces  of  their  comrades  with  snow,  while  the  latter 
were  working  might  and  main  to  extinguish  the  flames.  One  poor  fellow,  in 
his  anxiety  to  save  the  dipping-needle,  carried  it  out  without  putting  on  his 
gloves ;  his  hands  were  so  benumbed  in  consequence,  that  when  plunged  into  a 
basin  of  cold  water  it  instantly  froze,  from  the  intense  coldness  imparted  to  it, 
and  it  was  found  necessary  to  resort,  some  time  after,  to  the  amputation  of  a 
part  of  four  fingers  on  one  hand  and  three  on  the  other. 

February  3  was  a  memorable  day — the  sun  being  visible  from  the  maintop 
of  the  "Hecla,"  from  whence  it  was  last  seen  on  November  11.  The  weather 
got  considerably  milder  in  March ;  on  the  6th  the  thermometer  rose  to  zero, 
for  the  first  time  since  December  17,  and  on  April  30  it  stood  at  the  freezing- 
point,  which  it  had  not  done  since  September  12. 

At  length  May  appeared,  bringing  the  long  summer's  day  of  the  high  north- 
ern latitudes ;  but  as  many  a  week  must  still  pass  before  the  vessels  could  move 
out  of  their  ice-bound  harbor,  Parry  started  on  June  1  to  explore  the  interior 
of  the  island,  which  at  this  early  period  of  the  season  still  wore  a  very  dreary 
aspect.  But  such  was  the  rapidity  of  vegetation,  that  by  the  end  of  the  month 
the  land,  now  completely  clear  of  snow,  was  covered  with  the  purple-colored 
saxifrage  in  blossom,  with  mosses,  and  with  sorrel,  and  the  grass  was  from  two 
to  three  inches  long.  The  pasturage  appeared  to  be  excellent  in  the  valleys, 
and,  to  judge  by  the  uvnnerous  tracks  of  musk-oxen  and  reindeer,  there  was  no 
lack  of  animals  to  enjoy  its  abundance. 

It  was  not  before  August  1  that  the  ships  were  released  from  their  ten 
months'  blockade  in  Winter  Harbor,  when  Parry  once  more  stood  boldly  for 
the  west ;  but  no  amount  of  skill  or  patience  could  penetrate  the  obstinate  mass- 
es of  ice  that  blocked  the  ^^assage,  or  insure  the  safety  of  the  vessels  under  the 
repeated  shocks  sustained  from  them.  Finding  the  barriers  insuperable,  he 
gave  way,  and  steering  homeward,  reached  London  on  November  3,  1820, 
where,  as  may  well  be  imagined,  his  reception  was  most  enthusiastic. 

While  Parry  was  engaged  on  this  wonderful  voyage.  Lieutenant  Franklin 
and  Dr.  Richardson,  accompanied  by  two  midshipmen,  George  Back  and  Robert 
Hood,  and  a  sailor,  John  Hepburn,  to  whom  were  added  during  the  course  of 
the  journey  a  troop  of  Canadians  and  Indians,  were  penetrating  by  land  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Coppermine  River  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  unexplored 
shores  of  the  Polar  Sea  to  the  east.  An  idea  of  the  difficulties  of  this  under- 
taking may  be  formed,  when  I  mention  that  the  travellers  started  from  Fort 
York,  Hudson's  Bay,  on  August  30,  1819,  and  after  a  boat  voyage  of  700  miles 
up  the  Saskatchewan  arrived  before  winter  at  Fort  Cumberland.  The  next 
winter  found  them  700  miles  farther  on  their  journey,  established  during  the 
extreme  cold  at  Fort  Enterprise,  as  they  called  a  log-house  built  by  them  on 
Winter  Lake,  where  they  spent  ten  months,  depending  upon  fishing  and  the 


i 


ARCTIC   VOYAGES,  FROM  BAFFIN  TO   M'CLINTOCK.  347 

success  of  their  Indian  hunters.  During  the  summer  of  1821  they  accom- 
plished the  remaining  334  miles  to  the  mouth  of  the  Coppermine,  and  on  July 
21  Franklin  and  his  party  embarked  in  two  birch-bark  canoes  on  their  voyage 
of  exploration.  In  these  frail  shallops  they  skirted  the  desolate  coast  of  the 
American  continent  555  miles  to  the  east  of  the  Coppermine  as  far  as  Point 
Turnagain,  when  the  rapid  decrease  of  their  provisions  and  the  shattered  state 
of  the  canoes  imperatively  compelled  their  return  (August  22).  And  now 
began  a  dreadful  land-journey  of  two  months,  accompanied  by  all  the  horrors 
of  cold,  famine,  and  fatigue.  An  esculent  lichen  (tripe  de  roche),  with  an  occa- 
sional ptarmigan,  formed  their  scanty  food,  but  on  very  many  days  even  this 
poor  supply  could  not  be  obtained,  and  their  appetites  became  ravenous.  Some- 
times they  had  the  good-fortune  to  pick  up  pieces  of  skin,  and  a  few  bones  of 
deer  which  had  been  devoured  by  the  wolves  in  the  previous  spring.  The  bones 
were  rendered  friable  by  burning,  and  now  and  then  their  old  shoes  were  added 
to  the  repast.  On  reaching  the  Coppermine,  a  raft  had  to  be  framed,  a  task 
accomplished  with  the  utmost  difficulty  by  the  exhausted  party.  One  or  two 
of  the  Canadians  had  already  fallen  behind,  and  never  rejoined  their  comrades, 
and  now  Hood  and  three  or  four  more  of  the  party  broke  down  and  could 
proceed.no  farther,  Dr.  Richardson  kindly  volunteering  to  remain  with  them, 
while  Back,  with  the  most  vigorous  of  the  men,  pushed  on  to  send  succor 
from  Fort  Enterprise,  and  Franklin  followed  more  slowly  with  the  others. 
On  reaching  the  log  house  this  last  party  found  that  wretched  tenement  desolate, 
with  no  deposit  of  provisions  and  no  trace  of  the  Indians  whom  they  had  ex- 
pected to  meet  there.  "It  would  be  impossible,"  says  Franklin,  "to  describe 
our  sensations  after  entering  this  miserable  abode  and  discovering  how  we  had 
been  neglected  ;  the  whole  party  shed  tears,  not  so  much  for  our  own  fate  as 
for  that  of  our  friends  in  the  rear,  whose  lives  depended  entirely  on  our  sending 
immediate  relief  from  this  place."  Their  only  consolation  was  a  gleam  of  hope 
afforded  them  by  a  note  from  Back,  stating  that  he  had  reached  the  deserted 
hut  two  days  before,  and  was  going  in  search  of  the  Indians.  The  fortunate 
discovery  of  some  cast-off  deer-skins  and  of  a  heap  of  acrid  bones,  a  provision 
worthy  of  the  place,  sustained  their  flickering  life-flame,  and  after  eighteen  miser- 
able days  they  were  joined  by  Dr.  Richardson  and  Hepbm-n,  the  sole  survivors 
of  their  party,  Lieutenant  Hood,  a  young  officer  of  great  pi'omise,  having  been 
murdered  by  a  treacherous  Canadian,  whom  Richardson  was  afterwards  obliged 
to  shoot  through  the  head  in  self-defense. 

"  Upon  entering  the  desolate  dwelling,"  says  Richardson,  "  we  had  the  satis- 
faction of  embracing  Captain  Franklin,  but  no  words  can  com'ey  an  idea  of  the 
filth  and  wretchedness  that  met  our  eyes  on  looking  around.  Our  own  misery 
had  stolen  upon  us  by  degrees,  and  we  were  accustomed  to  the  contemplation 
of  each  other's  emaciated  figures  ;  but  the  ghastly  countenances,  dilated  eye- 
balls, and  sepulchral  voices  of  Captain  Franklin  and  those  with  him  were  more 
than  we  could  at  first  bear."  At  length,  on  November  7,  Avhen  the  few  sur- 
vivors of  the  ill-fated  expedition  (for  most  of  the  voyagers  died  from  sheer  ex- 
haustion) were  on  the  point  of  sinking  under  their  sufferings,  three  Indians 
sent  by  Back,  whose  exertions  to  procure  them  relief  had  been  beyond  all  praise. 


348  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

brought  them  the  succor  they  had  so  long  been  waitmg  for.  The  eagerness 
with  which  they  feasted  on  dried  meat  and  excellent  tongues  may  well  be  im- 
agined ;  but  severe  pains  in  the  stomach  soon  warned  them  that  after  so  long 
an  abstinence  they  must  be  exceedingly  careful  in  the  quantity  of  food  taken. 
In  a  fortnight's  time  they  had  sufficiently  recruited  their  strength  to  be  able  to 
join  Back  at  Moose  Deer  Island,  and  in  the  following  year  they  returned  to 
England. 

Parry's  second  voyage  of  discovery  (1821-1823)  was  undertaken  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  a  communication  might  be  fovind  between  Re- 
gent's Inlet  and  Rowe's  Welcome,  or  through  Repulse  Bay  and  thence  to  the 
north-western  shores  of  America.  The  first  summer  (1821)  was  spent  in  the 
vain  attempt  of  forcing  a  way  through  Frozen  Strait,  Repulse  Bay,  the  large 
masses  of  ice  in  these  waters  holding  the  ships  helplessly  in  their  grasp,  and 
often  carrying  them  back  in  a  few  days  to  the  very  spot  which  they  had  left  a 
month  before.  Owing  to  these  rebuffs,  the  season  came  to  an  end  while  their 
enterprise  was  yet  scarcely  begun,  and  the  ships  took  up  their  quarters  in  an 
open  roadstead  at  Winter  Island  to  the  south  of  Melville  Peninsula.  Besides 
the  winter  amusements  and  occupations  of  the  first  voyage,  the  monotony  of 
the  winter  was  pleasantly  broken  during  February  by  friendly  visits  from  a 
party  of  Esquimaux.  Among  these  a  young  woman,  IHgliuk,  distinguished  her- 
self by  her  talents.  Her  love  for  music  amounted  to  a  passion,  and  her  quick- 
ness of  comprehension  was  such  that  she  soon  became  an  established  inter- 
preter between  her  own  people  and  the  English.  The  nature  of  a  map  having 
been  explained  to  her,  she  readily  sketched  with  chalk  upon  the  deck  the  out- 
lines of  the  adjoining  coast,  and  continuing  it  farther,  delineated  the  whole 
eastern  shore  of  Melville  Peninsula,  rounding  its  northern  extremity  by  a  large 
island  and  a  strait  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  afford  a  safe  passage  for  the  ships. 
This  information  greatly  encouraged  the  whole  party,  whose  sanguine  anticipa- 
tions already  fancied  the  Avorst  part  of  their  voyage  overcome,  and  its  truth 
was  eagerly  tested  as  soon  as  the  ships  could  once  more  be  set  afloat,  which 
was  not  till  July  2. 

After  running  the  greatest  dangers  from  the  ice,  they  at  length  reached  the 
small  island  of  Igloolik,  near  the  entrance  of  the  channel,  the  situation  of  which 
had  been  accurately  laid  down  by  the^Esquimaux  woman.  But  all  their  efforts 
to  force  a  passage  through  the  narrow  strait  proved  vain,  for  after  struggHng 
sixty-five  days  to  get  forward,  they  had  only  in  that  time  reached  forty  miles 
to  the  westward  of  Igloolik.  The  vessels  were  therefore  again  placed  in  win- 
ter-quarters in  a  channel  between  Igloolik  and  the  land ;  but  having  ascertained 
by  boat  excursions  the  termination  of  the  strait,  Parry  thought  it  so'promising 
for  the  ensuing  summer  that  he  at  once  named  it  the  "  Hecla  and  Fury  Strait." 
But  his  hopes  were  once  more  doomed  to  disappointment  by  the  ice-obstructed 
channel,  and  he  found  it  utterly  impossible  to  pass  through  it  with  his  ships. 
His  return  to  England  with  his  crews  in  health,  after  two  winters  in  the  high 
latitudes,  Avas  another  triumph  of  judgment  and  discipline. 

In  the  following  year  two  new  expeditions  set  sail  for  Polar  America.  Cap- 
tain Lyon  was  sent  out  in  the  "  Griper,"  with  orders  to  land  at  Wager  River 


ARCTIC   VOYAGES,  FROM  BAFFIN  TO   M'CLINTOCK.  340 

off  ReiDulse  Bay,  and  thence  to  cross  Melville  Peninsula,  and  proceed  overland 
to  Point  Turnagain,  where  Franklin's  journey  ended.  But  a  succession  of 
dreadful  storms  so  crippled  the  "  Griper,"  Avhile  endeavoring  to  proceed  on- 
ward up  Rowe's  Welcome,  that  it  became  necessary  to  return  at  once  to  Eng- 
land. 

Such  was  the  esteem  and  affection  Parry  had  acquired  among  the  compan- 
ions of  his  two  former  voyages,  that  when  he  took  the  command  of  a  third  ex- 
pedition, with  the  intention  of  seeking  a  passage  through  Prince  Reo-ent's  In- 
let, they  all  volunteered  to  accompany  him.  From  the  iniddle  of  July  till  nearly 
the  middle  of  September  (1824),  the  "Hecla"  and  the  "Fury"  had  to  contend 
with  the  enromous  ice-masses  of  Baffin's  Bay,  which  would  infallibly  have 
crushed  vessels  less  stoutly  ribbed ;  and  thus  it  was  not  before  September  10 
that  they  entered  Lancaster  Sound,  which  they  found  clear  of  ice,  except  here 
and  there  a  solitary  berg.  But  new  ice  now  began  to  form,  which,  increasino- 
daily  in  thickness,  beset  the  ship,  and  carried  them  once  more  back  a^ain  into 
Baffin's  Bay.  By  perseverance,  however,  and  the  aid  of  a  strong  easterly  breeze. 
Parry  regained  the  lost  ground,  and  on  September  27  reached  the  entrance  of 
Port  Bowen,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Prince  Regent's  Inlet,  where  he  passed  the 
winter.  By  July  19  the  vessels  were  again  free,  and  Parry  noAV  sailed  across 
the  inlet  to  examine  the  coast  of  North  Somerset ;  but  the  floating  ice  so  in- 
jured the  "  Fury  "  that  it  was  found  necessary  to  abandon  her.  Her  crew  and 
valuables  were  therefore  received  on  board  the  "  Hecla ;"  the  provisions,  stores, 
and  boats  were  landed,  and  safely  housed  on  Fury  Point,  off  North  Somerset, 
for  the  relief  of  any  wandering  Esquimaux,  or  future  Arctic  explorers  who 
might  chance  to  visit  the  spot,  and  the  crippled  ship  was  given  up  to  the  mercy 
of  the  relentless  ice,  while  her  companion  made  the  best  of  her  way  to  Eng- 
land. 

In  spite  of  the  dreadful  sufferings  of  Franklin,  Richardson,  and  Back  during 
their  first  land  journey,  we  find  these  heroes  once  more  setting  forth  in  1825, 
determined  to  resume  the  survey  of  the  Arctic  coasts  of  the  American  conti- 
nent. A  far  more  adequate  preparation  was  made  for  the  necessities  of  their 
journey  than  before ;  and  before  they  settled  down  for  the  winter  at  "  Fort 
Franklin,"  on  the  shores  of  Great  Bear  Lake,  a  journey  of  investigation  down 
the  Mackenzie  River  to  the  sea  had  been  brought  to  a  successful  end.  As  soon 
as  the  ice  broke  in  the  following  summer,  they  set  out  in  four  boats,  and  sepa- 
rated at  the  point  where  the  river  divides  into  two  main  branches,  Franklm  and 
Back  proposing  to  survey  the  coast-line  to  the  westward,  while  Richardson  set 
out  in  an  easterly  direction  to  the  mouth  of  tlie  Coppermine  River.  Franklin 
arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  on  July  7,  where  a  large  tribe  of  Esqui- 
maux pillaged  his  boats,  and  it  was  only  by  great  prudence  and  forbearance 
that  the  whole  party  were  not  massacred.  A  full  month  was  now  sj^ent  in  the 
tedious  survey  of  374  miles  of  coast,  as  far  as  Return  Reef,  more  than  1000  miles 
distant  from  their  winter-quarters  on  great  Bear  Lake.  The  return  journey 
to  Fort  Franklin  was  safely  accomplished,  and  they  arrived  at  their  house  on 
September  21,  where  they  had  the  pleasure  of  finding  Dr.  Richardson  and  Lieu- 
tenant Kendall,  who,  on  their  part,  had  reached  the  Coppermine,  thus  connect- 


350  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

ing  Sir  John  Franklin's  former  discoveries  to  the  eastward  in  Coronation  Gulf 
with  those  made  by  him  on  this  occasion  to  the  westward  of  the  Mackenzie. 
The  cold  during  the  second  winter  at  Fort  Franklin  was  intense,  the  thermom- 
eter standing  at  one  time  at  58°  below  zero ;  but  the  comfort  they  now  enjoyed 
formed  a  most  pleasing  contrast  to  the  squalid  misery  of  Fort  Enterprise. 

When  Franklin  left  England  to  proceed  on  this  expedition,  his  first  wife  was 
then  lying  at  the  point  of  death,  and  indeed  expired  the  day  after  his  depart- 
ure. But  with  heroic  fortitude  she  urged  him  to  set  out  on  the  very  day  ap- 
pointed, entreating  him,  as  he  valued  her  peace  and  his  own  glory,  not  to  delay 
a  moment  on  her  account.  His  feelings  may  be  imagined  when  he  raised  on 
Garry  Island  a  silk  flag  which  she  had  made  and  given  him  as  a  parting  gift, 
with  the  instruction  that  he  was  only  to  hoist  it  on  reaching  the  Polar  Sea. 

While  Parry  and  Franklin  were  thus  severally  employed  in  searching  for  a 
western  passage,  a  sea  expedition  under  the  command  of^Captain  Beechey  had 
been  sent  to  Bering's  Straits  to  co-operate  with  them,  so  as  to  furnish  provis- 
ions to  the  former  and  a  conveyance  home  to  the  latter — a  task  more  easily 
planned  than  executed ;  and  thus  we  can  not  wonder  that  when  the  "  Blossom  " 
reached  the  appointed  place  of  rendezvous  at  Chamisso  Island,  in  Kotzebue 
Sound  (July  25, 1826),  she  found  neither  Parry  (who  had  long  since  returned 
to  England)  nor  Franklin.  Yet  the  barge  of  the  "  Blossom  " — which  was  dis- 
patched to  the  eastward  under  charge  of  Mr.  Elson — narrowly  missed  meeting 
the  latter ;  for  when  she  was  stopped  by  the  ice  at  Point  Barrow,  she  vi^as  only 
about  150  miles  from  Return  Reef,  the  limit  of  his  discoveries  to  the  westward 
of  the  Mackenzie. 

In  the  year  1827  the  indefatigable  Parry  undertook  one  of  the  most  extra- 
ordinary voyages  ever  performed  by  man ;  being  no  less  than  an  attempt  to 
reach  the  North  Pole  by  boat  and  sledge  travelling  over  the  ice.  His  hopes  of 
success  were  founded  on  Crosby's  authority,  who  reports  having  seen  ice-fields 
so  free  from  either  fissure  or  hummock,  that  had  they  not  been  covered  with 
snow, a  coach  might  have  been  driven  many  leagues  over  them  in  a  direct  line; 
but  when  Parry  reached  the  ice-fields  to  the  north  of  Spitzbergen,  he  found  them 
of  a  very  different  nature,  composed  of  loose,  rugged  masses,  intermixed  with 
pools  of  water,  which  rendered  travelling  over  them  extremely  arduous  and  slow. 
The  strong  flat-bottomed  boats,  specially  prepared  for  an  amphibious  journey, 
AA-ith  a  runner  attached  to  each  side  of  the  keel,  so  as  to  adapt  them  for  sledg- 
ing, had  thus  frequently  to  be  laden  and  unladen,  in  order  to  be  raised  over  the 
hummocks,  and  repeated  journeys  backward  and  forward  over  the  same  ground 
were  the  necessary  consequence.  Frequently  the  crew  had  to  go  on  hands  and 
knees  to  secure  a  footing.  Heavy  showers  of  rain  often  rendered  the  surface 
of  the  ice  a  mass  of  slush,  and  in  some  places  the  ice  took  the  form  of  sharp- 
pointed  crystals,  which  cut  the  boots  like  penknives.  But  in  spite  of  all  these 
obstacles,  they  toiled  cheerfully  on,  i;ntil  at  length,  after  thirty-five  days  of  in- 
cessant drudgery,  the  discovery  was  made  that,  while  they  were  apparently  ad- 
vancing towards  the  pole,  the  ice-field  on  which  they  were  travelling  was  drift- 
ing to  the  south,  and  thus  rendering  all  their  exertions  fruitless.  Yet,  though 
disappointed  in  his  hope  of  planting  his  country's  standard  on  the  northern 


ARCTIC   VOYAGES,  FROM   BAFFIN  TO   M'CLINTOCK.  ^.jl 

axis  of  the  globe,  Parry  had  the  glory  of  reaching  the  highest  authenticated 
latitude  ever  yet  attained  (82°  40'  30").  On  their  return  to  the  "  Hecla,"  which 
awaited  them  under  Captain  Forester  in  Treurenberg  Bay,  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Spitzbergen,  the  boats  encountered  a  dreadful  storm  on  the  open  sea, 
which  obliged  them  to  bear  up  for  Walden  Island — one  of  the  most  northerly 
rocks  of  the  archipelago — where,  fortunately,  a  reserve  supply  of  provisions  had 
been  deposited.  "  Every  thing  belonging  to  us,"  says  Sir  Edward  Pari-y,  "  was 
now  completely  drenched  by  the  spray  and  snow ;  Ave  had  been  fifty-six  hours 
without  rest,  and  forty-eight  at  work  in  the  boats,  so  that  by  the  time  they  Avere 
unloaded  Ave  had  barely  strength  to  haul  them  up  on  the  rocks.  However,  by 
dint  of  great  exertion,  AA^e  managed  to  get  the  boats  above  the  surf,  after  which, 
a  hot  supper,  a  blazing  fire  of  drift-Avood,  and  a  fcAV  hours'  quiet  rest  restored 
us."  He  Avho  laments  over  the  degeneracy  of  the  human  race,  xind  supposes  it 
to  have  been  more  vigorous  or  endoAved  with  greater  poAvers  of  endurance  in 
ancient  times,  may  perhaps  come  to  a  different  opinion  AAdien  readiiig  of  Parry 
and  his  companions. 

Thus  ended  the  last  of  this  great  navigatoi-'s  Arctic  voyages.  Born  in  the 
year  1790,  of  a  family  of  seamen,  Parry  at  an  early  age  devoted  himself,  heart 
and  soul,  to  the  profession  in  Avhich  his  father  had  grown  old.  In  his  tAventy- 
eighth  year  he  discovered  Melville  Island,  and  his  subsequent  expedition  con- 
firmed the  excellent  reputation  he  had  acquired  by  his  first  brilliant  success. 
From  the  years  1829  to  1834  we  find  him  in  New  South  Wales,  as  Resident 
Commissioner  of  the  Australian  Agricultural  Company.  In  the  year  1837  he 
was  appointed  to  organize  the  mail-packet  service,  then  transferred  to  the  Ad- 
miralty, and  after  filling  the  post  of  Captain  Superintendent  of  the  Royal  Naval 
Hospital  at  Haslar,  was  finally  appointed  Governor  of  GreeuAvich  Hospital.  He 
died  in  the  summer  of  1855  at  Ems. 

Ten  years  had  elapsed  since  Captain  John  Ross's  first  unsuccessful  voyage, 
when  the  veteran  seaman,  anxious  to  obliterate  the  reproach  of  foi-mer  failure 
by  some  Avorthy  achievement,  was  enabled,  through  the  munificence  of  Sir  Felix 
Booth,  to  accomplish  his  Avishes.  A  small  Liverpool  steamer,  bearing  the  rath- 
er presumptuous  name  of  the  "  Victory,"  was  purchased  for  the  voyage,  a  rather 
unfortunate  selection,  for  surely  nothing  can  be  more  unpractical  than  paddle- 
boxes  among  ice-blocks ;  but  to  make  amends  for  this  erroi-,  the  commander  of 
the  expedition  was  foi'tunate  in  being  accompanied  by  his  nephcAv,  Commander 
James  Ross,  who,  with  every  quality  of  the  seaman,  united  the  zeal  of  an  able 
naturalist.  He  it  was  who,  by  his  Avell-executed  sledge  journeys,  made  the 
chief  discoveries  of  the  expedition ;  but  the  voyage  of  the  "  Victory  "  is  far  less 
remarkable  for  successes  achieved  than  for  its  unexampled  protraction  during 
a  period  of  five  years. 

The  first  season  ended  Avell.  On  August  10,  1829,  the  "Victory  "  entered 
Prince  Regent's  Inlet,  and  reached  on  the  13th  the  spot  Avhere  Parry,  on  his 
third  voyage,  had  been  obliged  to  abandon  the  "  Fury."  The  ship  itself  had 
been  SAvept  away ;  but  all  her  sails,  stores,  and  provisions  on  land  Avere  found 
untouched.  The  hermetically  sealed  tin  canisters  in  Avhich  the  flour,  meat,  bread, 
wine,  spirits,  sugar,  etc.,  Avere  packed  had  preserved  them  ivom  the  attacks  of 


353  •  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

the  Avhite  bears,  and  they  were  found  as  good  after  four  years  as  they  had  been 
on  the  day  when  the  "  Fury  "  started  on  her  voyage.  It  was  to  this  discovery 
that  the  crew  of  the  "  Victory  "  owed  their  subsequent  presex'vation,  for  how 
else  could  they  have  passed  four  winters  in  the  Arctic  wastes  ? 

On  August  15  Cape  Garry  was  attained,  the  most  southern  point  of  the  inlet 
which  Parry  had  reached  on  his  third  voyage.  Fogs  and  drift-ice  greatly  re- 
tarded the  progress  of  the  expedition,  but  Ross^moved  on,  though  slowly,  so 
that  about  the  middle  of  September  the  map  of  the  northern  regions  was  en- 
riched by  some  500  miles  of  newly-discovered  coast.  But  now,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  winter,  the  "Victory"  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Felix  Harbor, 
where  the  useless  steam-engine  was  thrown  overboard  as  a  nuisance,  and  the 
usual  preparations  made  for  spending  the  cold  season  as  pleasantly  as  possible. 

The  following  spring  (from  May  17  to  June  13)  was  employed  by  James 
Ross  on  a  sledge  journey,  which  led  to  the  discovery  of  King  William's  Sound 
and  King  William's  Land,  and  during  which  that  courageous  mariner  penetra- 
ted so  far  to  the  west  that  he  had  only  ten  days'  provisions — scantily  measured 
out — for  a  return  voyage  of  200  miles  through  an  empty  wilderness. 

After  twelve  months'  imprisonment,  the  "  Victory  "  was  released  from  the 
ice  on  September  17,  and  proceeded  once  more  on  her  discoveries.  But  the 
period  of  her  liberty  was  short,  for,  after  advancing  three  miles  in  one  continual 
battle  against  the  currents  and  the  drift-ice,  she  again  froze  fast  on  the  27th  of 
the  same  month. 

In  the  following  spring  we  again  see  the  indefatigable  James  Ross  extend- 
ing the  circle  of  his  sledge  excursions,  and  planting  the  British  flag  on  the  site 
of  the  N"orthern  Magnetic  Pole — which,  however,  is  not  invariably  fixed  to  one 
spot,  as  was  then  believed,  but  moves  from  place  to  place  within  the  glacial 
zone. 

On  August  28,  1831,  the  "Victory" — after  a  second  imprisonment  of  eleven 
months— was  Avarped  into  open  water;  but  after  spending  a  whole  month  to 
advance  four  miles,  she  was  encompassed  by  the  ice  on  September  27,  and  once 
more  fettered  in  the  dreary  wilderness. 

As  there  seemed  no  prospect  of  extricating  her  next  summer,  they  resolved 
to  abandon  her  and  travel  over  the  ice  to  Fury  Beach,  there  to  avail  themselves 
of  the  boats,  provisions,  and  stores,  wliich  Avould  assist  them  in  reaching  Davis's 
Straits.  Accordingly,  on  May  29, 1832,  the  colors  of  the  "  Victory  "  were  hoist- 
ed and  nailed  to  the  mast,  and  after  drinking  a  parting  glass  to  the  ship  with  the 
crew,  and  having  seen  every  man  out  in  the  evening,  the  captain  took  his  own 
leave  of  her.  "  It  was  the  first  vessel,"  says  Ross,  "  that  I  had  ever  been  obliged 
to  abandon,  after  having  served  in  thirty-six,  during  a  period  of  forty-two  years. 
It  was  like  the  last  parting  with  an  old  friend,  and  I  did  not  pass  the  point 
where  she  ceased  to  be  visible  without  stopping  to  take  a  sketch  of  this  melan- 
choly desert,  rendered  more  melancholy  by  the  solitary,  abandoned,  helpless 
home  of  our  past  years,  fixed  in  immovable  ice,  till  time  should  perform  on  her 
his  usual  work." 

After  having,  with  incredible  difficulty,  reached  Fury  Beach,  where,  thanks 
to  the  forethought  of  Sir  Edward  Parrv,  they  fortunately  found  a  sufficient  nura- 


ARCTIC   VOYAGES,  FROM   BAFFIN   TO   M'CLINTOCK.  353 

ber  of  boats  left  for  their  purpose,  and  all  the  provisions  in  good  condition, 
they  set  out  on  August  1 — a  considerable  extent  of  open  sea  being  visible — and 
after  much  buffeting  among  the  ice,  reached  the  north  of  the  inlet  by  the 
end  of  the  month.  But  here  they  were  doomed  to  disappointment,  for,  after 
several  fruitless  attempts  to  run  along  Barrow's  Strait,  the  ice  obliged  them  to 
haul  their  boats  on  shore  and  pitch  their  tents.  Day  after  day  they  lingered 
till  the  third  week  in  September,  but  the  strait  continuing  one  impenetrable 
mass  of  ice,  it  was  unanimously  agreed  that  their  only  resource  was  to  fall  back 
again  on  the  stores  at  Fury  Beach,  and  there  spend  a  fourth  long  winter  within 
the  Arctic  Circle.  They  were  only  able  to  get  half  tlie  distance  in  tlie  boats, 
which  were  hauled  on  shore  in  Batty  Bay  on  September  24,  and  performed  the 
rest  of  their  journey  on  foot,  the  provisions  being  dragged  in  sledges.  On  Oc- 
tober 7  they  once  more  reached  the  canvas  hut,  dignified  with  the  name  of 
"Somerset  House,"  which  they  had  erected  in  July  on  the  scene  of  the 
"  Fury's  "  wreck,  and  which  they  had  vainly  hoped  never  to  see  again. 

They  now  set  about  building  a  snow-wall  four  feet  thick  round  their  dwell- 
ing, and  strengthening  the  roof  with  spars,  for  the  purpose  of  covering  it  with 
snow,  and  by  means  of  this  shelter,  and  an  additional  stove,  made  themselves 
tolerably  comfortable,  until  the  increasing  severity  of  the  cold  and  the  furious 
gales  confined  them  within-doors,  and  sorely  tried  their  patience.  Scurvy  now 
began  to  appear,  and  several  of  the  men  fell  victims  to  the  scourge.  At  the 
same  time,  cares  for  the  future  darkened  the  gloom  of  their  situation  ;  for,  should 
they  be  disappointed  in  their  hopes  of  escaping  in  the  ensuing  summer,  their 
failing  strength  and  diminishing  stores  gave  them  but  little  hope  of  surviving 
another  year. 

It  may  easily  be  imagined  how  anxiously  the  movements  of  the  ice  were 
watched  when  the  next  season  opened,  and  with  Avhat  beating  hearts  they  era- 
barked  at  Batty  Bay  on  August  15.  Making  their  way  slowly  among  the  mass- 
es of  ice  with  which  the  inlet  was  encumbered,  they  to  their  great  joy  found, 
on  the' 1 7th,  the  wide  expanse  of  Barrow's  Strait  open  to  navigation. 

Pushing  on  with  renewed  spirits,  Cape  York  soon  lay  behind  them,  and,  al- 
ternately rowing  and  sailing,  on  the  night  of  the  25th  they  rested  in  a  good 
harbor  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Navy  Board  Inlet.  At  4  o'clock  on  the  follow- 
ing morning  they  were  roused  from  their  slumber  by  the  joyful  intelligence 
of  a  ship  being  in  sight,  and  never  did  men  more  hurriedly  and  energetically 
set  out ;  but  the  elements  were  against  them,  and  the  ship  disappeared  in  the 
distant  haze. 

After  a  few  hours'  suspense,  the  sight  of  another  vessel  lying  to  in  a  calm 
relieved  their  despair.  This  time  their  exertions  were  successful,  and,  strange 
to  say,  the  ship  which  took  them  on  board  was  the  same  "  Isabella  " — now  re- 
duced to  the  rank  of  a  private  whaler — in  which  Ross  had  made  his  first  voyage 
to  the  Arctic  Seas. 

The  seamen  of  the  "Isabella"  told  him  of  his  own  death — of  which  all  Eng- 
land was  persuaded — and  could  hardly  believe  that  it  was  really  he  and  his 
party  who  now  stood  before  them.  But  when  all  doubts  were  cleared  away,  tlie 
rigging  was  instantly  manned  to  do  them  honor,  and  thundering  cheers  wel- 

23 


354  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

corned  Ross  and  bis  gallant  baud  on  board  !     The  scene  that  now  followed  can 
not  be  better  told  than  in  Ross's  own  words. 

"  Though  we  had  not  been  supported  by  our  names  and  characters,  we  should 
not  the  less  have  claimed  from  charity  the  attentions  that  we  recei^  ed  ;  for  nev- 
er was  seen  a  more  miserable  set  of  wretches.  Unshaven  since  I  know  not  when, 
dirty,  dressed  in  rags  of  wild  beasts,  and  starved  to  the  very  bones,  our  gaunt  and 
grim  looks,  when  contrasted  with  those  of  the  well-dressed  and  well-fed  men 
around  us,  made  us  all  feel  (I  believe  for  the  first  time)  what  we  really  were,  as 
well  as  Avhat  we  seemed  to  others.  But  the  ludicrous  soon  took  the  place  of 
all  other  feelings  ;  in  such  a  crowd  and  such  confusion,  all  serious  thought  was 
impossible,  while  the  new  buoyancy  of  our  spirits  made  us  abundantly  willing 
to  be  amused  by  the  scene  which  now  opened.  Every  man  was  hungry,  and 
was  to  be  fed ;  all  were  ragged,  arwi  were  to  be  clothed ;  there  was  not  one  to 
whom  washing  was  not  indispensable,  nor  one  whom  his  beard  did  not  deprive 
of  all  human  semblance.  All,  every  thing  too,  was  to  be  .done  at  once:  it  was 
washing,  dressing,  shaving,  eating,  all  intermingled  :  it  was  all  the  materials  of 
each  jumbled  together,  while  in  the  midst  of  (ill  there  were  interminable  ques- 
tions to  be  asked  and  answered  on  both  sides ;  the  adventures  of  the  '  Victory,' 
our  own  escapes,  the  politics  of  England,  and  the  news,  which  w^as  now  four 
years  old.  But  all  subsided  into  peace  at  last.  The  sick  were  accommodated, 
the  seamen  disposed  of,  and  all  was  done  for  us  which  care  and  kindness  could 
perform.  Night  at  length  brought  quiet  and  serious  thoughts,  and  I  trust  there 
was  not  a  man  among  us  who  did  not  then  express  where  it  was  due  his  grati- 
tude for  that  interposition  which  had  raised  us  all  from  a  despair  which  none 
could  now  forget,  and  had  brought  us  from  the  borders  of  a  most  distant  grave 
to  life,  and  friends,  and  civilization.  Long  accustomed,  however,  to  a  cold  bed 
on  the  hard  snow  or  the  bare  rocks,  few  could  sleep  amidst  the  comfort  of  our 
new  accommodations.  I  was  myself  compelled  to  leave  the  bed  which  had  been 
kindly  assigned  me,  and  take  my  abode  in  a  chair  for  the  night ;  nor  did  it  fare 
much  better  with  the  rest.  It  was  for  time  to  reconcile  us  to  this  sudden  and 
violent  change,  to  break  through  what  had  become  habit,  and  to  inure  us  once 
more  to  the  usages  of  our  former  days." 

The  "Isabella"  remained  some  time  longer  in  Baffin's  Bay  to  prosecute  the 
fishery,  and  thus  our  Arctic  voyagers  did  not  return  to  England  before  October 
15, 1833,  when  they  were  received  as  men  risen  from  the  grave.  Wherever  Ross 
appeared,  he  was  met  and  escorted  by  a  crowd  of  sympathizers ;  orders,  medals, 
and  diplomas  from  foreign  states  and  learned  societies  rained  down  upon  him. 
London,  Liverpool,  Bristol,  and  Hull  presented  him  with  the  freedom  of  their  re- 
spective cities ;  he  received  the  honor  of  knighthood  ;  and,  though  last,  not 
least.  Parliament  granted  him  £5000  as  a  remuneration  for  his  pecuniary  out- 
lay and  privations. 

It  may  easily  be  imagined  that  his  long-protracted  absence  had  not  been  al- 
lowed to  pass  without  awakening  a  strong  desire  to  bring  him  aid  and  assist- 
ance. Thus,  when  Captain  (afterwards  Rear-admiral  Sir  George)  Back,  that 
noble  Paladin  of  Arctic  research,  volunteered  to  lead  a  land  expedition  in  quest 
of  Ross  to  the  northern  shore  of  America,  £4000  were  immediately  raised  by 


AECTIC  VOYAGES,  FROM  BAFFIN  TO  M'CLINTOCK.  355 

public  subscription  to  defray  expenses.  While  deep  in  the  American  wilds, 
Back  was  gratified  with  the  intelligence  that  the  object  of  his  search  had  safely 
arrived  in  England ;  but,  instead  of  returning  home,  the  indefatigable  explorer 
resolved  to  trace  the  unknown  course  of  the  Thlu-it-scho,  or  Great  Fish  River, 
down  to  the  distant  outlet  where  it  pours  its  waters  into  the  Polar  Seas. 

It  would  take  a  volume  to  relate  his  adventures  in  this  expedition,  the  num- 
berless falls,  cascades,  and  rapids  that  obstructed  his  progress  ;  the  storms  and 
snow-drifts,  the  horrors  of  the  deserts  through  which  he  forced  his  way,  until  he 
finally  (July  28)  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Thlu-it-scho,  or,  rather,  the  broad  estu- 
ary through  which  it  disembogues  itself  into  the  Polar  Sea,  His  intention 
was  to  proceed  to  Point  Turnagain,  but  the  obstacles  were  insurmountable,  even 
by  him.  For  ten  days  the  exploring  party  had  a  continuation  of  wet,  chilly, 
foggy  weather,  and  the  only  vegetation  (fern  and  moss)  was  so  damp  that  it 
would  not  burn ;  being  thus  without  fuel,  they  had  only  during  this  time  one 
hot  meal.  Almost  without  water,  without  any  means  of  warmth,  and  sinking 
knee-deep  as  they  proceeded  on  land,  in  the  soft  slush  and  snow,  no  wonder 
that  some  of  the  best  men,  benumbed  in  their  limbs,  and  dispirited  by  the  pros- 
pect before  them,  broke  out  for  a  moment  in  murmuring  at  the  hardness  of  their 
duty. 

On  August  15,  seeing  the  impossibility  of  proceeding  even  a  single  m\le  far- 
ther, Back  assembled  the  men  around  him,  and  unfurling  the  British  flag,  which 
was  saluted  with  three  cheers,  he  announced  to  them  his  determination  to  re- 
turn. The  difliculties  of  the  river  were  of  course  doubled  in  the  ascent,  from 
having  to  go  against  the  stream.  All  the  obstacles  of  rocks,  rapids,  sand-banks, 
and  long  portages  had  to  be  faced.  They  found,  as  they  went  on,  that  many 
of  the  deposits  of  provisions,  on  which  they  relied,  had  been  destroyed  by 
wolves.  After  thus  toiling  on  for  six  weeks,  they  Avere  ultimately  stopped  by 
one  most  formidable  perpendicular  fall,  which  obliged  them  to  abandon  their 
boat ;  and  proceeding  on  foot — each  laden  with  a  pack  of  about  75  lbs.  weight 
—they  ultimately  arrived  at  their  old  habitation,  Fort  ReHance,  after  an  ab- 
sence'of  nearly  four  months,  exhausted  and  worn  out,  but  justly  proud  of  hav- 
ing accomplished  so  difficult  and  dangerous  a  voyage. 

The  Fish  River  has  since  been  named  Back's  River,  in  honor  of  its  discover- 
er; and  surely  no  geographical  distinction  has  ever  been  more  justly  merited. 

This  indefatigable  exi^lorer  had  scarcely  returned  to  England  (Sept.  8, 1835), 
when  he  once  more  set  out  on  his  way  to  the  Arctic  regions ;  but  his  ship,  the 
"  Terror,"  was  so  disabled  by  the  ice  that  she  Avas  scarcely  able  to  accomplish 
the  return  voyage  across  the  Atlantic,  without  allowing  her  to  make  any  new 
discoveries. 

The  land  expedition  sent  out  by  the  Hudson'sBay  Company  (1837-39),  under 
the  direction  of  Peter  Warren  Dease,  one  of  their  chief  factors,  and  Mr.  Thomas 
Simpson,  proved  far  more  successful.  Descending  the  Mackenzie  to  the  sea, 
they  surveyed,  in  July,  1837,  that  part  of  the  northern  coast  of  America  which 
had  been  left  unexamined  by  Franklin  and  Elson  in  1825,  from  Return  Reef  to 
Cape  Barrow. 

Although  it  was  the  height  of  summer,  the  ground  was  found  frozen  several 


356  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

inches  below  the  surface,  and  the  spray  froze  on  the  oars  and  rigging  of  their 
boats,  Avhich  the  drift-ice  along  the  shore  ultimately  obliged  them  to  leave 
behind. 

As  they  went  onward  on  foot,  heavily  laden,  the  frequent  necessity  of  wading 
up  to  the  middle  in  the  ice-cold  water  of  the  inlets,  together  with  the  constant 
fogs  and  the  sharp  north  wind,  tried  their  powers  of  endurance  to  the  utmost ; 
but  Simpson,  the  hero  of  the  expedition,  was  not  to  be  deterred  by  any  thing 
short  of  absolute  impossibility;  nor  did  he  stop  till  he  had  reached  Point 
Barrow.  Indeed,  no  man  could  be  more  fit  than  he  to  lead  an  expedition  like 
this,  for  he  had  once  before  travelled  2000  miles  on  foot  in  the  middle  of 
winter  from  York  Factory  to  Athabasca,  walking  sometimes  not  less  than 
fifty  miles  in  one  day,  and  without  any  protection  against  the  cold  but  an  ordi- 
nary cloth  mantle. 

After  wintering  at  Fort  Confidence,  on  Great  Bear  Lake,  the  next  season 
was  profitably  employed  in  descending  the  Coppermine  River,  and  tracing  nearly 
140  miles  of  new  coast  beyond  Cape  Turnagain,  the  limit  of  Franklin's  survey 
in  1821.  The  third  season  (1839)  was  still  more  favored  by  foi'tune,  for  Simpson 
succeeded  in  discovering  the  whole  coast  beyond  Cape  Turnagain  as  far  as 
Castor  and  Pollux  River  (August  20,  1839),  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  vast  arm 
of  the __ sea  which  receives  the  waters  of  the  Great  Fish  River.  On  his  return 
voyage,  he  traced  sixty  miles  of  the  south  coast  of  King  William's  Island,  and 
a  considerable  part  of  the  high,  bold  shores  of  Victoria  Land,  and  reached  Fort 
Confidence  on  September  24,  after  one  of  the  longest  and  most  successful  boat 
voyages  ever  performed  in  the  Polar  waters,  having  traversed  more  than  1600 
miles  of  sea. 

Unfortunately  he  Avas  not  destined  to  reap  the  rewards  of  his  labor,  for  in 
the  following  year,  while  travelling  from  the  Red  River  to  the  Mississippi, 
where  he  intended  to  embark  for  England,  he  was  assassinated  by  his  Indian 
guides ;  and  thus  died,  in  the  thirty-sixth  year  of  his  age,  one  of  the  best  men 
that  have  ever  served  the  cause  of  science  in  the  frozen  north. 

On  May  26, 1845,  Sir  John  Franklin,  now  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  age,  and 
Captain  Crozier,  sailed  from  England,  to  make  a  new  attempt  at  the  north-west 
passage.  Never  did  stouter  vessels  than  the  "  Erebus "  and  "  Terror,"  well- 
tried  in  the  Antarctic  Seas,  carry  a  finer  or  more  ably  commanded  crew ;  never 
before  had  human  foresight  so  strained  all  her  resources  to  insure  success  ;  and 
thus,  when  the  commander's  last  dispatches  from  the  Whalefish  Islands,  Baf- 
fin's Bay  (July  12),  previous  to  his  sailing  to  Lancaster  Sound,  arrived  in  Eng- 
land no  one  doubted  but  that  he  was  about  to  add  a  new  and  brilliant  chajiter 
to  the  history  of  Arctic  discovery. 

His  return  was  confidently  expected  towards  the  end  of  1847;  but  when 
the  winter  passed  and  still  no  tidings  came,  the  anxiety  at  his  prolonged  absence 
became  general,  and  the  early  part  of  1848  witnessed  the  beginning  of  a  series 
of  searching  expeditions  fitted  out  at  the  public  cost  or  by  private  munificence, 
on  a  scale  exceeding  all  former  examples.  The  "  Plover  "  and  the  "  Herald  " 
(1848)  were  sent  to  Bering's  Straits  to  meet  Franklin  with  supplies,  should  he 
succeed  in  getting  thither.     In  spring  Sir  John  Richardson  hurried  to  the  shores 


ARCTIC   VOYAGES,  FROM   BAFFIN  TO   M'CLINTOCK.  357 

of  the  Polar  Sea,  anxious  to  find  the  traces  of  his  lost  friend.  He  was  accom- 
panied by  Dr.  Rae,  who  had  just  returned  from  the  memorable  land  expedition 
(1846-47),  during  which,  after  crossing  the  isthmus  which  joins  Melville 
Peninsula  to  the  mainland,  he  traced  the  shores  of  Committee  Bay  and  the  east 
coast  of  Boothia  as  far  as  the  Lord  Mayor's  Bay  of  Sir  John  Ross,  thus  proving 
that  desolate  land  to  be  likewise  a  vast  peninsula. 

But  in  vain  did  Rae  and  Richardson  explore  all  the  coasts  between  the 
Mackenzie  and  the  Coppermine.  The  desert  remained  mute ;  and  Sir  James 
Ross  ("Enterprise  ")  and  Captain  Bird  ("  Investigator  "),  who  set  sail  in  June, 
1848,  three  months  after  Dr.  Richardson's  departure,  and  minutely  examined  all 
the  shores  near  Barrow  Strait,  proved  equally  unsuccessful. 

Three  years  had  now  passed  since  Franklin  had  been  expected  home,  and 
even  the  most  sanguine  began  to  despair ;  but  to  remove  all  doubts,  it  was  re- 
solved to  explore  once  more  all  the  gulfs  and  channels  of  the  Polar  Sea.  Thus 
in  the  year  1850  no  less  than  twelve  ships  sailed  forth,  some  to  Bering's  Straits, 
some  to  the  sounds  leading  from  Baffin's  Bay.*  Other  expeditions  followed 
in  1852  and  1853,  and  though  none  of  them  succeeded  in  the  object  of  their 
search,  yet  they  enriched  the  geography  of  the  Arctic  World  with  many  inter- 
esting discoveries,,  the  most  important  of  which  I  will  now  briefly  mention. 

Overcoming  the  ice  of  Baffin's  Bay  by  the  aid  of  their  powerful  steam-tugs, 
Austin,  Ommaney,  and  Penny  reached  the  entrance  of  Lancaster  Sound,  Here 
they  separated, 'and  while  the  "Resolute"  remained  behind  to  examine  the 
neighborhood  of  Pond's  Bay,  Ommaney  found  at  Cape  Riley  (North  Devon) 
the  first  traces  of  the  lost  expedition.  He  was  soon  joined  by  Ross,  Austin, 
Penny,  and  the  Americans,  and  a  minute  investigation  soon  proved  that  Cape 
Spencer  and  Beechey  Island,  at  the  entrance  of  Wellington  Channel,  had  been 
the  site  of  Franklin's  first  winter-quarters,  distinctly  marked  by  the  remains  of 
a  large  storehouse,  staves  of  casks,  empty  pemmican-tins,  and,  most  touching 
relic  of  all,  a  little  garden  shaped  into  a  neat  oval  by  some  flower-loving  sailor, 
and  filled  with  the  few  hardy  plants  which  that  bleak  clime  can  nourish.  Mean- 
while winter  approached,  and  little  more  could  be  done  that  season ;  so  all  the 
vessels  which  had  entered  Barrow's  Strait  now  took  up  their  winter-quarters  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  Cornwallis  Land ;  with  the  exception  of  the  "  Prince 
Albert,"  which  set  sail  for  England  before  winter  set  in,  and  of  the  Americans, 

*  1850-1854.      "Investigator,"  Captain M'Clure,}   ^   ..  ^,,  „      . 

1850-1855.      "  Enterprise,"  Captain  Collinson,  )      "^""S  i' 

1850,1851.      "Resolute, "Captain  Austin,  }   ^  ^      c^    -..      ^  n<  ^^■    t  ■,     ^ 

10-A  -IO-1       11  A     •  ^  „A        .     ^  ^  Lancaster  Strait  and  Cornwallis  Island. 

I»o0, 18ol.      "Assistance,"  Captain  Ominane}',) 

Accompanied  by  two  steam  tenders,  officered  by  Lieutenant  Sherard  Osborne  and 

Lieutenant  F.  L.  M'Clintock. 

1850,  1851.      "Lady  Franklin,"  Master  Penny,  accompanieil  bv  tlie  "  Sopbia,"  Master  A.  Stewart, 

under  Admiralty  Orders,  to  Lancaster  Strait  and  Wellini^ton  Channel. 

1850.  "  Prince  Albert,"  Captain  Forsyth,  belonging  to  Lady  Franklin,  to  Regent's  Inlet  and 

Beechey  Island. 

1850,.1851.     "Advance,"  Lieutenant  De  Haven,  U.S.N.| 

1850, 1851.     "  Rescue," S.  P.  Griffin;  Esq. ,  U.S.N.  ) 

Fitted  at  the  expanse  of  H.  Grinnell,  Esq.,  of  New  York,  to  Lancaster  Strait  and 

Wellington  Channel. 


358  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

who,  perceiving  the  impolicy  of  so  many  ships  pressing  to  the  westward  on  one 
parallel,  turned  back,  but  were  soon  shut  up  in  the  pack-ice,  which  for  eight  long 
months  kept  them  prisoners.  The  "  Rescue  "  and  "  Advance  "  were  drifted 
backward  and  forward  in  "Wellington  Channel  until  in  December  a  terrific 
storm  drove  them  into  Barrow's  Strait,  and  still  farther  on  into  Lancaster  Sound. 
Several  times  during  this  dreadful  passage  they  were  in  danger  fi'om  the  ice 
opening  round  them  and  closing  suddenly  again,  and  only  escaped  being  "  nip- 
ped "  by  their  small  size  and  strong  build,  which  enabled  them  to  rise  above 
the  opposing  edges  instead  of  being  crushed  between  them.  Even  on  their  ar- 
rival in  Baffin's  Bay  the  ice  did  not  release  them  from  its  hold,  and  it  was  not 
till  June  9, 1851,  that  they  reached  the  Danish  settlement  at  Disco.  After  re- 
cruiting his  exhausted  crew,  the  gallant  De  Haven  determined  to  return  and 
prosecute  the  search  during  the  remainder  of  the  season  ;  but  the  discouraging 
reports  of  the  whalers  induced  him  to  change  his  purpose,  and  the  ships  and 
crews  reached  New  York  at  the  beginning  of  October,  having  passed  through 
perils  such  as  few  have  endured  and  still  fewer  have  lived  to  recount. 

•Meanwhile  the  English  searching  expeditions  had  not  remained  inactive. 
As  soon  as  spring  came,  well-organized  sledge  expeditions  were  dispatched  in 
all  directions,  but  they  all  returned  Avith  the  same  invariable  tale  of  disappoint- 
ment. 

As  soon  as  Wellington  Channel  opened.  Penny  boldly  entered  the  ice-lanes 
with  a  boat,  and,  after  a  series  of  adventures  and  difficulties,  penetrated  up 
Queen's  Channel  as  far  as  Baring  Island  and  Cape  Beecher,  where,  most  reluc- 
tantly, he  was  compelled  to  turn  back. 

A  fine  open  sea  stretched  invitingly  away  to  the  north,  but  his  fragile  boat 
was  ill-equipped  for  a  voyage  of  discovery.  Fully  persuaded  that  Franklin  must 
have  followed  this  route,  he  failed,  however,  in  convincing  Captain  Austin  of  the 
truth  of  his  theory,  and  as,  without  that  officer's  co-operation,  nothing  could  be 
effected,  he  was  compelled  to  follow  the  course  pointed  out  by  the  Admiralty 
squadron,  which,  after  two  ineffectual  attempts  to  enter  Smith's  and  Jones's 
Sounds,  returned  to  England. 

The  "Prince  Albert"  having  brought  home  in  1850  the  intelligence  of  the 
discoveries  at  Beechey  Island,  it  was  resolved  to  prosecute  the  search  during 
the  next  season,  and  no  time  was  lost  to  refit  the  little  vessel  and  send  her  once 
more  on  her  noble  errand,  under  the  command  of  William  Kennedy  (1851-52), 
to  examine  Prince  Regent's  Inlet,  on  the  coast  of  North  Somerset.  Finding  the 
passage  obstructed  by  a  barrier  of  ice,  Kennedy  was  obliged  to  take  a  teaipo- 
rary  refuge  in  Port  Bowen,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  inlet.  As  it  Avas  very 
undesirable,  however,  to  winter  on  the. opposite  coast  to  that  along  which  lay 
their  line  of  search,  Kennedy,  with  four  of  his  men,  crossed  to  Port  Leopold, 
amid  masses  of  ice,  to  ascertain  whether  any  documents  had  been  left  at  this 
point  by  previous  searching  parties.  None  having  been  found,  they  prepared 
to  return ;  but  to  their  dismay  they  now  found  the  inlet  so  blocked  with  ice  as 
to  render  it  absolutely  impossible  to  reach  the  vessel  either  by  boat  or  on  foot. 
Darkness  was  fast  closing  round  them,  the  ice-floe  on  which  they  stood  threaten- 
ed every  instant  to  be  shivered  in  fragments  by  the  contending  ice-blocks  which 


ARCTIC   VOYAGES,  FROM   BAFFIN   TO   M'CLINTOCK.  359 

crashed  furiously  against  it:  unless  they  instantly  returned  to  shore,  any  mo- 
ment might  prove  their  last.  A  bitter  cold  night  (September  10, 1851),  with 
no  shelter  but  their  boat,  under  which  each  man  in  turn  took  an  hour's  rest— the 
others,  fatigued  as  they  were,  seeking  safety  in  brisk  exercise— was  spent  on 
this  inhospitable  shore,  and  on  the  following  morning  they  discovered  that  the 
ship  had  disappeared.  The  drift-ice  had  carried  her  away,  lea,ving  Kennedy 
and  his  companions  to  brave  the  winter  as  well  as  they  could,  and  to  endeavor 
in  the  spring  tg  rejoin  their  vessel,  which  must  have  drifted  down  the  inlet,  and 
was  most  likely  by  this  time  imprisoned  by  the  ice.  Fortunately  a  depot  of 
provisions,  left  by  Sir  James  Ross  at  Whaler  Point,  was  tolerably  near,  and 
finding  all  in  good  preservation,  they  began  to  fit  up  a  launch,  which  had  been 
left  at  the  same  place  as  the  stores,  for  a  temporary  abode.  Here  they  sat,  on 
October  1 Y,  round  a  cheerful  fire,  manufacturing  winter  garments  and  complete- 
ly resigned  to  their  lot,  when  suddenly,  to  their  inexpressible  joy,  they  heard  the 
sound  of  AV ell-known  voices,  and  Lieutenant  Bellot,  the  second  m  command  of 
the  "  Prince  Albert,"  appeared  with  a  party  of  seven  men.  Twice  before  had 
this  gallant  French  volunteer  made  unavailing  attempts  to  reach  the  deserted 
party,  who  soon  forgot  their  past  misery  as  they  accompanied  their  friends  back 
to  the  ship.  In  the  following  spring  Kennedy  and  Bellot  explored  North 
Somerset  and  Prince  of  Wales'  Land,  traversing  with  their  sledge  1100  miles 
of  desert,  but  without  discovering  the  least  traces  of  Franklin  or  his  comrades. 
Yet  in  spite  of  these  frequent  disappointments  the  searching  expeditions  were 
not  given  over,  and  as  Wellington  Channel  and  the  sounds  to  the  north  of  Baf- 
fin's Bay  appeared  to  offer  the  best  chances,  the  spring  of  1852  witnessed  the 
departure  of  Sir  Edward  Belcher  and  Captain  Inglefield*  for  those  still  unknown 
regions. 

The  voyage  of  the  latter  proved  one  of  the  most  successful  in  the  annals  of 
Arctic  navigation.  Boldly  pushing  up  Smith's  Sound,which  had  hitherto  bafiled 
every  research,  Inglefield  examined  this  noble  channel  as  far  as  78°  30'  N.  lat., 
when  stormy  weather  drove  him  back.  He  next' attempted  Jones's  Sound,  and 
entered  it  sufficiently  to  see  it  expand  into  a  wide  channel  to  the  northward. 

The  squadron  which  sailed  under  the  command  of  Sir  Edward  Belcher  was 
charged  with  the  double  mission  of  prosecuting  the  discoveries  in  Wellington 
Channel,  and  of  affording  assistance  to  CoUinson  and  M'Clure,  who,  it  will  be 
remembered,  had  sailed  in  1850  to  Bering's  Straits. 

At  Beechey  Island,  where  the  "  North  Star  "  was  stationed  as  depot-ship,  the 
squadron  separated,  Belcher  proceeding  with  the  "  Assistance  "  and  the  "  Pio- 
neer "  up  Wellington  Channel,  while  Kellett,  with  the  "  Resolute  "  and  "  Intrej)- 
id,"  steered  to  the  west.  Scarcely  had  the  latter  reached  his  winter-quailers 
(September  7,  1852)  at  Dealy  Island,  on  the  south  coast  of  Melville  Island,  when 


1852.  "  Isabel,"  Captain  E,  Inglefield.     Lady  Franklin's  vessel. 

1852-1854.  "Assistance,"  Sir  Edward  Belcher,  to  Lancaster  Sound,  Wellington  Channel. 

1852-1854.  "  Resolute,"  Captain  Kellett,  Lancaster  Strait,  Melville,  and  Banks's  Island. 

1852-1854.  "  Pioneer,"  Lieutenant  Sherard  Osborne. 

1852-1854.  ■  "Intrepid,"  Captain  M'Clintock. 

1852-1854.  "  North  Star,"  Captain  PuUen. 


360  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

parties  were  sent  out  to  deposit  provisions  at  various  points  of  the  coast,  for  the 
sledge  parties  in  the  ensuing  spring. 

The  difficulties  of  transport  over  the  broken  surface  of  the  desert  when  de- 
nuded of  snow  may  be  estimated  from  the  fact,  that  though  the' distance  fi-om 
the  north  to  the  south  coast  of  Melville  Island  is  no  more  than  thirty-six  miles 
in  a  direct  line,  Lieutenant  M'Clintock  required  no  less  than  nineteen  days  to 
reach  the  Hecla  and  Griper  Gulf.  Similar  difficulties  awaited  Lieutenant 
Mechan  on  his  way  to  Liddon  Gulf,  but  he  was  amply  rewarded  by  finding  at 
Winter  Harbor  dispatches  from  M'Clure,  showing  that,  in  April,  1851,  the  "In- 
vestigator "  was  lying  in  Mercy  Bay,  on  the  opposite  side  of  Banks's  Strait,  and 
that  consequently  the  north-west  passage,  the  object  of  so  many  heroic  efforts, 
was  at  last  discovered. 

On  March  9,  1853,  the  "  Resolute"  opened  her  spring  campaign  with  Lieu- 
tenant Pym's  sledge  journey  to  Mercy  Bay,  to  bring  assistance  to  M'Clure,  or 
to  follow  his  traces  in  case  he  should  no  longer  be  there. 

A  month  later  three  other  sledge  expeditions  left  the  ship.  The  one  under 
M'Clintock  proceeded  from  the  Hecla  and  Griper  Gulf  to  the  west,  and  return- 
ed after  one  hundi'ed  and  six  days,  having  explored  1200  miles  of  coast — a 
sledge  journey  without  a  parallel  in  the  history  of  Arctic  research,  though  near- 
ly equalled  by  the  second  party  under  Lieutenant  Mecham,  which  likewise  start- 
ed to  the  west  from  Liddon  Gulf,  and  travelled  over  a  thousand  miles  in  nine- 
ty-three days.  The  third  party,  under  Lieutenant  Hamilton,  which  proceeded 
to  the  north-east  towards  the  rendezvous  appointed  by  Sir  Edward  Belcher  the 
preceding  summer,  was  the  first  that  returned  to  the  ship,  but  before  its  arrival 
another  party  had  found  its  way  to  the  "Resolute" — pale,  worn,  emaciated 
figures,  slowly  creeping  along  over  the  uneven  ice.  A  stranger  might  have 
been  surprised  at  the  thundering  hurrahs  which  hailed  the  ragged  troop  from 
a  distance,  or  at  the  warm  and  cordial  greetings  which  welcomed  them  on  deck, 
but  no  wonder  that  M'Clure  and  his  heroic  crew  were  thus  received  by  their 
fellow-seamen  after  a  three  years'  imprisonment  in  the  ice  of  the  Polar  Sea. 

On  August  1, 1850,  the  "Investigator,"  long  since  sepai'ated  from  her  con- 
sort, the  "  Enterprise,"  had  met  the  "  Herald  "  and  "  Plover  "*  at  Cape  Lisburne, 
beyond  Bering's  Straits,  and  now  plunged  alone  into  the  unknown  Avildernesses 
of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  She  reached  the  coast  of  Banks's  Land  on  September  6, 
discovered  Prince  Albert  Land  on  the  9th,  and  then  sailed  up  Prince  of  Wales' 
Strait,  where,  on  October  9,  she  froze  in  for  the  winter.  In  the  same  month, 
however,  a  sledge  expedition  was  sent  to  the  northern  extremity  of  the  strait, 
which  established  the  fact  of  its  communication  with  Parry  Sound  and  Barrow's 
Strait.  In  the  following  July  the  "  Investigator,"  though  set  free,  was  prevent- 
ed from  penetrating  into  the  sound  by  impassable  barriers  of  ice.  Nothing 
now  remained  but  to  return  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  strait,  and  then  to 
advance  along  the  west  coast  of  Banks's  Land  to  the  north.  This  course  was  fol- 
lowed with  tolerable  ease  till  August  20,  when  the  ship  was  driven  between  the 
ice  and  the  beach  a  little  north  of  Prince  Albert  Cape.     Here  she  lay  in  compar- 

*  These  two  vessels  had  been  sent  in  the  year  1847  to  the  Polar  Sea  beyond  Bering's  Straits,  when 
they  discovered  the  "Herald"  and  "Plover"  Islands. 


ARCTIC   VOYAGES,  FROM   BAFFIN   TO   M'CLINTOCK.  361 

ative  safety  till  the  29th,  when  the  immense  floe  to  which  she  was  attached  was 
raised  edgeways  out  of  the  water,  from  the  pressure  of  surrounding  ice,  and 
lifted  perpendicularly  some  twenty-five  feet.  The  slightest  additional  pressure 
would  have  thrown  the  delicately-poised  vessel  entirely  over,  but  fortunately  a 
large  piece  from  underneath  was  rent  away,  and  after  one  or  two  frightful  os- 
cillations the  floe  righted  itself  and  drifted  onward,  bearing  the  ship  unharmed 
upon  its  course. 

During  the  succeeding  month,  every  day  brought  its  perils.  Now  forced 
ashore  by  the  pressure  of  the  ice,  now  hurried  along  amidst  its  inclosing  masses, 
the  adventurers,  slowly  Avorking  their  way  along  the  north  coast  of  Banks's 
*Land,  at  length  found  refuge  in  a  harbor  to  which  the  appropriate  name  of 
Mercy  Bay  was  thankfully  given.  Here  they  spent  two  winters — the  interven- 
ing summer  having  failed  to  release  the  ship.  In  the  spring  of  1853  Lieuten- 
ant Pym  brought  them  the  joyful  news  that  the  "  Kesolute  "  was  not  far  off. 
Such  had  been  the  adventures  of  M'Clure  up  to  the  moment  when  Kellett  wel- 
comed him  on  board. 

Meanwhile  neither  the  sledge  parties  of  the  "  Resolute,"  nor  those  which  Sir 
Edward  Belcher  had  sent  out  in  all  directions  from  his  first  winter-quarters  in 
Northumberland  Sound  (76°  52'  N.  lat.),  on  the  west  side  of  Grinnell  Peninsula, 
had  been  able  to  discover  the  least  traces  of  Franklin.  The  winter  (1853-54) 
passed,  and  in  the  following  April  Lieutenant  Mecham  found  in  Prince  of  Wales' 
Strait,  and  later  on  Ramsay  Island,  at  its  southern  outlet,  documents  from  Col- 
linson,  bearing  date  August  27,  1852,  and  giving  full  intelligence  ol  his  pro- 
ceedings since  his  separation  from  the  "  Investigator."  While  M'Clure  was 
achieving  in  1850  the  discoveiy  of  the  north-west  passage,  Collinson,  having 
arrived  in  Bering's  Straits  later  in  the  season,  was  unable  to  double  Point  Bar- 
row. In  1851,  however,  he  succeeded  in  getting  round  that  projection,  and  pur- 
suing the  continental  channel  as  easily  as  his  precursor  had  done,  followed  him 
through  Prince  of  Wales'  Strait ;  but,  though  he  penetrated  a  few  miles  farther 
into  Melville  Sound,  he  found  no  passage,  and  returning  to  the  south  end  of  l,he 
strait  passed  the  winter  of  1851-52  in  Walker  Bay.  Next  summer  he  carried 
his  ship  through  Dolphin  and  Union  Straits  and  Dease  Strait  to  Cambridge 
Bay,  where  he  spent  his  second  winter  (1852-53).  His  sledge  parties  explored 
the  Avest  side  of  Victoria  Strait,  but  a  deficiency  of  coals  compelled  him  to  re- 
turn the  way  he  came,  instead  of  attempting  to  force  a  pnssage  through  the 
channel.  He  did  not,  however,  get  round  Barrow  Point  on  his  return  without 
passing  a  third  wintdV  on  the  northern  coast  of  America. 

On  returning  to  the  "  Resolute,"  Lieutenant  Mecham  found  all  hands  busy 
preparing  to  leave  the  ship.  Sir  E.  Belcher  having  given  orders  to  abandon  her, 
as  well  as  the  "  Assistance,"  "  Pioneer,"  and  "  Intrepid,"  which  had  now  been 
blocked  up  above  a  year  in  the  ice,  and  had  no  chance  of  escaping. 

Thus  the  summer  of  1854  witnessed  the  return  to  England  of  the  "North 
Star,"  with  all  those  brave  crews  which  had  spent  so  many  unavailing  efforts, 
and  in  numerous  boat  and  sledge  excursions  had  explored  so  many  known 
and  unknown  coasts  in  search  of  Franklin;  and  thus  also  M'Clure  and  his  com- 
rades, abandoning  the  "Investigator  "  fa  Mercy  Bay,  returned  home  through 


362  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

Davis's  Straits,  aftei'  having  entered  the  Polar  Ocean  at  the  Strait  of  Bering. 
He  had,  however,  been  preceded  by  Lieutenant  Cresswell  and  Mr.  Wynniat, 
who,  on  an  excursion  to  Beechey  Island  in  the  summer  of  1858,  had  there  met 
with  and  joined  the  "  Phoenix,"  Captain  Inglefield,  who,  accompanied  by  his 
friend  Lieutenant  Bellot,  had  conveyed  provisions  to  Sir  E.  Belcher's  squadron, 
and  was  about  to  return  to  England.  During  this  expedition  Bellot,  whose 
many  excellent  qualities  had  made  him  a  universal  favorite,  was  unfortunately 
drowned  by  a  fall  into  an  ice-crevice  during  a  sledge  excursion.  A  stone  monu- 
ment erected  before  Greenwich  Hospital  reminds  England  of  the  gallant  volun- 
teer whose  name  is  gloriously  linked  with  that  of  Franklin  in  Arctic  history. 

Years  had  thus  passed  without  bringing  any  tidings  of  the  "  Erebus  "  an(i 
"  Terror  "  since  the  discovery  of  their  first  winter-quarters,  until  at  last,  in  the 
spring  of  1854,  Dr.  Rae,  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  while  engaged  in  the 
survey  of  the  Boothian  isthmus,  fell  in  with  a  party  of  Esquimaux,  who  inform- 
ed him  that  in  the  spring  of  1850  some  of  their  countrymen  on  King  William's 
Island  had  seen  a  party  of  white  men  making  their  way  to  the  mainland.  None 
of  them  could  speak  the  Esquimaux  language  intelligibly,  but  by  signs  they 
gave  them  to  understand  that  their  ships  had  been  crushed  by  ice,  and  that 
they  were  now  going  to  where  they  expected  to  find  deer  to  shoot.  At  a 
later  date  of  the  same  season,  but  before  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice,  the  bodies 
of  some  thirty  men  were  discovered  on  the  continent  a  day's  journey  from 
Back's  Great  Fish  River,  and  five  on  an  island  near  it.  Some  of  the  bodies 
had  been  buried  (probably  those  of  the  first  victims  of  famine),  some  were  in  a 
tent,  others  under  the  boat  which  had  been  turned  over  to  form  a  shelter,  and 
several  lay  scattered  about  in  different  directions.  Of  those  found  on  the  island, 
one  was  supposed  to  have  been  an  officer,  as  he  had  a  telescope  strapped  over 
his  shoulder,  and  his  double-barrelled  gun  lay  underneath  him.  The  mutilated 
condition  of  several  of  the  corpses  and  the  contents  of  the  kettles  left  no  doubt 
that  our  wretched  countrymen  had  been  driven  to  the  last  resource  of  canni- 
balism, as  a  means  of  prolonging  existence.  Some  silver  spoons  and  forks,  a 
round  silver  plate,  engraved  "  Sir  John  Franklin,  K.C.B.,"  a  star  or  order,  with 
the  motto,  "  Nee  aspera  terrertt,"  which  Dr.  Rae  purchased  of  the  Esquimaux, 
corroborated  the  truth  of  their  narrative. 

Thus  it  was  now  known  how  part  of  the  unfortunate  mariners  had  perished, 
but  the  fate  of  the  expedition  was  still  enveloped  in  mystery.  Wliat  had  be- 
come of  the  ships  and  of  the  greater  part  of  their  crews  ?  And  was  Franklin 
one  of  the  party  seen  by  the  Esquimaux,  or  had  an  earli^-  death  shortened  his 
sufferings  ? 

To  solve  at  least  this  mournful  secret — for  every  hope  that  he  might  still 
be  alive  had  long  since  vanished — his  noble  widow  resolved  to  spend  all  her 
available  means — since  Government  would  no  longer  prosecute  the  search — 
and  with  the  assistance  of  her  friends,  but  mostly  at  her  own  expense,  fitted 
out  a  small  screw  steamer,  the  "  Fox,"  which  the  gallant  M'Clintock,  already 
distinguished  in  perilous  Polar  voyages,  volunteered  to  command.  Another 
Arctic  officer.  Lieutenant  Hobson,  likewise  came  forward  to  serve  without  pay. 

At  first  it  seemed  as  if  all  the  elements  had  conspired  against  the  success  of 


ARCTIC   VOYAGES,  FROM   BAFFIN  TO   M'CLINTOCK.  363 

this  work  of  piety,  for  in  the  summer  of  1857  the  floating  ice  off  Melville  Bay, 
on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  seized  the  "  Fox,"  and  after  a  dreary  winter,  various 
narrow  escapes,  and  eight  months  of  imprisonment,  carried  her  back  nearly 
1200  geographical  miles,  even  to  63|-°  N.  lat.  in  the  Atlantic, 

At  length,  on  April  25,  1858,  the  "Fox"  got  free,  and,  having  availed  her- 
self of  the  scanty  stores  and  provisions  which  the  small  Danish  settlement  of 
Holstenburg  afforded,  sailed  into  Barrow  Strait.  Finding  Franklin  Channel 
obstructed  with  ice,  she  then  turned  back,  and  steaming  up  Prince  Regent's 
Inlet,  arrived  at  the  eastern  opening  of  Bellot's  Strait.  Here  the  passage  to 
the  west  was  again  found  blocked  with  ice,  and  after  five  ineffectual  attempts 
to  pass,  the  "  Fox  "'  at  length  took  up  her  winter-quarters  in  Port  Kennedy,  on 
the  northern  side  of  the  strait. 

On  his  first  sledge  excursion  in  the  following  spring,  M'Clintock  met  at 
Cape  Victoria,  on  the  south-west  coast  of  Boothia,  with  a  party  of  Esquimaux, 
who  informed  him  that  some  years  back  a  large  ship  had  been  crushed  by  the 
ice  out  in  the  sea  to  the  west  of  King  William's  Island,  but  that  all  the  people 
landed  safely. 

Meeting  with  the  same  Esquimaux  on  Api'il  20,  he  learned,  after  much  anx- 
ious inquiry,  that  besides  the  ship  which  had  been  seen  to  sink  in  deep  water, 
a  second  one  had  been  forced  on  shore  by  the  ice,  where  they  supposed  it  stilf 
remained,  but  much  broken.  They  added  that  it  was  in  the  fall  of  the  year — 
that  is,  August  or  September — when  the  ships  were  destroyed ;  that  all  the 
white  people  went  away  to  the  Great  Fish  River,  taking  a  boat  or  boats  Avith* 
them,  and  that  in  the  following  winter  their  bones  were  found  there. 

These  first  indications  of  the  fate  of  Franklin's  expedition  were  soon  fol- 
lowed by  others.  On  May  7  M'Clintock  heard  from  an  old  Esquimaux  woman 
on  King  William's  Island  that  many  of  the  white  men  dropped  by  the  way  as 
they  went  to  the  Great  River;  that  some  were  buried,  and  some  were  not. 
They  did  not  themselves  witness  this,  but  discovered  their  bodies  during  the 
winter  following. 

Visiting  the  shore  along  which  the  retreating  crews  must  have  mai'ched,  he 
came,  shortly  after  midnight  of  May  25,  when  slowly  walking  along  a  gravel 
ridge  near  the  beach,  which  the  winds  kept  partially  bare  of  snow,  uj^on  a  hu- 
man skeleton,  partly  exposed,  with  here  and  there  a  few  fragments  of  clothing 
appearing  through  the  snow. 

"  A  most  careful  examination  of  the  spot,"  says  M'Clintock, "  was  of  course 
made,  the  snow  removed,  and  every  scrap  of  clothing  gathered  up.  A  pocket- 
book,  which  being  frozen  hard  could  not  be  examined  on  the  spot,  afforded 
strong  grounds  for  hope  that  some  information  might  be  subsequently  obtained 
respecting  the  owner,  and  the  march  of  the  lost  crews.  The  victim  was  a 
young  man,  slightly  built,  and  perhaps  above  the  common  height ;  the  dress 
appeared  to  be  that  of  a  steward.  The  poor  man  seems  to  have  selected  the 
bare  ridge  top,  as  affording  the  least  tiresome  walking,  and  to  have  fallen  upon 
his  face  in  the  position  in  which  we  found  him.  It  was  a  melancholy  truth 
that  the  old  woman  spake  when  she  said,  '  They  fell  down  and  died  as  they 
walked  along.' " 


364  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

Meanwhile  Lieutenant  Hobson,  who  was  exploring  with  another  sledge  par- 
ty the  north-western  coast  of  King  William's  Land,  had  made  the  still  more 
important  discovery  of  a  record  giving  a  laconic  account  of  the  Franklin  ex- 
pedition up  to  the  time  when  the  ships  were  lost  and  abandoned.  It  was  found 
on  May  6  in  a  large  cairn  at  Point  Victory,  It  stated  briefly  that  in  1845  the 
"  Erebus"  and  "  Terror"  had  ascended  Wellington  Channel  to  lat.  7*7°,  and  re- 
turned by  the  west  side  of  Cornwallis  Island  to  Beechey  Island,  where  they 
spent  the  first  winter.  In  1846  they  proceeded  to  the  south-west,  through  Peel 
Sound  and  Fraukhn  Sound,  and  eventually  reached  within  twelve  miles  of  the 
north  extremity  of  King  William's  Land,  when  their  progress  was  arrested  by 
the  ice.  Sir  John  Franklin  died  on  June  11,  1847,  having  completed — two 
months  before  his  death— the  sixty-first  year  of  an  active,  eventful,  and  honor- 
able life.  On  April  22,  1848,  the  ships  were  deserted,  having  been  beset  since 
September  12, 1846,  The  ofiicers  and  crew,  consisting  of  105  souls,  under  the 
command  of  Captain  Crozier,  landed  with  the  intention  of  starting  for  Back's 
Fish  Itiver,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  they  were  never  destined  to  reach. 

Quantities  of  clothing  and  articles  of  all  kinds  were  found  lying  about  the 
cairn,  as  if  these  men,  aware  that  they  were  retreating  for  their  lives,  had  then 
abandoned  every  thing  which  they  considered  superfluous, 
*  Thus  all  doubts  about  Sir  John  Franklin's  fate  were  at  length  removed.  He 
at  least  had  died  on  board  his  ship,  and  been  spared  the  miserable  end  of  his 
comrades  as  they  fell  one  by  one  in  the  dreary  wilderness. 

The  two  wrecks  have  disappeared  without  leaving  a  trace  behind,  A  sin- 
gle document,  some  coins  and  pieces  of  plate — this  is  all  that  remains  of  the 
gallant  ships  which  so  hopefully  sailed  forth  under  one  of  the  noblest  seamen 
that  ever  served  in  the  navy  of  Great  Britain, 

It  is  a  curious  circumstance  that  Franklin's  ships  perished  within  sight  of 
the  headlands  named  Cape  Franklin  and  Cape  Jane  Franklin  by  their  discov- 
erer. Sir  James  Ross,  eighteen  years  before. 


KANE   AND    HAYES.  365 


CHAPTER   XXXIV. 

KANE  AND  HAYES. 

Kane  sails  up  Smith's  Sound  in  the  "  Advance  "  (1853). — Winters  in  Rensselaer  Bay. Sledj^e  Journey 

along  the  Coast  of  Greenland. — The  Three-brother  Turrets.— Tennysoifs  Monument.— The  Great 
Humboldt  Glacier. — Dr.  Hayes  crosses  Kennedy  Channel.  —  Morton's  Discoverv  of  Washington 
Land. — Mount  Parr\'. — Kane  resolves  upon  a  second  Wintering  in  Rensselaer  Bay. — Departure  and 
Return  of  Part  of  the  Crew.— Sufferings  of  the  Winter.— The  Ship  abandoned.— Boat  Journey  to 
Upernavik.— Kane's  Death  in  the  Havana  (1857). — Dr.  Hayes's  Voyage  in  I860.— He  winters  at 
Port  Foulke. — Crosses  Kennedy  Channel. — Reaches  Cape  Union,  the  most  northern  known  Land 
upon  the  Globe. — Koldewey.— Plans  for  future  Voyages  to  the  North  Pole. 

TN  point  of  dramatic  interest,  few  of  the  Arctic  expeditions  can  rival  the  sec- 
-•-  ond  and  last  voyage  of  Dr.  Kane,  which,  to  avoid  interrupting  the  narrative 
of  the  discovery  of  Franklin's  fate  by  Dr.  Rae  and  Sir  James  M'Clintock,  I 
have  refrained  from  mentioning  in  chronological  order. 

Weak  in  body,  but  great  in  mind,  this  remarkable  man,  who  had  accompa- 
nied the  first  Grinnell  expedition  in  the  capacity  of  surgeon,  sailed  from  Boston 
in  1853,  as  commander  of  the  "Advance,"  with  a  crew  of  17  officers  and  men, 
to  which  two  Greenlanders  were  subsequently  added.  His  plan  was  to  pass  up 
Baffin's  Bay  to  its  most  northern  attainable  point,  and  thence  pressing  on 
towards  the  pole  as  far  as  boats  or  sledges  could  l-each,  to  examine  the  coast- 
lines for  vestiges  of  Franklin, 

Battling  with  storms  and  icebergs,  he  passed,  on  August  7,  1853,  the  rocky 
portals  of  Smith's  Sound,  Cape  Isabella  and  Cape  Alexander,  which  had  been 
discovered  the  year  before  by  Inglefield;  left  Cape  Hatherton — the  extreme 
point  attained  by  that  navigator— behind,  and  after  many  narrow  escapes  from 
shipwreck,  secured  the  "  Advance  "  in  Rensselaer  Bay,  from  which  she  was  des- 
tined never  to  emerge.  His  diary  gives  us  a  vivid  account  of  the  first  winter 
he  spent  in  this  haven,  in  lat.  78°  38',  almost  as  far  to  the  north  as  the  most 
northern  extremity  of  Spitzbergen,  and  in  a  far  more  rigorous  climate. 

^^Sept.  10,  -1-14°  F. — The  birds  have  left.  The  sea-swallows,  which  abound- 
ed when  we  first  reached  here,  and  even  the  young  burgomasters  that  lingered 
after  them,  have  all  taken  their  departure  for  the  south.  The  long  "  night  in 
which  no  man  can  work"  is  close  at  hand ;  in  another  month  we  shall  lose  the 
sun.  Astronomically,  he  should  disappear  on  October  24,  if  our  horizon  were 
free;  but  it  is  obstructed  by  a  mountain  ridge;  and,  making  all  allowance  for 
refraction,  we  can  not  count  on  seeing  him  after  the  10th. 

^^  Sept.  11. — The  long  staring  day,  which  has  clung  to  us  for  more  than  two 
months,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  stars,  has  begun  to  intermit  its  briglitness. 
Even  Aldebaran,  the  red  eye  of  the  bull,  flared  out  into  familiar  recollection 
as  early  as  ten  o'clock ;  and  the  heavens,  though  still  somewhat  reddened  by  the 
gaudy  tints  of  midnight,  gave  us  Capella  and  Arcturus,  and  even  tliat  lesser 


366  •  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

light  of  home  memories,  the  polai-  star.  Stretching  my  neck  to  look  uncom- 
fortably at  the  indication  of  our  extreme  northernness,  it  was  hard  to  realize 
that  he  was  not  directly  overhead ;  and  it  made  me  sigh  as  I  measured  the  few 
degrees  of  distance  that  separated  our  zenith  from  the  pole  over  which  he  hung. 

"  Oct.  28. — The  moon  has  reached  her  greatest  northern  declination  of  about 
25°  35'.  She  is  a  glorious  object ;  sweeping  around  the  heavens,  at  the  lowest 
part  of  her  curve,  she  is  still  14°  above  the  horizon.  For  eight  days  she  has 
been  making  her  circuit  with  nearly  unvarying  brightness.  It  is  one  of  those 
sparkHng  nights  that  bring  back  the  memory  of  sleigh-bells  and  songs,  and 
glad  communings  of  hearts  in  lands  that  are  far  away. 

"iVoy.  Y. — The  darkness  is  coming  on  with  insidious  steadiness,  and  its  ad- 
vances can  only  be  perceived  by  comparing  one  day  with  its  fellow  of  some 
time  back.  We  still  read  the  thermometer  at  noonday  without  a  light,  and  the 
black  masses  of  the  hills  are  plain  for  about  five  hours,  with  their  glaring  patch- 
es of  snow ;  but  all  the  rest  is  darkness.  The  stars  of  the  sixth  magnitude 
shine  out  at  noonday.  Except  upon  the  island  of  Spitzbergen,  which  has  the 
advantages  of  an  insular  climate,  and  tempered  by  ocean  currents,  no  Chris- 
tians have  wintered  in  so  high  a  latitude  as  this.*  They  are  Russian  sailors 
who  made  the  encounter  there — men  inured  to  hardships  and  cold.  •  Our  dark- 
ness has  ninety  days  to  run  before-  we  shall  get  back  again  even  to  the  con- 
tested twilight  of  to-day.  Altogether  our  winter  will  have  been  sunless  for  one 
hundred  and  forty  days. 

"iVbu.  9. — Wishing  to  get  tlie  altitude  of  the  cliffs  on  the  south-west  cape 
of  our  bay  before  the  darkness  set  in  thoroughly,  I  started  in  time  to  reach 
them  with  my  Newfoundlanders  at  noonday,  the  thermometer  indicating  23° 
below  zero.  Fireside  astronomers  can  hardly  realize  the  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  observations  at  such  low  temperatures.  The  breath,  and  even  the  warmth 
of  the  face  and  body,  cloud  the  sextant-arc  and  glasses  with  a  fine  hoar-frost. 
It  is,  moreover,  an  unusual  feat  to  measure  a  base-line  in  the  snow  at  55°  below 
freezing. 

'■'^N'ov.  21. — ^We  have  schemes  innumerable  to  cheat  the  monotonous  soU- 
tude  of  our  winter— a  fancy  ball ;  a  newspaper, '  The  Ice  Blink  ;'  a  fox-chase 
round  the  decks. 

"Z>ec.  15. — We  have  lost  the  last  vestige  of  our  midday  twilight.  We  can 
not  see  print,  and  hardly  paper ;  the  fingers  can  not  be  counted  a  foot  from 
the  eyes.  Noonday  and  midnight  are  alike ;  and,  except  a  vague  glimmer  in 
the  sky  that  seems  to  define  the  hiU  outhnes  to  the  south,  we  have  nothing  to 
tell  us  that  this  Arctic  world  of  ours  has  a  sun.  In  the  darkness,  and  consequent 
inaction,  it  is  almost  in  vain  that  we  seek  to  create  topics  of  thought,  and,  by  a 
forced  excitement,  to  ward  off  the  encroachments  of  disease. 

''Jan.  21. — First  traces  of  returning  light,  the  southern  horizon  having  for 
a  short  time  a  distinct  orange  tinge. 

"■Feh.  21. — We  have  had  the  sun  for  some  days  silvering  the  ice  between 
the  headlands  of  the  bay,  and  to-day,  towards  noon,  I  started  out  to  hb  the 

*  Eensselaer  Harbor  is  situated  1°  46'  higher  than  Sir  E.  Belcher's  winter-quarters  in  Northumber- 
land Sound,  76°  52'. 


KANE   AND   HAYES.  .  367 

first  of  my  party  to  welcome  him  back.  It  was  the  longest  walk  and  toughest 
climb  that  I  have  had  since  our  imprisonment,  and  scurvy  and  general  debility 
have  made  me  '  short  o'  wind.'  But  I  managed  to  attain  my  object.  I  saw  him 
once  more,  and  upon  a  projecting  crag  nestled  in  the  sunshine.  It  was  like  bath- 
ing in  perfumed  water." 

Thus  this  terrible  winter  night  drew  to  its  end,  and  the  time  came  for  un- 
dertaking the  sledge  journeys,  on  which  the  success  of  the  expedition  mainly 
depended.  Unfortunately,  of  the  nine  magnificent  Newfoundlanders  and  the 
thirty-five  Esquimaux  dogs  originally  possessed  by  Kane,  only  six  had  survived 
an  epizootic  malady  which  raged  among  them  during  the  winter :  their  num- 
ber was,  however,  increased  by  some  new  purchases  from  the  Esquimaux  who 
visited  the  ship  at  the  beginning  of  April. 

Thus  scantily  provided  with  the  means  of  transport,  Kane,  though  in  a  very 
weak  condition,  set  out  on  April  25,  1854,  to  force  his  way  to  the  north.  He 
found  the  Greenland  coast  beyond  Rensselaer  Bay  extremely  picturesque,  the 
cliffs  j-ising  boldly  from  the  shore-line  to  a  height  of  sometimes  more  than  a 
thousand  feet,  and  exhibiting  every  freak  and  caprice  of  architectural  Vuin.  In 
one  spot  the  sloping  rubbish  at  the  foot  of  the  coast-wall  led  up,  like  an  artifi- 
cial causeway,  to  a  gorge  that  was  streaming  at  noonday  with  the  southern  sun, 
while  everywhere  else  the  rock  stood  out  in  the  blackest  shadow.  Just  at  the 
edge  of  this  bright  opening  rose  the  dreamy  semblance  of  a  castle,  flanked  with 
triple  towers,  completely  isolated  and  defined.  These  Avere  called  the  "  Three- 
brother  Turrets," 

"  Farther  on,  to  the  north  of  latitude  79°,  a  single  cliff  of  greenstone  rears 
itself  from  a  crumbled  base  of  sandstone,  like  the  boldly-chiselled  rampart  of  an 
ancient  city.  At  its  northern  extremity,  at  the  brink  of  a  deep  ravine  which 
has  worn  its  way  among  the  ruins,  there  stands  a  solitary  column  or  minaret 
tower,  as  sharply  finished  as  if  it  had  been  cast  for  the  Place  Vendome.  Yet 
the  length  of  the  shaft  alone  is  480  feet,  and  it  rises  on  a  pedestal,  itself  280 
feet  high.  I  remember  well  the  emotions  of  my  party,  as  it  first  broke  upon 
our  view.  Cold  and  sick  as  I  was,  I  brought  back  a  sketch  of  it  which  may 
have  interest  for  the  reader,  though  it  scarcely  suggests  the  imposing  dignity 
of  this  magnificent  landmark.  Those  who  are  happily  familiar  with  the  writ- 
ings of  Tennyson,  and  have  communed  with  his  spirit  in  the  sohtude^  of  a 
wilderness,  will  apprehend  the  impulse  that  inscribed  the  scene  with  his 
name." 

But  no  rock  formation,  however  striking  or  impressive,  equalled  in  grandeur 
the  magnificent  glacier  to  which  Kane  has  given  the  name  of  Humboldt.  Its 
solid  glassy  wall,  diminishing  to  a  well-pointed  wedge  in  the  perspective,  rises 
300  feet  above  the  water-level,  with  an  unknown,  unfathomable  depth  below  it 
and  its  curved  face  sixty  miles  in  length — from  Cape  Agassiz  to  Cape  Forbes 
— vanishes  into  imknown  space  at  not  more  than  a  single 'day's  railroad  travel 
from  the  pole. 

In  spite  of  the  snow,  which  had  so  accumulated  in  drifts  that  the  travellers 
were  forced  to  unload  their  sledges  and  carry  forward  the  cargo  on  their  backs, 
beating  a  path  for  the  dogs  to  follow  in,  Kane  came  in  sight  of  the  Great  Gla- 


368  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

cier  on  May  4  ;  but  this  progress  was  dearly  earned,  as  it  cost  liini  the  last 
remnant  of  his  strength. 

"  I  was  seized  with  a  sudden  pain,"  says  the  intrepid  explorer,  "  and  fainted. 
My  limbs  became  rigid,  and  certain  obscure  tetanoid  symptoms  of  our  winter 
enemy,  the  scurvy,  disclosed  themselves.  I  was  strapped  upon  the  sledge,  and 
•the  march  continued  as  usual,  but  my  powers  diminished  so  ra]Didly  that  I  could 
not  resist  the  otherwise  comfortable  temperature  of  5°  below  zero.  My  left 
foot  becoming  frozen  caused  a  vexatious  delay,  and  the  same  night  it  became 
evident  that  the  immovability  of  my  limbs  was  due  to  dropsical  effusion.  On 
the  5th,  becoming  delirious  and  fainting  every  time  that  I  was  taken  from  the 
tent  to  the  sledge,  I  succumbed  entirely.  My  comrades  would  kindly  persuade 
me  that,  even  had  I  continued  sound,  we  could  not  have  proceeded  on  our  jour- 
ney. The  snows  were  very  heavy,  and  increasing  as  we  went ;  some  of  the 
drifts  perfectly  impassable,  and  the  level  floes  often  four  feet  deep  in  yielding 
snow. 

"  The  scurvy  had  already  broken  out  among  the  men,  with  symptoms  like 
my  own,  tod  Morton,  our  strongest  man,  was  beginning  to  give  way.  It  is  the 
reverse  of  comfort  to  me  that  they  shared  my  weakness.  All  that  I  should  re- 
member with  pleasurable  feeling  is  that  to  my  brave  companions,  themselves 
scarcely  able  to  travel,  I  owe  my  preservation. 

"  They  carried  me  back  by  forced  marches.  I  was  taken  into  the  brig  on 
the  14th,  where  for  a  week  I  lay  fluctuating  between  life  and  death.  Dr.  Hayes 
regards  my  attack  as  one  of  scurvy,  complicated  by  typhoid  fever." 

Fortunately  summer  was  now  fast  approaching,  with  his  cheering  sunbeams 
and  his  genial  warmth.  The  seals  began  to  appear  on  the  coast  in  large  num- 
bers, and  there  was  now  no  want  of  fresh  meat,  the  chief  panacea  against  the 
scurvy.  The  snow-buntings  returned  to  the  ice-crusted  rocks,  and  the  gulls  and 
eidei'-ducks  came  winging  their  way  to  their  northern  breeding-places. 

Vegetation  likewise  sprang  into  life  with  marvellous  rapidity,  and  the  green 
sloping  banks  not  only  refreshed  the  eye,  but  yielded  juicy,  anti-scorbutic  herbs. 

Kane's  health  slowly  but  steadily  improved.  He  was,  however,  obliged  to 
give  up  all  further  sledge  excursions  for  the  season,  and  to  leave  the  execution' 
of  his  plans  to  his  more  able-bodied  companions, 

Thys  Dr.  Hayes,  crossing  the  sound  in  a  north-easterly  direction,  reached 
the  opposite  coast  of  Grinnell  Land,  which  he  surveyed  as  far  as  Cape  Frazer 
in  lat.  79°  45'. 

This  journey  was  rendered  uncommonly  slow  and  tedious  by  the  excessively 
broken  and  rugged  character  of  the  ice.  Deep  cavities  filled  with  snow  inter- 
vened between  lines  of  hummocks  frequently  exceeding  twenty  or  thirty  feet  in 
height.  Over  these  the  sledge  had  to  be  lifted  by  main  strength,  and  it  re- 
quired the  most  painful  efforts  of  the  whole  party  to  liberate  it  from  the  snow 
between  them.  Dr.- Hayes  returned  on  June  1,  and  a  few  days  later  Morton 
left  the  brig,  to  survey  the  Greenland  coast  beyond  the  Great  Glacier.  The 
difficulties  Avere  great,  for,  besides  the  usual  impediments  of  hummocks,  the 
lateness  of  the  season  had  in  many  places  rendered  the  ice  extremely  unsafe,  or 
even  entirely  destroyed  the  ice-ledge  along  the  shore.     Thus  for  the  last  days  of 


KANE   AND   HAYES.  3G9 

his  onward  journey  he  was  obHged  to  toil  over  the  rocks  and  along  the  beach  of  a 
sea  which,  like  the  familiar  waters  of  the  south,  dashed  in  waves  at  his  feet. 
Morton  and  his  companion  Hans,  the  Esquimaux,  reached  on  June  26,  1854, 
Cape  Constitution,  a  bold  headland,  where  the  surf  rolled  furiously  against  high 
ovei-hanging  cliffs,  which  it  was  found  impossible  to  pass.  Climbing  from  rock 
to  rock,  in  hopes  of  doubling  the  promontory,  Morton  stood  at  this  termination 
of  his  journey,  and  from  a  height  of  300  feet  looked  out  upon  a  great  waste  of 
waters,  stretching  to  the  unknown  north.  Numerous  birds — sea-swallows,  kit- 
tiwakes,  brent-geese — mixed  their  discordant  notes  with  the  novel  music  of  dash- 
ing waves ;  and  among  the  flowering  plants  growing  on  the  rocks  was  found 
a  crucifer  {Hes^^eris  pygmcBCi),  the  dried  pods  of  which,  still  containing  seed, 
had  survived  the  wear  and  tear  of  winter.  From  Cape  Constitution  the  coast 
of  Washington  Land  trended  to  the  east,  but  far  to  the  north-west,  beyond  the 
open  waters  of  the  channel,  a  peak,  terminating  a  range  of  mountains  similar  in 
their  features  to  those  of  Spitzbergen,  was  seen  towering  to  a  height  of  from 
2500  to  3000  feet.  This  peak,  the  mo#t  remote  northern  land  at  that  time 
known  upon  our  globe,  received  the  name  of  Mount  Parry. 

Meanwhile  the  short  summer  was  wearing  on,  and,  as  far  as  the  eye  could 
reach,  the  ice  remained  inflexibly  solid.  It  was  evident  that  many  days  must 
still  elapse  before  the  vessel  could  possibly  be  liberated — but  then  most  likely 
winter  would  almost  have  returned — a  dismal  prospect  for  men  who  knew  by 
experience  the  long  fearful  night  of  the  79°  of  latitude,  and  who,  broken  in 
health  and  with  very  insufticient  supplies  of  provisions  and  fuel,  were  but  ill 
armed  for  a  second  encounter.  No  wonder  that  many  of  Kane's  companions 
thought  it  better  to  abandon  the  vessel  than  to  tarry  any  longer  in  those  frozen 
solitudes.' 

But  though  it  was  horrible  to  look  another  Mdnter  in  the  face,  the  resolution 
of  Kane  could  not  be  shaken.  On  August  24,  when  the  last  hope  of  seeing  the 
vessel  once  more  afloat  had  vanished,  he  called  the  oflicers  and  crew  together, 
and  explained  to  them  frankly  the  considerations  which  determined  him  to 
remain.  To  abandon  the  vessel  earlier  would  have  been  unseemly,  and  to  reach 
Upernavik  so  late  in  the  season  was  next  to  impossible.  To  such  of  them, 
however,  as  were  desirous  of  making  the  attempt,  he  freely  gave  his  permission 
so  to  do,  assuring  them  of  a  brother's  welcome  should  they  be  driven  back.  He 
then  directed  the  roll  to  be  called,  and  each  man  to  answer  for  himself.  In 
result,  eight  out  of  the  seventeen  survivors  of  the  party  resolved  to  stand  by  the 
brig.  The  others  left  on  the  28th,  with  every  appliance  which  the  narrow 
circumstances  of  the  brig  could  furnish  to  speed  and  guard  them.  When  they 
disappeared  among  the  hummocks,  the  stern  realities  of  their  condition  pressed 
themselves  with  double  force  on  those  whom  they  left  behind. 

The  reduced  numbers  of  the  party,  the  helplessness  of  many,  the  waning 
efiiciency  of  all,  the  impending  winter,  with  its  cold,  dark  nights,  the  penury 
of  their  resources,  the  dreary  sense  of  increased  isolation — all  combined  to 
depress  them.  But  their  energetic  leader,  leaving  them  no  time  for  these 
gloomy  thoughts,  set  them  actively  to  work  to  make  the  best  possible  prepa- 
rations they  could  for  the  long  cold  night  to  come. 

24 


370  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

He  had  carefully  studied  the  Esquimaux,  and  determined  that  their  form  of 
habitations  and  their  mode  of  diet,  without  tlieir  unthrift  and  filth,  were  the 
safest  and  best  that  could  be  adopted.  The  deck  was  well  padded  with  moss 
and  turf,  so  as  to  form  a  nearly  cold-proof  covering,  and,  down  below,  a  space 
some  eighteen  feet  square — the  apartment  of  all  uses — was  inclosed  and  packed 
from  floor  to  ceiling  with  inner  walls  of  the  same  non-conducting  material.  The 
floor  itself,  after  having  been  carefully  caulked,  was  covered  with  Manilla  oakum 
a  couple  of  inches  deep  and  a  canvas  carpet.  The  entrance  w^as  from  the  hold, 
by  a  low  moss-lined  tunnel,  with  as  many  doors  and  curtains  to  close  it  up  as 
ingenuity  could  devise.  Large  banks  of  snow  w^ere  also  thrown  np  along  the 
brig's  sides  to  keep  off  the  cold  wind. 

All  these  labors  in  the  open  air  wonderfully  improved  the  health  of  the  ex- 
iles, and  their  strength  increased  from  day  to  day.  A  friendly  intercourse  was 
opened  with  the  Esquimaux  of  the  winter  settlements  of  Etah  and  Anoatok, 
distant  some  thirty  and  seventy  miles  from  the  ship,  who,  for  presents  of  nee- 
dles, pins,  and  knives,  engaged  to  furnish  walrus  and  fresh  seal  meat,  and  to 
show  the  white  men  where  to  find  the  game.  Common  hunting-parties  were 
organized,  visits  of  courtesy  and  necessity  paid,  and  even  some  personal  attach- 
ments established  deserving  of  the  name.  As  long  as  the  Americans  remained 
prisoners  of  the  ice,  they  were  indebted  to  their  savage  friends  for  invaluable 
counsel  in  relation  to  their  hunting  expeditions,  and  in  the  joint  hunt  they 
shared  alike. 

The  Esquimaux  gave  them  supplies  of  meat  at  critical  periods,  and  they 
were  able  to  do  as  much  for  them.  In  one  word,  without  the  natiyes,  Kane 
and  his  companions  would  most  likely  have  succumbed  to  the  winter,  and  the 
Esquimaux  on  their  part  learned  to  look  on  the  strangers  as  benefactors,  and 
mourned  their  departure  bitterly. 

On  December  12  the  party  which  had  abandoned  the  ship  returned,  hav- 
ing been  unable  to  penetrate  to  the  south,  and  was  received,  as  had  been  prom- 
ised, with  a  brotherly  welcome.  They  had  suffered  bittei-ly  from  the  eold, 
want  of  food,  and  the  fatigues  of  their  march  among  the  hummocks. 

"The  thermometer,"  says  Kane,  "was  at  —50°;  they  were  covered  Avith 
rime  and  snow,  and  were  fainting  with  hunger.  It  was  necessary  to  use  cau- 
tion in  taking  them  below ;  for,  after  an  exposure  of  such  fearful  intensity  and 
duration  as  they  had  gone  through,  the  warmth  of  the  cabin  would  have  pros- 
trated them  completely.  They  had  journeyed  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles ; 
and  their  last  run  from  the  bay  near  Etah,  some  seventy  miles  in  a  right  line, 
was  through  the  hummocks  at  this  appalling  temperature.  One  oy  one  they 
all  came  in  and  were  housed.  Poor  fellows  !  as  they  threw  open  their  Esqui- 
maux garments  by  the  stove,  how  they  relished  the  scanty  luxuries  Avhich  we 
had  to  offer  them !  The  coffee,  and  the  meat-biscuit  soup,  and  the  molasses, 
and  the  wheat  bread,  even  the  salt  pork,  which  our  scurvy  forbade  the  rest  of 
us  to  touch — how  they  relished  it  all !  For  more  than  two  months  they  had 
lived  on  frozen  seal  and  walrus  meat." 

Thus  Kane,  by  his  determination  not  to  abandon  the  ship,  proved  the  saviour 
of  all  his  comrades  :  for  what  would  have  become  of  them  had  he  been  less  firm 


KANE    AND   HAYES.  371 

in  bis  resolution,  or  if  his  courage  had  failed  him  during  the  trials  of  that 
dreadful  winter? 

"  February  closes,"  says  the  heroic  explorer ;  "  thank  God  for  the  lapse  of 
its  twenty-eight  days !  Should  the  thirty-one  of  the  coming  March  not  drag 
us  farther  downward,  we  may  hope  for  a  successful  close  to  this  dreary  drama. 
By  April  10  we  should  have  seals ;  and  when  they  come,  if  we  remain  to  avcI- 
come  them,  we  can  call  ourselves  saved.  But  a  fair  review  of  our  prospects 
tells  me  that  I  must  look  the  lion  in  the  face.  The  scurvy  is  steadily  gaining 
on  us.  I  do  my  best  to  sustain  the  more  desperate  cases,  but  as  fast  as  I  par- 
tially build  up  one,  another  is  stricken  down.  Of  the  six  workers  of  our  party, 
as  I  counted  them  a  month  ago,  two  are  unable  to  do  out-door  work,  and  the 
remaining  four  divide  the  duty  of  the  ship  among  them.  Hans  musters  his  re- 
maining energies  to  conduct  the  hunt.  Petersen  is  his  disheartened,  moping 
assistant.  The  other  two,  Bonsall  and  myself,  have  all  the  daily  offices  of 
household  and  hospital.  We  chop  five  large  sacks  of  ice,  cut  six  fathoms  of 
eight-inch  hawser  into  junks  of  a  foot  each,  serve  out  the  meat  when  we  have 
it,  hack  at  the  molasses,  and  hew  out  with  crowbar  and  axe  the  pork  and  dried 
apples;  pass  up  the  foul  slop  and  cleansings  of  our  dormitory,  and, in  a  word, 
cook,  sculUonize,  and  attend  the  sick.  Added  to  this,  for  five  nights  running 
I  have  kept  watch  from  8  p.m.  to  4  a.m.,  catching  such  naps  as  I  could  in  the 
day  without  changing  my  clothes,  but  carefully  w^aking  every  hour  to  note 
thermometers." 

With  March  came  an  increase  of  sufferings.  Every  man  on  board  was 
tainted  with  scurvy,  and  there  were  seldom  more  than  three  who  could  assist 
in  caring  for  the  rest.  The  greater  number  were  in  their  bunks,  absolutely  un- 
able to  stir.  Had  Kane's  health  given  way,  the  whole  party,  deprived  of  its 
leading  spirit,  must  inevitably  have  perished. 

To  abandon  the  ship  was  now  an  absolute  necessity,  for  a  third  winter  in 
Rensselaer  Bay  would  have  been  certain  death  to  all ;  but  before  the  boats 
could  be  transported  to  the  open  water,  many  preparations  had  to  be  made, 
and  most  of  the  party  were  still  too  weak  to  move.  The  interval  was  employed 
by  Kane  in  an  excursion  with  his  faithful  Esquimaux  to  the  Great  Glacier. 

At  length  on  May  20,  1855,  the  entire  ship's  company  bade  farewell  to  the 
"Advance,"  and  set  out  slowly  on  their  homeward  journey.  It  was  in  the  soft, 
subdued  light  of  a  Sunday  evening,  June  1 7,  that  after  hauling  their  boats  with 
much  hard  labor  through  the  hummocks,  they  stood  beside  the  open  sea-way. 
But  fifty-six  days  had  still  to  pass  before  they  could  reach  the  port  of  Uper- 
navik.  Neither  stoi-ms  nor  drift-ice  rendered  this  long  boat-journey  danger- 
ous, but  they  had  to  contend  with  famine,  when  they  at  length  reached  the 
open  bay,  and  found  themselves  in  the  full  line  of  the  great  ice-drift  to  the  At- 
lantic, in  boats  so  unseaworthy  as  to  require  constant  bailing  to  keep  them 
afloat.  Their  strength  had  decreased  to  an  alarming  degree ;  they  breathed 
heavily ;  their  feet  were  so  swollen  that  they  were  obliged  to  cut  open  their 
canvas  boots ;  they  were  utterly  unable  to  sleep,  and  the  i-owing  and  bailing  be- 
came hourly  more  difficult. 

It  was  at  this  crisis  of  their  fortunes  that  they  saw  a  large  seal  floating — as 


373  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

is  the  custom  of  these  animals — on  a  small  patch  of  ice,  and  seemingly  asleep. 
"  Trembling  with  anxiety,"  says  Kane, "  we  prepai'ed  to  crawl  down  upon  him, 
Petersen,  with  a  large  English  rifle,  was  stationed  in  the  bow,  and  stockings 
were  drawn  over  the  oars  as  mufilers.  As  we  neared  the  animal,  our  excite- 
ment became  so  intense  that  the  men  could  hardly  keep  stroke.  He  was  not 
asleep,  for  he  reared  his  head  when  we  were  almost  within  rifle-shot ;  and  to 
this  day  I  can  remember  the  hard,  careworn,  almost  despairing  expression  of 
the  men's  thin  faces  as  they  saw  him  move ;  their  lives  depended  on  his  cap- 
ture. I  depressed  my  hand  nervously,  as  a  signal  for  Petersen  to  fire.  M'Gary 
hung  upon  his  oar,  and  the  boat  slowly,  but  noiselessly  surging  ahead,  seemed 
to  me  within  certain  range.  Looking  at  Petersen,  I  saw  that  the  poor  fellow 
was  paralyzed  by  his  anxiety,  trying  vainly  to  obtain  a  rest  for  his  gun  against 
the  cut-water  of  the  boat.  The  seal  rose  on  his  fore  flippers,  gazed  at  us  for  a 
moment  with  frightened  curiosity,  and  coiled  himself  for  a  plunge.  At  that  in- 
stant, simultan*eously  with  the  crack  of  our  rifle,  he  relaxed  his  long  length  on 
the  ice,  and,  at  the  very  brink  of  the  water,  his  head  fell  helpless  to  one  side. 
I  would  have  ordered  another  shot,  but  no  discipline  could  have  controlled  the 
men.  With  a  wild  yell,  each  vociferating  according  to  his  own  impulse,  they 
urged  their  boats  upon  the  floes.  A  crowd  of  hands  seized  the  seal  and  bore 
him  up  to  safer  ice.  The  men  seemed  half  crazy.  I  had  not  realized  how 
much  we  were  reduced  by  absolute  famine.  They  ran  over  the  floe,  crying 
and  laughing,  and  brandishing  their  knives.  It  was  not  five  minutes  before 
every  man  was  sucking  his  bloody  fingers,  or  mouthing  long  strips  of  raw 
blubber.     Not  an  ounce  of  this  seal  was  lost." 

Within  a  day  or  two  another  seal  was  shot,  and  from  that  time  forward 
they  had  a'  full  supply  of  food. 

When  Kane,  after  an  absence  of  thirty  months,  returned  on  October  11, 
1855,  to  New  York,  he  was  enthusiastically  received.  Well-deserved  honors  of 
all  sorts  awaited  him  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic ;  but  his  health,  originally 
weak,  was  completely  broken  by  the  trials  of  his  journey,  and  on  February  16, 
1857,  he  died  at  the  Havana,  in  the  thirty-seventh  year  of  his  age.  In  him  the 
United  States  lost  one  of  her  noblest  sons,  a  true  hero,  whose  name  will  ever 
shine  among  the  most  famous  navigators  of  all  times  and  of  all  nations. 

In  1860,  Dr.  Hayes,  who  had  accompanied  Kane  on  his  journey,  once  more 
sailed  from  America  for  the  purpose  of  completing  the  survey  of  Kennedy's 
Channel,  and,  if  possible,  of  pushing  on  to  the  pole  itself.  After  several  narrow 
escapes  from  ice-fields  and  icebergs,  his  schooner,  the  "  United  States,"  was  at 
length  compelled  to  take  up  her  winter-quarters  at  Port  Foulke,  on  the  Green- 
land coast,  about  twenty  miles  in  latitude  to  the  south  of  Rensselaer  Harbor. 
Thanks  to  an  abundant  supply  of  fresh  meat  (for  the  neighborhood  abounded 
with  reindeer),  and  also  no  doubt  to  the  inexhaustible  fund  of  good-humor 
which  prevailed  in  the  ship's  company,  they  passed  the  winter  without  suffer- 
ing from  the  scurvy ;  but  most  of  the  dogs  on  which  Dr.  Hayes  relied  for  his 
sledge  expeditions  in  the  ensuing  spring  were  destroyed  by  the  same  epidemic 
which  had  been  so  fatal  to  the  teams  of  Dr.  Kane.  Fortunately  some  fresh 
dogs  could  be  purchased  and  borrowed  of  the  friendly  Esquimaux,  and  thus, 


KANE  AND   HAYES.  373 

early  in  April,  1861,  Dr.  Hayes  left  the  schooner,  to  plunge  into  the  icy  Avilder- 
ness.  Having  previously  ascertained  that  an  advance  along  the  Greenland 
shore  was  utterly  impossible,  he  resolved  to  cross  the  sound,  and  to  try  his 
fortunes  along  the  coast  of  Grinnell  Land.  Of  the  difficulties  which  he  had  to 
encounter  his  own  words  will  give  the  best  idea. 

"  By  winding  to  the  right  and  left,  and  by  occasionally  retracing  our  steps 
when  we  had  selected  an  impracticable  route,  we  managed  to  get  over  the  first 
few  miles  without  much  embarrassment,  but  farther  on  the  tract  was  rough  past 
description.  I  can  compare  it  to  nothing  but  a  pi'omiscuous  accumulation  of 
rocks  closely  packed  together  and  piled  up  over  a  vast  plain  in  great  heaps  and 
endless  ridges,  leaving  scarcely  a  foot  of  level  surface.  The  interstices  between 
these  closely  accumulated  ice-masses  are  filled  up,  to  some  extent,  with 
drifted  snow.  The  reader  will  readily  imagine  the  rest.  He  will  see  the 
sledges  winding  through  the  tangled  wilderness  of  broken  ice-tables,  the 
men  and  dogs  pulling  and  pushing  up  their  respective  loads.  He  will  see 
them  clambering  over  the  very  summit  of  lofty  ridges,  through  which  there  is 
no  opening,  and  again  descending  on  the  other  side,  the  sledge  often  plunging 
over  a  precipice,  sometimes  capsizing  and  frequently  breaking.  Again  he  will  see 
the  party  baffled  in  their  attempt  to  cross  or  find  a  pass,  breaking  a  track  with 
shovel  and  handspike,  or  again,  unable  even  with  these  appliances  to  accom- 
plish their  end,  they  retreat  to  seek  a  better  track ;  and  they  may  be  lucky 
enough  to  find  a  sort  of  gap  or  gateway,  upon  the  winding  and  uneven  sui-face 
of  which  they  will  make  a  mile  or  so  with  comparative  ease.  The  snow-drifts 
are  sometimes  a  help^  and  sometimes  a  hinderauce.  Their  surface  is  uniformly 
hard,  but  not  always  firm  to  the  foot.  The  crust  frequently  gives  way,  and  in  a 
most  tiresome  and  provoking  manner.  It  will  not  quite  bear  the  weight,  and 
the  foot  sinks  at  the  very  moment  when  the  other  is  lifted.  But,  worse  than 
this,  the  chasms  between  the  hummocks  are  frequently  bridged  over  with  snow 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  a  considerable  space  at  the  bottom  quite  unfilled ; 
and  at  the  very  moment  when  all  looks  promising,  down  sinks  one  man  to  his  mid- 
dle, another  to  the  neck,  another  is  buried  out  of  sight ;  the  sledge  gives  way, 
and  to  extricate  the  whole  from  this  unhappy  predicament  is  probably  the  labor 
of  hours.  It  would  be  difficult  to  imagine  any  kind  of  labor  more  dishe'artening, 
or  which  would  sooner  sap  the  enei'gies  of  both  men  and  animals.  The  strength 
gave  way  gradually ;  and  when,  as  often  happened  after  a  long  and  hard  day's 
work,  we  could  look  back  from  our  eminence  and  almost  fire  a  rifle-baU  into  our 
last  snow-hut,  it  was  truly  discouraging." 

No  wonder  that  after  thus  toiling  on  for  twenty-five  days  they  had  not  yet 
reached  half-way  across  the  sound,  and  that  they  were  all  broken  down.  But 
their  bold  leader  was  fully  determined  not  to  abandon  his  enterprise  while  still 
the  faintest  hope  of  success  remained,  and,  sending  the  main  party  back  to  the 
schooner,  he  continued  to  plunge  into  the  hummocks  with  three  picked  compan^ 
ions — Jensen,  M'Donald,  Knorr — and  fourteen  dogs.  After  fourteen  days  of  al- 
most superhuman  exertion  the  sound  Avas  at  length  crossed,  and  now  began  a 
scarcely  less  harassing  journey  along  the  coast.  On  the  fifth  day  Jensen,  the 
strongest  man  of  the  party,  completely  broke  down,  and  leaving  him  to  tlie 


374  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

charge  of  M'Donald,  Dr.  Hayes  now  pushed  on  with  Knorr  alone,  until,  on  May 
18,  he  reached  the  border  of  a  deep  bay,  where  farther  progress  to  the  north 
was  stopped  by  rotten  ice  and  cracks.  Right  before  him,  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  frith,  rose  Mount  Parry,  the  lofty  peak  first  seen  by  Morton  in  1854  from 
the  shores  of  Washington  Land  ;  and  farther  on,  a  noble  headland,  Cape  Union 
— the  most  northern  known  land  upon  the  globe — stood  in  faint  outline  against 
the  dark  sky  of  the  open  sea.  Thus  Dr„  Hayes  divides  the  honor  of  extreme 
northern  travel  with  Parry. 

On  July  12  the  "United  States"  was  released  from  her  icy  trammels,  and 
Dr.  Hayes  once  more  attempted  to  reach  the  opposite  coast  and  continue  his 
discoveries  in  Grinnell  Land,  but  the  schooner  was  in  too  crippled  a  state  to 
force  her  way  through  the  pack-ice  which  lay  in  her  course,  and  compelled  her 
commander  to  return  to  Boston. 

Thus  ended  this  remarkable  voyage ;  but  having  done  so  much.  Dr.  Hayes 
is  eager,  and  resolved,  to  do  still  more.  Fully  convinced  by  his  own  exjDerience 
that  men  may  subsist  in  Smith's  Sound  independent  of  support  from  home,  he 
proposes  to  establish  a  self-sustaining  colony  at  Port  Foulke,  which  may  be  made 
the  basis  of  an  extended  exploration.  Without  any  second  party  in  the  field  to 
co-operate  with  him,  and  under  the  most  adverse  circumstances,  he,  by  dint  of 
indomitable  perseverance,  j^ushed  his  discoveries  a  hundred  miles  farther  to  the 
north  and  west  than  his  predecessors ;  and  it  is  surely  not  over-sanguine  to  ex- 
pect that  a  party  better  provided  with  the  means  of  travel  may  be  able  to  trav- 
erse the  480  miles  at  least  which  intervene  between  Mount  Parry  and  the  pole. 
The  open  sea  which  both  Morton  and  himself  found  beyond  Kennedy  Channel 
gives  fair  promise  of  success  to  a  strong  vessel  that  may  reach  it  after  having 
forced  the  ice-blocked  passage  of  Smith's  Sound,  or,  should  this  be  impractica- 
ble, to  a  boat  transported  across  the  sound  and  then  launched  upon  its  waters. 

Captain  Sherard  Osborne,  who  is  likewise  a  warm  partisan  of  this  route,  has 
been  endeavoring  to  interest  Government  in  its  favor ;  but  in  the  opinion  of 
other  scientific  authorities  an  easier  passage  seems  open  to  the  na^dgator  who 
may  attempt  to  reach  the  pole  by  way  of  Spitzbergen.  To  the  east  of  this 
archipelago  the  Gulf  Stream  rolls  its  volume  of  comparatively  warm  water  far 
on  to  the  north-east,  and  possibly  sweeps  round  the  pole  itself.  It  was  to  the 
north  of  Spitzbergen  that  Parry  reached  the  latitude  of  82°  45';  and  in  1837 
the  "Truelove,"  of  Hull,*  sailed  through  a  perfectly  open  sea  in  82°  30'  K,  15° 
E.,  and,  had  she  continued  her  course,  might  possibly  have  reached  the  pole  as 
easily  as  the  high  latitude  which  she  had  already  attained. 

The  distinguished  geographer.  Dr.  Augustus  Petermann,  who  warmly  advo- 
cates the  route  between  Spitzbergen  and  Greenland,  has,  by  dint  of  perseverance, 
succeeded  in  collecting  among  his  countrymen  the  necessary  funds  for  a  recon- 
noitring voyage  in  this  direction.  Thanks  to  his  exertions.  May  24, 1868,  wit- 
nessed the  departure  of  a  small  ship  of  eighty  tons,  the  "  Gerraania,"  Captain 
Koldewey,  from  the  port  of  Bergen,  for  Shannon  Island  (75°  14'  N.  lat.),  the 
highest  point  on  the  east  coast  of  Greenland  attained  by  Sabine  in  1823.  Here 
the  attempt  to  explore  the  unknown  Arctic  seas  beyond  was  to  begin  ;  but, 
*  "  Athenajum,"  Dec.  3, 1853. 


KAKE   AND   HAYES.  375 

meeting  with  enormous  masses  of  drift-ice  on  her  repeated  endeavors  to  pene- 
trate to  the  north-east,  the  "  Germania  "  has  been  obliged  to  return,  after  reach- 
ing the  high  latitude  of  81°  5',  and  accurately  surveying  a  small  part  of  the 
Greenland  coast  hitherto  but  imperfectly  explored.  An  expedition  on  a  more 
extensive  scale  is  to  renew  the  attempt  in  1869. 

A  third  route  to  the  pole  is  no  less  strenuously  recommended  by  M.  Gustavo 
Lambert,  a  French  hydrographer,  who,  having  sailed  through  Bering's  Strait  in 
a  whaler  in  1865,  is  persuaded  that  this  is  the  right  way  to  reach  the  problemat- 
ical open  North  Sea,  which,  once  attained,  promises  a  free  passage  to  the  navi- 
gator. Liberal  subscriptions  have  been  raised  in  Paris  for  the  accomplishment 
of  his  plan,  and  an  expedition  under  his  command  will  most  probably  set  out 
in  1869. 

Thus,  after  so  many  illustrious  navigators  have  vainly  endeavored  to  reach 
the  pole,  sanguine  projectors  are  still  as  eager  as  ever  to  attain  the  goal;  nor  is 
it  probable  that  man  will  ever  rest  in  his  efforts  until  every  attainable  region 
of  the  Arctic  Ocean  shall  have  been  fully  explored. 


376  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

NEWFOUNDLAND. 

Its  desolate  Aspect.— Forests.— Marshes. — Barrens.— Ponds.— Fur-bearing  Animals.— Severity  of  Cli- 
mate.—St.  John's.— Discovery  of  Newfoundland  by  the 'Scandinavians.— Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert.— 
Eivalry  of  the  English  and  French. — Importance  of  the  Fisheries.— The  Banks  of  Newfoundland.— 
Mode  of  Fishing.— Throater*,  Headers,  Splitters,  Suiters,  and  Packers. — Fogs  and  Storms.— Seal- 
catching. 

GENERALLY  veiled  with  mists,  Newfoundland  appears  at  first  sight 
gloomy  and  repulsive.  Abrupt  cliffs,  showing  here  and  there  traces  of  a 
scanty  vegetation,  rise  steep  and  bare  from  the  sea,  and  for  miles  and  miles 
the  eye  sees  nothing  but  brown  hills  or  higher  mountains,  desolate  and  wild  as 
they  appeared  in  the  eleventh  century  to  the  bold  Norwegian  uavigators  who 
first  landed  on  its  desert  shore.  The  waves  of  the  oceau  have  everywhere  cor- 
roded the  rocky  coast  into  fantastic  pinnacles  or  excavated  deep  grottoes  in  its 
flanks.  In  one  of  these  cavities  the  action  of  the  surge  has  produced  a  remark- 
able i^henomenon,  kno'vvn  under  the  name  of  "  The  Spout."  In  stormy  weather 
the  waves  penetrate  into  the  hollow  and  force  their  way  with  a  dreadful  noise 
from  an  aperture  in  the  rock  as  a  gigantic  fountain  visible  at  a  distance  of 
several  miles.* 

The  interior  of  the  country  corresponds  with  the  forbidding  appearance  of 
the  coasts,  and  offers  nothing  but  a  succession  of  forests,  marshes,  and  barrens. 
The  forests,  if  they  may  thus  be  called,  generally  grow  on  the  declivities  of  the 
hills  or  on  the  sides  of  the  valleys,  where  the  superfluous  waters  find  a  natural 
drain.  The  trees  consist  for  the  most  part  of  fir,  spruce,  birch,  pine,  and  juni- 
per or  larch  ;  and  in  certain  districts  the  wych-hazel,  the  mountain-ash,  the  eld- 
er, the  aspen,  and  some  others  are  found.  The  character  of  the  timber  varies 
greatly  according  to  the  nature  of  the  subsoil  and  the  situation.  In  some  parts, 
more  especially  where  the  woods  have  been  undisturbed  by  the  axe,  trees  of 
fair  height  and  girth  may  be  found;  but  most  of  the  wood  is  of  stunted 
growth,  consisting  chiefly  of  fir-trees  about  twenty  or  thirty  feet  high,  and 
not  more  than  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter.  These  commonly  grow  so 
closely  together  that  their  twigs  and  branches  interlace  from  top  to  bottom, 
while  among  them  may  be  seen  innumerable  old  and  rotten  stumps  and  branch- 
es, or  newly-fallen  trees,  which,  with  the  young  shoots  and  brushwood,  form  a 
tangled  and  often  impenetrable  thicket.  The  trees  are  often  covered  with  lich- 
ens, and  tufts  of  white  dry  moss  are  entangled  about  the  branches.  Other 
green  and  softer  mosses  spread  over  the  ground,  concealing  alike  the  twisted 
roots  of  the  standing  trees  and  the  pointed  stumps  of  those  which  have  fallen, 

*  For  an  account  of  the  similar  phenomena  of  the  "  Buffadero,"  on  the  Mexican  coast,  and  of  the 
"  Souifleur,"  Mauritius,  see  "The  Sea  and  its  Living  Wonders,"  3d  ed.  p.  52. 


NEWFOUNDLAND.  377 

the  sharp  edges  or  slippery  surface  of  the  numerous  rocks  and  boulders,  and  the 
holes  and  pitfalls  between  them.  Every  step  through  these  woods  is  conse- 
quently a  matter  of  great  toil  and  anxiety.  In  the  heat  of  summer,  while  the 
woods  are  so  thick  as  to  shut  out  every  breath  of  air,  they  are  at  the  same 
time  too  low  and  too  thinly  leaved  at  top  to  exclude  the  rays  of  the  sun,  the  at- 
mosphere being  further  rendered  close  and  stifling  by  the  smell  of  the  turpen- 
tine which  exudes  from  the  trees. 

Inclosed  in  these  gloomy  woods,  large  open  tracts,  called  marshes,  are  found 
covering  the  valleys  and  lower  lands,  and  frequently  also  at  a  considerable 
height  above  the  sea  on  the  undulating  backs  of  the  mountains.  These  tracts 
are  covered  to  a  depth  sometimes  of  several  feet  with  a  green,  soft,  and  spongy 
moss,  bound  together  by  straggling  grass  and  various  marsh-plants.  The  sur- 
face abounds  in  hillocks  and  holes,  the  tops  of  the  hillocks  having  often  dry 
crisp  moss  like  that  on  the  trees.  A  boulder  or  small  crag  of  rock  occasionally 
jDrotrudes,  covered  with  red  or  white  lichens,  and  here  and  there  is  a  bank  on 
which  the  moss  has  become  dry  and  yellow.  The  contrast  of  these  colors  with 
the  dark  velvety  green  of  the  wet  moss  frequently  gives  a  peculiarly  rich  appear- 
ance to  the  marshes,  so  that  when  seen  from  a  little  distance  they  might  easily 
be  mistaken  for  luxuriant  meadow-grounds,  but  a  closer  inspection  soon  destroys 
the  illusion,  and  shows,  instead  of  nutritious  grass  and  aromatic  flowers,  hothing 
but  a  Carpet  of  useless  cryptogamic  plants.  Except  in  long-continued  droughts 
or  hard  frosts,  these  marshes  are  so  wet  as  to  be  unable  to  bear  the  weight  of  a 
person  walking  over  them.  A  march  of  three  miles,  sinking  at  every  step  into 
the  moss,  sometimes  knee-deep,  and  always  as  far  as  the  ankle,  is,  it  may  well 
be  supposed,  toilsome  and  fatiguing,  especially  when,  as  must  always  be  the 
case  in  attempting  to  penetrate  the  country,  a  heavy  load  is  carried  on  the 
shoulders.  This  thick  coating  of  moss  is  precisely  like  a  great  sponge  spread 
over  the  country,  and  becomes  at  the  melting  of  the  snow  in  the  spring  thor- 
oughly saturated  with  water,  which  it  long  retains,  and  which  every  shower  of 
rain  continually  renews. 

The  "  barrens  "  of  Newfoundland  are  those  districts  which  occupy  the  sum- 
mits of  the  hills  and  ridges,  and  other  elevated  and  exposed  tracts.  They  are 
covered  with  a  thin  and  scrubby  vegetation,  consisting  of  berry-bearing  plants 
and  dwarf  bushes  of  various  species,  resembling  the  moorlands  of  the  north  of 
England,  and  differing  only  in  the  kind  of  vegetation  and  its  scantier  quantity. 
Bare  patches  of  gravel  and  boulders  and  crumbUng  fragments  of  rock  are  fre- 
quently met  with  upon  the  barrens,  and  they  are  generally  altogether  destitute 
of  vegetable  soil.  But  only  on  the  barrens  is  it  possible  to  explore  the  interior 
of  the  country  with  any  kind  of  ease  or  expedition.  These  different  tracts  are 
none  of  them  of  any  great  extent ;  woods,  marshes,  and  barrens  frequently  alter- 
nating with  each  other  in  the  course  of  a  day's  journey. 

Another  remarkable  feature  of  Newfoundland  is  the  almost  incredible  num- 
ber of  lakes  of  all  sizes,  all  of  which  are  indiscriminately  called  ponds.  They 
are  scattered  over  the  whole  country,  not  only  in  the  valleys  but  on  the  higher 
lands  ;  and  even  in  the  hollows  of  the  summits  of  tlie  ridges  and  the  very  tops 
of  the  hills.     They  vary  in  size  from  pools  of  fifty  yards  in  diameter  to  lakes  up- 


378  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

ward  of  tbirty  miles  long  and  four  or  five  miles  across.  The  number  of  those 
which  exceed  a  couple  of  miles  in  extent  must  on  the  whole  amount  to  several 
hundreds,  while  those  of  a  smaller  size  are  absolutely  countless.  It  is  supposed 
that  a  full  third  of  the  surface  of  the  island  is  covered  by  fresh  water,  and  this 
reckoning  is  rather  below  than  above  the  mark.  In  a  country  so  abundantly 
provided  with  lakes  or  ponds,  it  seems  strange  to  find  no  navigable  rivers. 
The  undulating  surface  of  the  land,  with  its  abrupt  hills  and  deep  gullies,  is, 
without  all  doubt,  one  cause  of  this  absence  of  larger  streams. 

Each  pond  or  small  set  of  ponds  communicates  with  a  valley  of  its  own, 
down  which  it  sends  an  insignificant  brook,  which  takes  the  nearest  course  to 
the  sea.  The  chief  cause,  however,  both  of  the  vast  abundance  of  ponds  and 
the  comparative  scantiness  of  the  brooks,  is  to  be  found  in  the  great  coating  of 
moss  which  spreads  over  the  country,  and  retains  the  water  like  a  sponge,  al- 
lowing it  to  drain  off  but  slowly  and  gradually. 

The  wilds  of  Newfoundland  are  tenanted  by  numerous  fur-bearing  animals, 
affording  a  great  source  of  gain  to  some  of  the  fishermen,  who  in  winter  turn 
furriers.  Arctic  foxes  are  here  in  all  their  variety.  Beavers,  once  nearly  ex- 
tirpated, but  now  unmolested  owing  to  the  low  value  of  their  fur,  are  increasing 
in  numbers.  Brown  bears  are  pretty  numerous,  and  Polar  bears  sometimes  find 
their  way  to  the  northern  promontory  of  the  island  upon  the  ice  which  comes 
drifting  down  in  sj^ring  from  Davis's  Straits.  By  way  of  contrast,  in  hot  sum- 
mers the  tropical  humming-bird  has  been  known  to  visit  the  southern  shores 
of  Newfoundland.  Reindeer  are  abundant,  but  unfortunately  their  enemies 
the  wolves  have  likewise  increased  in  number,  since  the  reward  given  by  the 
Colonial  Government  for  their  destruction  has  ceased  to  be  paid. 

Although  in  the  same  latitude  as  Central  France  and  the  south  of  Germany, 
Newfoundland  has  a  long  and  severe  winter,  owing  to  the  two  vast  streams  of 
Arctic  water,  the  Davis's  Straits  and  East  Greenland  currents,  which  combine 
and  run  by  its  shores ;  and  the  summer,  though  sometimes  intensely  hot,  is  so 
short  and  so  frequently  obscured  by  fogs  that,  even  were  the  soil  less  sterile,  ag- 
riculture must  necessarily  be  confined  to  narrow  limits.  The  little  wheat  and 
barley,  cultivated  on  the  inside  lands  far  above  the  sea-shore,  is  often  cut  green, 
and  carrots,  turnips,  potatoes,  and  cabbages  are  nearly  all  the  esculent  vegeta- 
bles which  the  land  has  been  proved  capable  of  producing. 

Hence  we  can  not  Avonder  that  the  whole  island,  which  is  considerably  larger 
than  Scotland,  has. only  about  90,000  inhabitants,  and  even  these  would  have 
had  no  inducement  to  settle  on  so  unpromising  a  soil  if  the  riches  of  the  sea 
did  not  amply  compensate  for  the  deficiencies  of  the  land.  Fish  is  the  staple 
produce  of  Newfoundland,  and  the  bulk  of  its  population  consists  of  poor  fish- 
erman, who  have  established  themselves  along  the  deep  bays  by  which  the  coast 
is  indented,  and  catch  near  the  coast  vast  quantities  of  cod,  Avhich  they  bring 
in  and  cure  at  their  leisure,  in  order  to  have  it  ready  for  the  ships  when  they 
arrive.  With  the  outer  world  they  have  little  communication,  and  a  visit  to 
St.  John's,  the  capital  of  the  island,  forms  an  epoch  in  their  solitary  lives. 

This  town  lies  at  the  head  of  a  wide  and  secure  bay,  and  consists  of  a  main 
street  fronting  the  water,  from  which  narrow,  dirty  lanes  and  alleys  branch  out 


NEWFOUNDLAND.  379 

towards  the  land.  The  dingy,  unpainted  houses  are  built  of  wood,  the  Go\-- 
ernment  edifices  only  being  constructed  of  brick  or  stone.  The  long  rows  of 
fish-stages  along  the  shore  attract  the  stranger's  attention,  but  he  is  still  more 
astonished  at  the  countless  gin  and  beer  shops,  which  at  once  tell  him  he  is 
in  a  place  where  thii-sty  sailors  and  fishermen  form  the  mass  of  the  popula- 
tion. In  the  winter  St.  John's  is  comparatively  deserted,  as  it  then  has  no  more 
than  about  10,000  inhabitants,  but  their  number  is  doubled  or  trebled  during 
the  fishing-season. 

The  island  of  Newfoundland,  first  seen  and  visited  in  the  eleventh  century 
by  the  Norse  colonists  of  Greenland,  and  then  utterly  forgotten,  was  rediscov- 
ered in  li9l  or  1498  by  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot. 

The  richness  of  its  cod-fisheries  soon  attracted  attention,  and  fishermen  from 
Spain,  France,  Portugal,  and  England  annually  visited  its  banks.  The  best  har- 
bors along  the  coast  were  occupied  by  the  first  comers  in  spring — a  circum- 
stance which  gave  rise  to  frequent  quarrels.  To  obviate  this  lawless  state  of 
affairs,  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  was  sent  out  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1583  to  take 
possession  of  the  land.  He  divided  the  coast  about  St.  John's  into  districts, 
and  the  British  settlers  willingly  agreed  to  pay  a  tax  to  Government  in  the  ex- 
pectation of  seeing  their  interests  better  protected.  The  new  arrangement  had 
a  beneficial  effect  on  the  trade  of  Newfoundland,  for  in  1615  more  than  250 
English  vessels  visited  St.  John's,  and  gradually  the  whole  of  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  island  was  occupied  by  English  fishermen. 

The  French  on  their  part  colonized  the  north  and  south  sides  of  the  island, 
and  founded  the  town  of  Placentia,  once  a  very  considerable  place,  but  now  re- 
duced to  insignificance.  The  rivalry  of  the  French  was  naturally  a  great  source 
of  jealousy  to  a  nation  ill-accustomed  to  brook  any  foreign  intrusion  into  its 
commercial  interests.  Thus,  after  the  w^ar  of  the  Spanish  succession,  Great 
Britain  demanded  and  obtained  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  the  sole  possession 
of  Newfoundland ;  and  Louis  XIV.,  anxious  for  peace  on  any  terms,  Avillingly 
acceded  to  this  sacrifice,  merely  reserving  for  his  subjects  the  right  to  dry  on 
the  shores  of  the  island  the  fish  they  had  caught  on  the  banks.  By  the  subse- 
quent treaties  of  Paris  the  French  were  restricted  to  the  small  islands  of  St. 
Pierre  and  Miquelon,  but  not  allowed  to  erect  fortifications  of  any  kind. 

Besides  the  English  and  the  French,  the  Americans  also  have  the  right  to 
fish  on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland  ;  for  when  England  acknowledged  the  in- 
dependence of  the  United  States,  a  formal  article  of  the  treaty  of  peace  secured 
to  the  latter  the  fishing  privileges  wdiich  they  had  previously  enjoyed  as  col- 
onies. 

The  value  of  the  dry  codfish  alone  exported  every  year  from  Newfoundland 
is  on  an  average  about  £400,000,  while  the  total  value  of  the  exported  produc- 
tions in  fish,  oil,  and  skins  is  upward  of  £700,000.  This,  from  a  population 
of  80,000  or  90,000,  proves  that  the  people  of  the  island  ought  to  be  happy  and 
prosperous ;  but  unfortunately  a  system  of  credit  renders  the  bulk  of  the  fish- 
ermen entirely  dependent  on  the  merchants,  and  want  of  education  is  a  further 
source  of  evil. 

Though  vast  quantities  of  cod  are  taken  along  the  shores  of  Newfoundland, 


380  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

yet  the  most  important  fishery  is  carried  on  on  the  banks  at  some  distance 
from  the  island. 

The  Great  Bank  lies  twenty  leagues  from  the  nearest  point  of  land  from  lat- 
itude 41°  to  49°,  and  extends  300  miles  in  length  and  15  in  breadth.  To  the 
east  of  this  lies  the  False  Bank ;  the  next  is  styled  the  Green  Bank,  about  240 
miles  long  and  120  broad;  then  Banquero,  about  the  same  size,  with  several 
other  shoals  of  less  note,  all  abounding  with  fish,  but  chiefly  with  cod,  the 
great  magnet  which  sets  whole  fleets  in  motion.  In  winter  the  cod  retire  to 
the  deeper  waters,  but  they  re-appear  in  March  and  April,  Avhen  their  pursuers 
hasten  to  the  spot,  not  only  from  the  bays  arid  coves  of  Newfoundland,  but 
from  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  and  France. 

While  fishing,  each  man  has  a  space  three  feet  and  a  half  wide  allotted  to 
him  on  deck,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  his  neighbor.  The  lines  are  from  thirty 
to  forty  fathoms  long — for  the  cod  generally  swims  at  that  depth.  The  chief 
baits  used  are  the  squid,  a  species  of  cuttle-fish,  and  the  capelin,  a  small  salmon 
abounding  on  the  North  American  coasts.  The  herring  and  the  launce,  and 
a  shell-fish  called  clam,  which  is  found  in  the  belly  of  the  cod,  are  likewise  used. 
In  spring  particularly  the  cod  rushes  so  eagerly  upon  the  bait,  that  in  the 
course  of  a  single  day  a  good  fisherman  is  able  to  haul  up  four  hundred,  one 
after  another.  This  is  no  easy  task,  considering  the  size  of  the  fish,  which  on 
an  average  weighs  fourteen  pounds,  but  has  been  taken  four  feet  three  inches 
long,  and  forty-six  pounds  in  weight.  When  a  large  fish,  too  heavy  for  the 
line,  has  been  caught,  the  fisherman  calls  on  his  neighbor,  who  strikes  a  hook 
attached  to  a  long  pole  into  the  fish,  and  then  safely  hauls  it  on  board. 

Mindful  of  the  proverb  which  recommends  us  all  to  strike  while  the  iron  is 
hot,  the  fishermen  continue  to  catch  cod  for  hours,  until  so  many  are  heaped  on 
the  deck  that  to  make  room  it  becomes  necessary  to  "  dress  them  down."  This 
is  done  on  long  planks  made  to  rest  with  both  ends  on  two  casks,  and  thus 
forming  a  narrow  table.  First,  each  man  cuts  out  the  tongues  of  the  fish  he 
has  caught,  as  his  wages  are  reckoned  by  their  number,  and  then  the  whole 
crew  divide  themselves  into  throaters,  headers,  splitters,  suiters,  and  packers. 
The  throater  begins  the  operation  of  "  dressing  "  by  drawing  his  knife  across 
the  throat  of  the  cod  to  the  bone  and  ripping  open  the  bowels.  He  then  passes 
it  to  the  header,  who  with  a  strong  wa-ench  pulls  off  the  head  and  tears  out  the 
entrails,  which  he  casts  overboard,  passing  the  fish  at  the  same  time  to  the 
splitter,  who  with  one  cut  lays  it  open  from  head  to  tail,  and  almost  in  the 
twinkling  of  an  eye  with  another  cut  takes  out  the  backbone.  After  sepai-ating 
the  sounds,  which  are  placed  with  the  tongues  and  packed  in  barrels  as  a  deli- 
'  cacy,  the  backbone  follows  the  entrails  overboard,  while  the  fish  at  the  same 
moment  is  passed  with  the  other  hand  to  the  Salter.  Such  is  the  amazing 
quickness  of  the  operations  of  heading  and  splitting,  that  a  good  workman  will 
often  decapitate  and  take  out  the  entrails  and  backbone  of  six  fish  in  a  minute. 
Every  fisherman  is  supposed  to  know  something  of  each  of  these  operations,  and 
no  rivals  at  cricket  ever  entered  with  more  ardor  into  their  work  than  do  some 
athletic  champions  for  the  palm  of  "  dressing  down  "  after  a  "  day's  catch." 
Generally  the  fog  is  so  dense  that  one  ship  does  not  see  the  other,  although 


^     NEWFOUNDLAND.  381 

both  may  be  so  near  that  the  crews  distinctly  hear  each  other's  voices.  Fre- 
quently one  is  hardly  able  to  see  to  the  distance  of  a  few  feet,  and  the  large  dro])s 
of  the  condensed  mist  fall  like  rain  from  the  yards.  During  calm  weather  the 
aspect  of  the  sea  is  so  dismal  that  it  requires  all  the  buoyant  spirits  of  a  seaman 
to  resist  its  depressing  influence.  For  days  the  calm  remains  unbroken,  and 
no  sound  is  heard  but  that  of  a  fish  darting  out  of  the  water,  or  the  screech  of 
a  sea-bird  flitting  over  the  sea.  But  sometimes  a  storm  breaks  this  awful 
silence  of  nature.  At  such  times  the  fishing-ships,  hidden  in  mists,  run  the 
greatest  danger  of  striking  against  each  other,  although  signal-lanterns  and 
alarm-trumpets  are  used  to  give  warning.  A  tremendous  wave  bursting  on 
the  deck  often  strikes  them  with  such  force  as  to  sink  them  or  dash  them  to 
pieces  against  the  rocky  coast.  Thus  many  a  widow  and  orphan  has  a  mournful 
tale  to  relate  of  the  dangers  of  the  cod-fishery  on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland. 

In  some  parts  of  the  coast  where  the  water  is  sufticiently  shallow  the  cod- 
fish are  now  caught  in  sieves  or  nets.  This  operation  requires  more  capital  to 
commence  with  than  the  mere  boat  and  hooks  and  lines  of  the  common  fishei-- 
meu,  and,  like  all  improvements,  met  at  first  with  much  oi^position,  on  the  plea 
that  it  must  interfere  with  the  interests  of  the  poorer  class.  It  is  obvious,  how- 
evei',  that  the  use  of  the  net  is  advantageous  to  the  trade  at  large,  for  shoals,  or, 
as  they  are  termed,  "  schools,"  of  fish  may  sometimes  be  seen  sweeping  along 
shore,  which  but  for  the  net  would  escape  altogether.  Besides,  there  seems 
such  an  incalculable  abundance  of  the  fish  that  there  will  always  be  enough  to 
hook,  enough  to  jig,  enough  to  net,  and  more  than  enough  to  go  away. 

"  One  calm  July  evening,"  says  Mr.  Jukes,*  "  I  was  in  a  boat  just  outside  St. 
John's  harbor,  when  the  sea  was  pretty  still,  and  the  fish  were  '  breaching,'  as  it 
is  termed.  For  several  miles  around  us  the  calm  sea  was  alive  with  fish.  They 
were  sporting  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  flirting  their  tails  occasionally  into 
the  air,  and  as  far  as  could  be  seen  the  water  was  rippled  and  broken  by  their 
movements.  Looking  down  into  its  clear  depths,  codfish  under  codfish  of  all 
sizes  appeared  swimming  about  as  if  in  sport.  Some  boats  were  fishing,  but  not 
a  bite  could  they  get,  the  fish  being  already  gorged  with  food.  Had  the  ground 
been  shallow  enough  to  use  nets,  the  harbor  might  have  been  filled  with  fish." 

Besides  the  cod-fishery,  seal-catching  is  also  carried  on  with  considerable  suc- 
cess on  the  eastern  coast,  which  intercepts  many  immense  fields  and  islands  of 
ice  as  they  move  southward  in  the  spring  from  the  Arctic  Sea.  The  interior 
parts  of  these  drifting  shoals,  with  the  lakes  or  openings  interspersed,  remain 
unbroken,  and  on  them  myriads  of  seals  maybe  found.  In  the  month  of  jNfarch 
or  April,  as  soon  as  the  ice-fields  descend  with  the  currents  from  Davis's  Straits, 
many  small  ships,  not  only  from  the  harbors  of  the  east  coast  of  Newfoundland, 
but  even  from  the  distant  Scotch  ports,  particularly  Aberdeen,  put  out  to  sea, 
and  boldly  plunge  into  all  the  openings  of  the  ice-fields  to  make  war  upon  the 
seals.  Armed  with  firelocks  and  heavy  bludgeons,  the  crews  surprise  the  ani- 
mals on  the  ice.  In  this  way  thousands  are  killed  yearly  from  the  north,  but 
their  numbers  have  latterly  decreased,  and  the  seal-catchers  pay  the  i)enalty  of 
their  heedless  and  indiscriminate  slaughter. 

*  "Excursions  in  Newfoundland." 


THE   POLAR  WORLD. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

GREENLAND. 

A  mysterious  Region. — Ancient  Scandinavian  Colonists.— Tlieir  Decline  and  Fall.— Hans  Egede.— His 
Trials  and  Success.— Foundation  of  Godthaab. — Herrenhuth  Missionaries. — Lindenow. — The  Scores- 
bys. — Glavering. — The  Danish  Settlements  in  Greenland. — The  Greenland  Esquimaux. — Seal-catch- 
ing.— The  White  Dolphin. — The  Narwhal. — Shark-fisher^^ — Fiskernasset. — Birds. — Reindeer-hunt- 
ing.— Indigenous  Plauts.—Drift-wood.— Mineral  Kingdom. — Mode  of  Life  of  the  Greenland  Esqui- 
maux.— The  Danes  in  Greenland. — Beautiful  Scenery. — Ice  Caves, 

XN  many  respects  Greenland  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  countries  of  the 
-■-  Arctic  zone.  The  whole  of  the  northern  coast  of  continental  America 
from  Cape  Lisburne  to  Belle  Isle  Straits  is  known ;  the  borders  of  Siberia  front- 
ing the  icy  ocean  have  been  thoroughly  explored  by  water  and  by  land ;  the 
distance  of  Spitzbergen  and  Nova  Zembla  from  the  pole  has  long  since  been 
determined ;  but  how  far  Greenland  may  reach  to  the  north  we  know  not — 
though  nearly  a  thousand  years  have  passed  since  the  Icelander  Gunnbjorn 
•(970  A.D.)  first  saw  its  high  mountain  coast,  and  in  spite  of  all  the  attempts 
made  since  that  time  to  circumnavigate  it.  The  interior  of  the  island — or  con- 
tinent as  it  may  perhaps  more  justly  be  called,  for  it  has  a  surface  of  at  least 
750,000  square  miles,  and  is  probably  larger  than  Australia — is  also  unknown  ; 
for  of  this  vast  extent  of  territory  only  the  narrow  shores  of  the  coast-line 
seemed  to  be  inhabitable,  or  even  accessible  to  man.  On  jDenetrating  into  the 
deeper  fjords,  all  the  valleys  are  found  blocked  witlr  glaciers,  which,  on  climb- 
ing the  heights,  are  seen  to  pass  into  a  monotonous  plateau  of  ice,  or  neve,  which 
seems  to  cover  and  conceal  the  whole  interior.  Thus,  from  its  physical  config- 
uration, Greenland  may  well  be  called  a  mysterious  region  ;  and,  strange  to  say, 
the  history  of  the  decline  and  fall  of  its  first  colonists  is  as  httle  known  as  its 
geography. 

We  have  seen  in  a  previous  chapter  that  Iceland,  so  peacefixl  in  the  present 
day,  was  peopled  in  the  ninth  century  with  a  highly  turbulent  race  of  jarls  and 
vikings.  One  of  these  worthies,  called  Erik  Rauda,  or  the  Red,  having  twice 
dyed  his  hands  with  blood,  was  banished  by  the  Althing  (982)  for  a  term  of 
years,  and  resolved  to  pass  the  time  of  his  compulsory  absence  in  exploring  the 
land  discovered  by  Gunnbjorn.  After  spending  three  years  on  its  western 
coasts,  he  returned  to  Iceland,  and  made  so  favorable  a  report  of  the  new  coun- 
try, which — knowing  the  advantages  of  a  good  name — he  called  Greenland,  that 
in  986  he  induced  a  large  body  of  colonists  to  sail  with  him  and  settle  there. 
Other  emigrants  followed,  and  in  a  few  years  all  the  habitable  places  of  South- 
ern Greenland  were  occupied. 

The  colony,  Avhich  soon  after  its  foundation  adopted  the  Christian  religion, 
was  divided  into  two  districts,  or  "bygds"  (from  the  Icelandic  "  byggia,"  to 


GREEXLAXD.  383 

inbahit),  by  an  intervening  tract  of  land  named  l"bygd,  the  "  uninhabitable  "  or 
"uninhabited."  The  West  Bygd  reached  from  lat.  66°  down  to  62°,  and  con- 
tained, in  its  best  days,  ninety  farms  and  four  churches.  South  of  it  lay  the 
desert,"  Ubygd,"  of  seventy  geographical  miles,  terminated  by  the  East  Bygd, 
consisting  of  190  farms,  and  liaving  two  towns,  Gardar  and  Alba,  one  cathedral, 
and  eleven  churches.  The  whole  population  may  probably  have  amounted  to 
6000  souls.  The  country  was  governed  by  Icelandic  laws,  and  the  first  of  its 
eighteen  bishops,  Arnold,  was  elected  in  1121,  the  last  being  Endride  Andrea- 
son,  who  was  consecrated  in  1406.  In  spite  of  its  poverty  and  distance,  Green- 
land was  obliged  to  contribute  its  mite  to  the  revenues  of  the  Papal  chair,  for 
we  read  in  the  ancient  annalists  that  in  1326  its  tribute,  consisting  of  walrus- 
teeth,  was  sold  by  the  Pope's  agent,  Bertram  of  Ortolis,  to  a  merchant  of  Flan- 
ders for  the  sum  of  twelve  livres  and  fourteen  sous. 

The  time,  however,  was  now  fast  approaching  when  the  Greenland  colony 
was  not  only  to  cease  paying  tithes  and  Peter's  pence,  but  to  be  swept  away. 
During  the  course  of  the  fourteenth  century  it  was  visited  by  one  misfortune 
after  another.  The  black  death,  which  carried  off  twenty-five  millions  of  Euro- 
peans, did  not  spare  its  distant  fjords  (1348-9),  the  Esquimaux  harassed  the 
survivors  with  repeated  attacks,  killing  some,  and  carrying  away  others  captive. 
A  hostile  fleet,  suspected  to  be  English,  laid  waste  the  country  in  1418;  and, 
finally,  the  revolutions  and  wars  which  broke  out  in  Scandinavia  after  the  death 
of  Queen  Margaret  of  Walderaar  caused  Greenland  to  be  entirely  neglected  and 
forgotten.  The  last  colonists  either  retreated  to  Iceland,  or  Avere  destroyed  by 
the  Esquimaux,  and  many  years  elapsed  before  Greenland  was  again  thought  of 
as  a  place  where  Scandinavians  had  once  been  living.  At  length  King  Frederick 
II.  of  Denmark  sent  out  Mogens  Heineson,  a  famous  "  sea-cock,"  as  the  chroni- 
clers style  him,  to  the  south-eastern  coast  of  Greenland  (1581),  to  see  if  men  of 
a  Xorse  origin  still  dA\-elt  along  those  ice-bound  fjords.  Heineson  reached  the 
coast,  but  the  great  transparency  of  the  air,  Avhich  in  the  Polar  regions  frequent- 
ly causes  strange  optical  delusions,  led  him  into  a  singular  error.  After  having 
sailed  for  many  hours  in  the  same  direction,  and  still  seeing  the  mountains  Avhich 
seemed  quite  near  recede  as  he  advanced,  he  fancied  himself  fettered  by  an  in- 
visible power,  and  thus  the  famous  "  sea-cock  "  returned  home  with  the  report 
that,  detained  by  a  magnetic  rock,  he  had  not  been  able  to  reach  tlie  land. 

In  1605  King  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  sent  out  a  new  Greenland  expedi- 
tion, consisting  of  three  ships,  under  the  command  of  Godske  Lindenow,  and 
the  guidance  of  James  Hall,  an  English  pilot.  This  time  no  magnetic  rocks  in- 
tervened ;  but  the  ships  having  separated.  Hall  landed  on  the  Avest  coast,  Avhieh 
had  already  been  rediscovered  and  visited  by  Davis,  Hudson,  Baffin,  and  other 
Arctic  navigators  ;  Avhile  Lindenow,  anchoring  off  Cape  FareAvell,  kidnapped  two 
Esquimaux,  AAho  afterAvards  died  of  nostalgia  in  Denmark.  But  neither  Linde- 
noAv,  Avho  the  year  after  again  made  his  appearance  on  the  Avestern  coast  of 
Greenland, nor  tAvo  later  expeditions  under  Carsten  Richardson  and  Dannell,  Avere 
able  to  effect  a  landing  on  any  part  of  the  eastern  coast.  It  Avas  in  sight,  but 
the  drift-ice  made  it  inaccessible.  They  AA'cre  equally  unsuccessful  in  finding 
any  traces  of  tlie  lost  colonv,  Avhich  came  at  lenirth  to  bo  regarded  as  a  mere 


384  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

Scandinavian  myth.  But  while  no  one  else  cared  about  its  existence,  the  ardent 
Hans  Egede  (born  in  Norway,  January  31, 1686),  pastor  of  Vaage,  in  the  Lofo- 
ten Islands,  still  continued  to  cherish  its  memory.  He  had  read  in  the  ancient 
chronicles  about  the  old  Christian  communities  in  Greenland,  and  could  not  be- 
lieve in  their  total  extinction.  He  felt  the  deepest  concern  in  the  fate  of  their 
descendants,  and  the  thought  that  after  so  long  a  separation  from  the  mother- 
coimtry  they  mlist  needs  be  plunged  in  barbarism  and  heathen  darkness,  left 
him  no  rest  by  night  or  day.  At  length  he  resolved  to  devote  his  life  to  their 
spiritual  welfare,  and  to  become  the  apostle  of  rediscovered  or  regenerated 
Greenland.  His  zeal  and  perseverance  overcame  a  thousand  difficulties.  Nei- 
ther the  public  ridicule,  nor  the  coldness  of  the  authorities  to  whom  he  vainly 
applied  for  assistance,  nor  the  exhortations  of  his  friends,  could  damp  his  ardor. 
At  length,  after  years  of  fruitless  endeavors,  after  having  given  up  his  living 
and  sacrificed  his  little  fortune  in  the  prosecution  of  his  plans,  he  succeeded  in 
forming  a  Greenland  Company,  with  a  capital  of  9000  dollars,  and  in  obtaining  an 
annual  stipend  from  the  Danish  Missionary  Fund  of  300  dollars,  to  which  King 
Frederic  IV.  added  a  gift  of  200  dollars.  With  three  ships,  the  largest  of 
which  "  The  Hope,"  had  forty  colonists  on  board,  Egede,  accompanied  by  his 
wife  and  four  children,  set  sail  from  the  port  of  Bergen  on  May  12, 1721,  and 
reached  Greenland  on  July  3,  after  a  long  and  tedious  passage.  The  winds  had 
driven  him  to  the  western  coast,  in  latitude  64°,  and  here  he  resolved  at  once 
to  begin  his  evangelical  labors  with  the  Esquimaux.  A  wooden  chapel  was 
speedily  erected,  which  formed  the  first  nucleus  of  the  still  existing  settlement 
of  Godthaab. 

But  if  the  life  of  worthy  Egede  had  for  many  a  year  been  full  of  trouble  be- 
fore he  went  to  Greenland,  trials  still  more  severe  awaited  him  during  his  apos- 
tolical career.  He  had  not  merely  the  suspicions  of  the  Esquimaux,  the  enmity 
of  their  medicine-men,  the  severity  of  the  climate,  and  not  seldom  even  famine 
to  contend  with.  His  own  countrymen,  disappointed  in  their  hopes  of  carrying 
on  a  lucrative  trade  with  the  Greenlanders,  resolved  to  abandon  it  altogether, 
and,  after  ten  laboi'ious  years,  the  Government  not  only  withdrew  all  further  as- 
sistance from  the  mission,  but  even  ordered  the  colony  to  be  broken  up.  All 
his  companions,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  volunteers  who  engaged  to  share 
his  fortunes,  now  returned  to  Denmark  ;  but  Egede,  though  his  health  had  been 
so  shattered  by  almost  superhuman  exertions  that  he  had  long  since  been  obliged 
to  leave  all  active  duties  to  his  son,  resolved,  like  a  faithful  soldier,  to  die  at  his 
post.  In  1733  his  perseverance  Avas  at  length  rewarded  by  the  grateful  news 
that  the  king,  at  the  entreaty  of  Count  Zinzendorf,  the  founder  of  Herrenhuth, 
had  consented  to  bestow  an  annual  grant  of  2000  dollars  on  the  Greenland  mis- 
sion, and  that  three  Moravian  brothers  had  arrived  to  assist  him  in  his  Avork. 
Thus  he  could  at  length  (1735)  return  with  a  quiet  heart  to  his  native  country, 
where  he  died,  universally  regretted,  in  1758,  at  the  age  of  seventy-two. 

It  may  easily  be  supposed  that,  during  his  long  stay  in  Greenland,  he  anx- 
iously sought  the  traces  of  his  lost  countrymen,  for  the  desire  to  help  them  had 
first  led  him  to  that  Arctic  country.  Nothing  in  the  physiognomy  of  the  Es- 
quimaux or  in  their  language  pointed  in  any  way  to  a  European  origin,  and 


GREENLAND.  385 

even  their  traditions  said  not  a  word  of  the  old  Norse  settlers  who  had  once 
inhabited  the  land.  The  ruins  of  some  churches,  and  other  buildings  scattered 
here  and  there  along  the  west  coast,  alone  attested  their  existence,  and  formed 
a  link  between  the  past  and  the  present.  Thus  if  Greenland  still  had  inhabit- 
ants of  Scandinavian  origin,  they  must  necessarily  be  confined  to  the  eastern 
coast  beyond  Cape  Farewell.  But  Egede  was  as  little  able  as  his  predecessors 
to  penetrate  through  the  ice-belt  which,  both  by  land  and  sea,  completely  sepa- 
rated it  from  the  rest  of  the  world. 

For  many  years  after  his  death  it  remained  unknown  and  inaccessible:  and 
Lowenorn,  who  was  sent  out  in  1786-87  to  renew  the  attempts  of  Heineson 
and  Lindenow,  had  no  better  success.  No  doubt  many  a  whaler  may  have  ad- 
mired its  distant  mountain  peaks  glowing  in  the  evening  sun,  or  may  have  been 
driven  by  the  storm  against  its  shores,  but  the  Scoresbys  were  the  first  to  de- 
termine accurately  the  position  of  part  of  its  well-fenced  coast.  In  the  year 
1817,  Captain  Scoresby  the  elder,  deviating  from  the  usual  course  of  the  whalers, 
steered  through  the  western  ice,  and  reached  the  east  coast  of  Greenland  be- 
yond 70°.  He  could  easily  have  landed;  the  coast  which  had  so  frequently 
baffled  the  attempts  of  previous  navigators  lay  invitingly  before  him,  but  he 
cbuld  not  sacrifice  his  duty  as  the  commander  of  a  whaler  to  curiosity  or  re- 
nown. And  thus,  without  having  set  his  foot  on  shore,  he  sailed  back  into  the 
open  sea.  On  a  later  visit,  however,  he  landed  in  the  sound  which  bears  his 
name.  In  the  year  1822  Scoresby  the  younger  succeeded  in  more  closely  ex- 
amining the  land.  Leaving  the  usual  track  of  the  whalers,  he  had  steered  to 
the  west,  and  threaded  his  way  through  the  drift-ice  mitil,  between  70°  33'  and 
71°  12'  N.  lat.,  the  coast  of  Greenland  lay  before  hin!.  No  coast  that  he  had 
ever  seen  before  had  so  majestic  a  character.  The  mountains,  on  which  he  be- 
stowed the  name  of  Roscoe,  consisted  of  numberless  jagged  stones  or  pyramids, 
rising  in  individual  peaks  to  a  height  of  3000  feet,  and  a  chaos  of  sharp  needles 
covered  their  rough  declivities. 

On  July  24  he  landed  on'a  rocky  promontory,  which  he  named  Cape  Lister 
(70°  30'),  and,  climbing  its  summit,  continued  his  excursion  along  its  back,  which 
was  between  three  and  four  hundred  feet  high.  Here  and  there  between  the 
stones,  which  were  either  naked  or  thinly  clothed  with  lichens,  bloomed  Andro- 
meda tetragona,  a  Saxlfraga  oppositifolia^  a  Papcmer  nudicanle,  or  a  Ramm- 
culus  nivalis.  At  Cape  Swainson  he  again  descended  to  the  shore,  which  here 
formed  a  flat  strand  about  600  feet  broad.  Some  deserted  Esquimaux  huts  soon 
arrested  his  attention.  Charred  drift-wood  and  a  quantity  of  ashes  lay  scattered 
about  the  hearths,  and  proved  that  these  dwellings  had  not  been  long  forsaken. 
Scarcely  a  bird  was  to  be  seen  on  land,  but  countless  auks  and  divers  animated 
tlie  waters.  A  great  number  of  winged  insects — butterflies,  bees,  mosquitoes 
— flew  or  buzzed  about,  particularly  on  the  hillocks  between  the  stones.  On 
July  25  he  once  more  landed  on  Cape  Hope,  where  he  again  found  traces  of  in- 
habitants. Bones  of  hares  and  fragments  of  reindeer  horns  lay  scattered  about 
on  the  ground.  The  skull  of  a  dog  was  planted  on  a  small  mound  of  earth, 
for  it  is  a  belief  of  the  Greenland  Esquimaux  that  the  dog,  Avho  finds  his  way 
everywhei-e,  must  necessarily  be  the  best  guide  of  the  innocent  children  to  the 

25 


386  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

land  of  souls.  The  heat,  which  soon  put  an  end  to  this  excursion,  was  so  great 
that  many  of  the  plants  had  shed  their  seeds,  and  some  were  already  complete- 
ly dried  up  and  shrivelled. 

The  part  of  the  coast  of  East  Greenland  discovered  by  Scoresby,  and  that 
which  Avas  visited  the  year  after  by  Clavering,  lay,  however,  too  far  to  the  north 
to  afford  any  clue  about  the  extinct  Scandinavian  settlements,  even  supposing 
them,  as  was  then  still  believed,  to  have  been  partly  situated  to  the  east  of  Cape 
Farewell.  At  length  in  the  year  1829,  Captain  Graah,  who  had  been  sent  out 
by  King  Frederick  VI.  of  Denmark,  succeeded  in  exploring  the  south-eastern 
coast  o|  Greenland,  from  its  southern  extremity  to  the  latitude  of  65°  18', 
beyond  which  no  colony  could  ever  have  existed ;  and  as  he  nowhere  found 
either  the  most  insignificant  ruins'  or  the  least  traces  of  an  ancient  Christian 
settlement  in  the  language  and  customs  of  the  natives,  it  was  now  fully  proved 
that  the  east  bygd  of  the  old  chroniclers  was,  in  reality,  situated  on  the  south- 
western coast  of  Greenland,  in  the  present  districts  of  Julianshaab  and  Lichte- 
nau,  a  coast  which,  in  comparison  with  the  more  northern  colonies  of  Fredei'ik- 
shaab  and  Fiskernas,  distinctly  trends  to  the  east. 

The  present  Danish  settlements,  which  are  confined  to  the  more  sheltered 
fjords  of  its  western  coast,  are  divided  into  a  north  and  south  inspectorate,  the 
former  extending  from  lat.  67°  to  72°,  and  comprising  the  districts  of  Upernavik. 
Oraenak,  Jakobshavn,  Christianshaab,  Egedesminde,  and  Godhavn,  on  Disc* 
Island  ;  while  the  latter  contains  the  districts  of  Holsteensborg,  Sukkertoppen, 
Godthaab,  Fiskernasset,  Frederikshaab,  and  Julianshaab. 

In  the  year  1855  the  population  of  the  South  Inspectorate  consisted  of  0128 
aboriginal  Greenlanders,  6r  Esquimaux, and  120  Europeans;  that  of  the  Nortli 
Inspectorate,  of  3516  of  the  former,  and  128  of  the  latter ;  a  very  small  number 
if  we  consider  that  it  is  scattered  over  a  space  of^l2°  of  latitude.  In  a  country 
like  this,  such  toions  as  Godhavn,  w^th  150  inhabitants,  or  Godthaab,  the  most 
populous  of  all,  with  330,  pass  for  considerable  cities. 

But,  in  spite  of  its  scanty  population,  Greenland  is  a  valuable  possession  of 
the  Danish  crown,  or  rather  of  the  Danish  company,  which  entirely  monopolizes 
.the  trade,  and  manages  its  affairs  so  well  that  the  Greenlander  receives  for  his 
produce  only  about  the  sixth  part  of  its  price  at  Copenhagen.  According  to 
the  average  of  six  years  (1850-1855),  the  total  value  of  the  exports  from 
Greenland  amounted  to  378,588  rix-dollars;  that  of  the  imjiortations  from 
Denmark,  to  164,215;  but  in  the  latter  sum  was  included  not  only  the  price 
paid  to  the  Gii^enlanders  for  their  goods,  but  all  the  stores  and  provisions 
necessary  for  the  agents  and  servants  of  the  company,  the  missionaries,  and  the 
administration  of  the  colony.  The  trifling  amount  which,  after  all  deductions 
and  charges,  the  poor  Greenlander  receives  for  his  seal-skins  or  his  blubber, 
he  generally  spends  in  tobacco,  candy-sugar,  coffee,  and  sea-biscuits,  for  his  real 
wants  are  amply  supplied  by  his  own  country,  and  he  has  not  yet  learned  to 
invest  his  gains  more  profitably.  Like  all  other  Esquimaux,  he  depends  chiefly 
upon  the  sea  for  his  subsistence.  *  Of  the  various  species  of  Phocaa  found  in 
the  Greenland  w^aters  the  most  valuable  is  the  hispid  seal  {Phoca  Ms^nda), 
both  from  its  luimbers  and  from  its  frequenting  the  fjords  during  the  whole 


GREENLAND.  337 

year;  while  the  larger  Greenland  seal  {Phoca  groenlandica)  is  not  stationary 
like  the  former,  but  leaves  the  coast  from  March  to  May,  and  from  July  to 
September.  The  Cystophora  eristata,  or  hooded  seal,  remarkable  for  a  globular 
sac,  capable  of  inflation,  on  the  head  of  the  male,  appears  in  the  fjords  only 
from  April  till  June.  It  is  the  most  pugnacious  of  all  the  seals.  In  the  south- 
ern districts,  Avhere  the  seal-hunting  must  be  chiefly  carried  on  in  open  water 
the  Greenlander  relies  upon  his  boat,  the  kayak.  When  the  animal  is  struck 
the  barbed  point  of  the  harpoon  detaches  itself,  by  an  ingenious  mechanism 
from  the  shaft,  which  otherwise  would  Be  broken  by  its  violent  contortions  • 
and  as  the  line  is  attached  to  a  bladder,  it  can  easily  be  recovered. 

Among  the  cetaceans,  the  white  dolphin  {^Delphinopterus  leucas)  and  the 
narwhal  {3To7iodo)i  ononoceros)  are  the  most  valuable  to  the  Greenlanders  of 
the  North  Inspectorate,  from  500  to  600  of  these  huge  animals  being  annually 
caught.  The  former  makes  its  appearance  a  short  time  after  the  breakino-  up 
of  the  ice,  and  again  in  autumn ;  in  summer  it  seeks  the  open  sea.  Sometimes 
large,  herds  of  the  white  dolphins  are  cut  off  from  the  sea  by  the  closinc  in  of 
the  ice  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  land,  so  that  sevei-al  hundred  may  be  killed 
in  the  course  of  a  few  days.  The  narwh*al  is  caught  only  in  the  Omenak  fjord, 
which  it  visits  regularly  in  November.  As  its  chase  is  both  difticult  and  dan- 
derous,  the  Greenlanders  generally  hunt  it  in  company,  so  that  after  a  narwhal 
has  been  struck  with  the  first  harpoon  or  lance,  others  are  ready  to  follow  uj) 
the  advantage.  The  larger  whales  are  now  seldom  caught,  but  the  dead  body 
of  a  fin-back  is  not  seldom  cast  ashore,  and  affords  a  rich  harvest  to  the  neigh- 
borhood. Sometimes  masses  of  oil,  evidently  proceeding  from  dead  whales, 
are  found  floating  ni  the  fjords.  In  1854  ninety-five  tons  of  this  matter  were 
collected  near  Holstoinburg. 

The  fishes  likewise  amply  contribute  to  supply  the  Greenlander's  wants. 
The  shark-fishery  {Scymnus  microcephalus)  is  of  considerable  importance. 
The  entrails  of  seals  and  other  offal  are  placed  in  the  openings  of  the  ice  to  at- 
tract these  sharks  to  the  spot,  where  •they  are  caught  in  various  ways,  particu- 
larly by  torch-Hght,  which  brings  them  to  the  surface.  The  fishermen,  watch- 
ing the  moment,  strike  them  with  a  sharp  hook,  and  then  drag  them  upon  the 
ice.  They  are  also  caught  with  strong  iron  angles  attached  to  chains.  They 
are  captured  for  the  sake  of  their  livers,  which  yield  a  good  deal  of  oil.  It  has 
very  recently  been  ascertained  that  a  valuable  substance  resembling  spermaceti 
may  be  expressed  from  the  carcass  which  was  formerly  wasted,  and  for  this 
purpose  powerful  screw  presses  are  now  employed.  About  30,000  of  these 
gluttonous  animals  are  caught  every  year,  and  the  fishery  may  be  greatly  ex- 
tended, as  the  bottom  of  the  ice-fjords  absolutely  swarms  with  them.  Their 
capture  is  attended  M'ith  far  less  trouble  and  danger  than  in  Iceland,  where 
they  are  pursued  in  boats,  and  in  a  capricious  and  tempestuous  sea.  Improv- 
ing upon  the  old  Esquimaux  methods  of  fishing  or  hunting,  the  Danish  resi- 
dents set  nets  for  the  white  whale  or  the  seal ;  for  the  former,  they  are  attach- 
ed to  the  shore,  and  extend  off  at  right  angles,  so  as  to  intercept  them  in  their 
autumnal  southern  migration,  when  they  swim  close  along  the  rocks  to  avoid 
tlie  grampus.     Wlien  the  white  whale  is  stopped  by  the  net,  it  often  aj)pears 


388  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

at  first  to  be  unconscious  of  the  fact,  and  continues  to  swim  against  it,  and 
then  allows  the  boat  to  approach  it  from  behind.  If  entangled  in  the  net,  it  is 
soon  drowned,  as,  like  all  the  whale  tribe,  it  is  obliged  to  come  to  the  surface 
to  breathe. 

A  large  quantity  of  cod  are  caught  in  various  parts  of  the  South  Inspecto- 
rate, particularly  at  Fiskernasset,  which,  being  less  subject  to  fogs  and  more 
exposed  to  the  sea-wind,  offers  peculiar  advantages  for  the  drying  of  the  fish. 
The  capelin  {Mallotus  villosus),  which  in  May  and  June  visits  the  coasts  of 
Greenland  in  great  numbers,  is  eaten*  both  fresh  or  laid  upon  the  rocks  to  dry 
for  the  winter.  The  sea-wolf,  the  lump-fish,  the  bull-head,  the  Norway  had- 
>4  dock,  the  salmon-trout,  are  likewise  important  articles  of  food.  The  halibut 
grows  to  a  huge  size,  and  a  smaller  species  {Ilippoglossus  jyinguis)  is  fished  for 
at  the  depth  of  180  or  even  380  fathoms.  The  banks  frequented  by  this  fish 
are  most  valuable  to  the  neighboring  Greenlanders.  Many  are  no  doubt  still 
undiscovered,  others  may  be  known  by  the  dead  fish  floating  on  the  surface,  or 
by  the  seals  diving  out  of  the  water  with  a  flat  fish  in  their  mouth.  Long-tail- 
ed crabs  are  easily  caught  in  many  parts,  and  the  common  mussel  may  be 
gathered  almost  everywhere  at  ebb  tide. 

Crowds  of  birds  nestle  during  the  summer  on  the  rocky  shores,  particularly 
at  Upernavik,  where  the  largest  breeding-places  are  found.  Tliey  are  general- 
ly-killed with  small  blunted  an-ows.  In  the  ice-fjord  of  Jacobshavn  the  gulls 
are  caught  ingeniously  by  floating  traps  on  which  something  brilliant  or  re- 
sembling a  fish  is  fixed.  The  eggs  of  the  sea-birds  are  gathered  in  vast  num- 
bers, and  the  feathers  and  skins  of  the  eider-duck  and  auk  are  both  exported 
and  used  for  the  lining  of  boots, 

I  Compared  with  the  wealth  of  the  seas,  the  land  is  very  poor.  The  chase  of 
the  reindeer  is,  howevei",  important,  as  its  skin  affords  both  a  warmer  and  a 
softer  clothing  than  that  of  the  seal,  and  serves  moreover  as  a  bed-cover  or  a 
sledge-carpet.  Reindeer-hunting  is  a  favorite  summer  occupation  of  the  Green- 
landers,  who  annually  kill  from  10,000  to  20,000,  and  export  about  one-half  of 
the  skins.  Only  a  few  cows,  sheep,  and  goats  are  kept  at  Julianshaab.  For 
want  of  hay  they  are  fed  witli  fish  during  the  winter.  In  South  Greenland  the 
potato  is  cultivated  by  the  European  residents  as  a  luxury,  Tlie  plant  never 
flowers,  and  even  buds  are  rare,  •  Turnips,  cabbages,  salad,  and  spinach  like- 
wise grow  in  South  Greenland,  but  barley  sown  in  the  gardens  scarcely  ever 
comes  to  ear.  In  siimmer  the  windows  of  the  houses  are  gay  with  geraniums 
and  fuchsias  and  other  flowers  of  a  more  temperate  zone. 

Among  the  indigenous  plants,  the  berries  of  the  JEmpetrum  nigrum^  Vac- 
cinium  ulig'mosum,  and  Vaecinium  vitis  idoea  furnish  the  Greenlanders  with 
their  only  vegetable  food.  While  the  coasts  exposed  to  the  bleak  sea- winds 
afford  scanty  traces  of  vegetation,  the  valleys  and  hill  slopes  of  the  more 
sheltered  fjords  are  green  during  the  summer,  and  justify  the  name  bestowed 
by  Erick  on  the  land  of  his  adoption,  Foi-ests  are  of  course  out  of  the  question 
in  Greenland,  though  in  some  places  the  birch  attains  a  not  inconsiderable 
size.  Thus  in  a  dell  at  the  upper  end  of  Lichtenau  Fjord  a  thicket  of  these 
trees,  fifteen  feet  high,  surrounds  a  little  lake  fed  by  a  waterfall,  the  largest 


GREENLAND.  389 

Iiitherto  known  in  Greenland.  More  generally,  however,  the  trees,  such  as  the 
beech,  the  willow,  the  elder,  etc.,  merely  creep  along  the  ground,  where  the 
dense  matting  of  their  roots  and  branches,  mingled  with  bushes  of  the  empe- 
trum,  or  with  mosses,  lichens,  and  fallen  leaves,  forms  a  kind  of  turf  which  is 
used  as  fuel  by  the  Danes. 

In  some  measure  the  sea  makes  up  for  the  want  of  timber  by  casting  on  the 
shore  a  quantity  of  drift-wood,  the  origin  of  which  is  still  a  matter  of  doubt, 
some  tracing  it  to  the  North  American  rivers,  others  to  those  of  Siberia.  It 
consists  mostly  of  the  uprooted  trunks  of  coniferous  trees.  Sometimes  also 
large  pieces  of  bark,  such  as  those  of  which  the  Indians  make  their  canoes,  and 
sewn  together  with  threads  of  hair,  and  drifted  into  the  fjords. 

The  mineral  kingdom,  though  it  has  within  the  last  few  years  attracted  the 
attention  of  speculators,  will  hardly  ever  realize  their  hopes.  Several  attempts- 
to  work  the  lead  and  copper  ores  at  Nanursoak  and  in  the  Arksak  fjord  have 
miserably  failed.  The  cost  of  transport  is  immense,  and  the  difficulty  of  ob- 
taining the  necessary  workmen  presents  an  insuperable  obstacle  to  all  minino- 
operations  in  Greenland. 

Though  the  Greenlanders  have  now  been  for  more  than  a  century  under  the 
influence  of  Christian  teachers,  yet  their  mode  of  life  is  still  much  the  same  as 
that  of  their  relatives  the  wild  Esquimaux  on  the  opposite  continent  of  North 
America.  Like  them,  they  use  the  "  kayak,"  the  "  oomiak,"  and  the  sledge ; 
Jike  them,  they  live  in  small  winter  huts  of  stone  (the  snow-house  is  unknown 
to  them)  or  in  summer  tents  hung  with  skins,  and  they  are  equally  improvi- 
dent in  times  of  abundance.  Their  constant  intercourse  with  Europeans  has, 
however,  taught  them  the  use  of  many  luxuries  unknown  to  the  wild  Esqui- 
maux, and  they  are  now  great  consumers  of  coffee.  They  are  fond  of  instruc- 
tion, but  the  immense  space  over  which  the  population  is  scattered,  and  their 
vagrant  life  during  a  great  part  of  the  year,  are  great  hinderances  to  their  im- 
provement. They  are  also  very  good-natured,  and  live  on  the  best  terms  with 
the  Danes  who  reside  among  them.  The  latter,  who,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Moravian  missionaries,  are  all  in  the  service  of  the  Company,  soon  get  attached 
to  the  country,  and  leave  it  with  regret ;  sometimes  even  returning  to  close 
their  days  in  Greenland.  ^ 

The  climate,  though  severe,  is  very  healthy,  and  the  lover  of  sport  finds  am- 
ple opportunities  for  gratifying  his  favorite  passion.  In  September,  or  at  the 
beginning  of  October,  the  last  ships  leave  for  Europe ;  and  then,  till  the  next 
April  or  May — when  the  first  English  whalers  appear  in  the  ports  of  Godhavn 
or  Upernavik — all  communication  with  the  civilized  world  is  totally  cut  off. 
Towards  the  end  of  January  or  the  beginning  of  February,  when  the  days  begin 
rapidly  to  lengthen,  frequent  sledge-parties  keep  up  a  constant  interchange  of 
visits  between  the  various  settlements.  This  mode  of  travelling  over  the  lakes 
and  inclosed  fjords  is  very  agreeable  in  May,  as  then  the  sun  is  pleasantly 
warm  at  noon  ;  and  though  he  hardly  disappears  below  the  horizon,  the  nights 
are  sufficiently  cold  to  convert  the  melted  snow  into  ice  hard  enough  to  beai; 
the  weight  of  a  sledge.  This  is  the  best  time  for  visiting  many  interesting 
spots  inaccessible  at  other  seasons  of  the  year,  and  for  enjoying  many  a  scene 


390  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

unsurpassed  in  Switzerland  itself.  Here,  as  on  the  Alps,  the  glacier  and  the 
snow-clad  peak  appear  in  all  their  grandeur ;  here  also,  in  the  valleys,  the  sum- 
mer brooks  flow  between  well-clothed  banks,  and  the  Helvetian  lakes  are  wor- 
thily rivalled  by  the  magnificent  fjords  of  Greenland. 

In  many  parts,  the  waves,  beating  against  the  steep  coasts  of  the  islands 
and  fjords,  render  access  difiicult,  if  not  impossible  during  the  summer,  but  in 
winter  or  spring  they  may  easily  be  visited  across  the  ice.  The  stirf  has  worn 
many  caves  in  these  precipitous  rock-walls,  which  are  no  less  remarkable  for 
their  picturesque  basaltic  forms  than  for  the  huge  masses  of  ice  on  their  sides, 
which,  in  their  tints  and  grouping,  far  surpass  the  stalactites  of  the  most  re- 
nown(!d  European  grottoes. 


THE  ANTARCTIC  OCEAN.  391 


CHAPTER.  XXXYIT. 

THE   ANTARCTIC   OCEAN. 

Comparative  View  of  the  Antarctic  and  Arc^c  Kegions. — Inferiority  of  Climate  of  the  former.— Its 
Causes. — The  New  Shetland  Islands. — South  Georgia. — The  Peruvian  Stream. — Sea-birds. — The  Gi- 
ant Petrel.— The  Albatross.— The  Penguin.— The  Austral  Whale.— The  Hunchback.— The  Fin-back. 
— The  Grampus. — Battle  with  a  Whale. — The  Sea-elephant. — The  Southern  Sea-bear. — The  Sea- 
leopard. — Antarctic  Fishes. 

rr>HE  Antarctic  regions  are  far  more  desolate  and  barren  than  the  Arctic. 
■^  Here  we  have  no  energetic  hunters,  like  the  Esquimaux,  chasing  the  seal 
or  the  walrus ;  no  herdsmen  following,  like  the  Samoi'edes  or  the  Lapps,  their 
reindeer*  to  the  brink  of  the  icy  ocean  ;  but  all  is  one  dreary,  uninhabitable 
waste.  While  within  the  Arctic  Circle  the  musk-ox  enjoys  an  abundance  of 
food,  and  the  lemming  is  still  found  thriving  on  the  bleakest  islands,  njit  a  sin- 
gle land  quadruped  exists  beyond  56°  of  Southern  latitude. 

Summer  flowers  gladden  the  sight  of  the  Arctic  navigator  in  the  most  north- 
ern lands  yet  reached ;  but  no  plant  of  any  description — not  even  a  moss  or  a 
lichen — has  been  observed  beyond  Cockburn  Island  in  64°  12'  S.  lat. ;  and  while 
even  in  Spitzbergen  vegetation,  ascends  the  mountain  slopes  to  a  height  of  3000 
feet  the  snow-line  descends  to  the  water's  edge  in  every  land  within  or  near  the 
Antarctic  Circle. 

An  open  sea,  extending  towards  the  northern  pole  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach, 
points  out  the  path  to  future  discovery ;  but  the  Antarctic  navigators,  with  one 
single  exception,  have  invariably  seen  their  progress  arrested  by  barriers  of  ice, 
and  none  have  ever  penetrated  beyond  the  comparatively  low  latitude  of 
78°  10'. 

Even  in  Spitzbergen  and  East  Greenland,  Scoresby  sometimes  found  the 
heat  of  summer  very  great ;  but  the  annals  of  Antarctic  navigation  invariably 
speak  of  a  frigid  tempei'ature.  In  1*7 '73,  when  Captain  Phipps  visited  Spitzber- 
gen, the  thermometer  once  rose  to  +58|^°;  and  on  July  15,  1820,  when  the 
"  Hecla"  left'her  winter-quarters  in  Melville  Island  (74°  47'  ISr.),she  enjvoyed  a 
warmth  of  +56°,  But  during  the  summer  months  spent  by  Sir  James  Ross 
in  the  Antarctic  Polar  area,  the  temperature  of  the  air  never  once  exceeded 
+  41°  5'.  In  Northumberland  Sound  (76°  42' K),  probably  the  coldest  spot 
hitherto  visited  in  the  north,  the  mean  of  the  three  summer  months  was  found 
to  be  +30°  8',  while  within  the  Antarctic  Circle  it  only  amounted  to  +27°  3'. 

The  reader  may  possibly  wonder  why  the  climate  of  the  southern  polar  re- 
gions is  so  much  more  severe  than  that  of  the  high  northern  latitudes ;  or  why 
coasts  and  valleys,  at  equal  distances  from  the  equator,  should  in  one  case  b^ 
found  green  with  vegetation,  and  in  another  mere  w.^stes  of  snow  and  ice ;  but 
the  predominance  of  land  in  the  north,  and  of  sea  in  the  south,  fully  answers 


393  THE  POLAR  WOULD. 

the  question.  Within  the  Arctic  Circle  we  see  vast  continental  masses  project- 
ino-  far  to  the  north,  so  as  to  form  an  almost  continuous  belt  round  the  icy 
sea ;  while  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  continents  taper  down  in  a  vast  ex- 
tent of  open  ocean.  In  the  north,  the  plains  of  Siberia  and  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  territories,  warmed  by  the  sunbeams  of  summer,  become  at  that  season 
centres  of  radiating  heat,  so  that  in  many  parts  the  growth  of  forests,  or  even 
the  culture  of  the  cereals,  advances  as  high  as  70°  of  latitude ;  w^hile  the  An- 
tarctic lands  are  of  a  comparatively  small  extent,  and  isolated  in  the  midst  of 
frigid  waters,  whose  temperature  scarcely  varies  from  -f29°  2' even  in  the 
height  of  summer.  Mostly  situated  within^the  Antarctic  Circle,  and  constantly 
chilled  by  cold  sea-winds,  they  act  at  every  season  as  refrigerators  of  the  atmos- 
phere. 

In  the  north,  the  formation  of  icebergs  is  confined  to  a  few  mountainous 
countries,  such  as  the  west  coast  of  Greenland  or  Spitzbergen ;  but  the  Antarc- 
tic coast-lands  generally  tower  to  a  considerable  height  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  the  vast  fragments  which  are  constantly  detaching  themselves  from 
their  glaciers  keep  up  the  low  temperature  of  the  seas. 

In  the  north,  the  cold  currents  of  the  Polar  Ocean,  with  their  drift-ice  and 
bergs,  have  but  the  two  wide  gates  of  the  Greenland  Sea  and  Davis's  Strait 
through  which  they  can  emerge  to  the  south,  so  that  their  influence  is  confined 
within  comparatively  narrow  limits,  while  the  gelid  streams  of  the  Antarctic 
seas  branch  out  freely  on  all  sides,  and  convey  their  floating  ice-masses  far  and 
wide  within  the  temperate  seas.  It  is  only  to  the  west  of  Newfoundland  that 
single  icebergs  have  ever  been  known  to  descend  as  low  as  39°  of  latitude;  but 
in  the  southern  hemisphere  they  have  been  met  with  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  (35°  S.  lat.),  near  Tristan  d'Acunha,  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  within  a  hundred  leagues  of  Tasmania.  In  the  north,  final- 
ly, we  find  the  Gulf  Stream  conveying  warmth  even  to  the  shores  of  Spitzbergen 
and  Nova  Zembla ;  while  in  the  opposite  regions  of  the  globe,  no  traces  of  warm 
currents  have  been  observed  beyond  55°  of  latitude. 

Thus  the  predominance  of  vast  tracts  of  flat  land  in  the  boreal  hemisphere, 
and  of  an  immense  expanse  of  ocean  in  the  Antarctic  regions,  sufficiently  ac- 
counts for  the  ajstival  warmth  of  the  former,  and  the  comparatively  low  sum- 
mer temperature  of  the  latter. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  describe  in  detail  each  of  the  desolate  lands  which  mod- 
ern navigators  have  discovered  among  the  Antarctic  ice-fields,  but  it  may  not 
be  uninteresting  to  compare  one  or  two  of  these  dreary  wastes  with  the  lands 
of  the  north,  situated  in  analogous  latitudes. 

The  New  Shetland  Islands,  situated  between  61°  and  63°  of  Southern  lati- 
tude, were  originally  discovered  by  Dirck  Gheritz,  a  Dutch  navigator,  who,  in 
attempting  to  round  Cape  Horn,  was  carried  by  tempestuous  weather  within 
sight  of  their  mountainous  coasts.  Long  forgotten,  they  were  re-discovered  in 
1819  by  Mr.  Smith,  a  master  in  the  royal  navy — whom  a  storm  had  likewise 
garried  thither— and  in  the  following  year  more  accurately  examined  by  Edward 
Bransfield,  whose  name  survives  in  the  strait  which  separates  them  from  D'Ur- 
ville's  Louis  Philippe  Land. 


THE  ANTARCTIC  OCEAN.  893 

In  1829,  the  ^"Chanticleer,"  Captain  Forster,  was  sent  to  New  Shetland  for 
the  purpose  of  making  magnetic  and  other  physical  observations,  and  remained 
for  several  months  at  Deception  Island,  which  was  selected  as  a  station  from  its 
affording  the  best  harbor  in  South  Shetland. 

Though  these  islands  are  situated  at  about  the  same  distance  from  the  pole 
as  the  Faroe  Islands  which  boast  of  numerous  flocks  of  sheep,  and  where  the 
sea  never  freezes,  yet,  when  the  "  Chanticleer  "  approached  Deception  Island,  on 
January  5  (a  month  corresponding  to  our  July),  so  many  icebergs  were  scatter- 
ed about,  that  Forster  counted  at  one  time  no  fewer  than  eighty-one.  A  gale 
having  arisen,  accompanied  by  a  thick  fog,  great  care  was  needed  to  avoid  run- 
ning foul  of  these  floating  cliffs.  After  entering  the  harbor — a  work  of  no 
slight  difiiculty,  from  the  violence  of  the  wind — the  fogs  were  so  frequent  that, 
for  the  first  ten  days,  neither  sun  nor  stars  were  seen  ;  and  it  was  withal  so  raw 
and  cold,  that  Lieutenant  Kendal,  to  whom  we  owe  a  short  narrative  of  the  expe- 
dition, did  not  recollect  having  suffered  more  at  any  time  in  the  Arctic  regions, 
even  at  the  lowest  range  of  the  thermometer.  In  this  desolate  land,  frozen  water 
becomes  an  integral  portion  of  the  soil ;  for  this  volcanic  island  is  composed 
chiefly  of  alternate  layers  of  ashes  and  ice,  as  if  the  snow  of  each  winter,  during 
a  series  of  years,  had  been  prevented  from  melting  in  the  following  summer,  by 
the  ejection  of  cinders  and  ashes  from  some  part  where  volcanic  action  still  goes 
on.  Early  in  March  (the  September  of  the  north)  the  freezing  over  of  the  cove 
in  which  the  ship  was  secured  gave  warning  that  it  was  high  time  for  her  to 
quit  this  desolate  port.  With  much -difiiculty  and  severe  labor,  fi*om  the  fury 
of  the*  gales,  they  managed  to  get  away,  and  we  may  fully  credit  Lieutenant 
Kendal's  assertion,  that  it  was  a  day  of  rejoicing  to  all  on  board  when  the 
shores  of  Deception  faded  from  their  view. 

In  1775  Cook,  on  his  second  voyage,  discovered  the  large  island  of  South 
Georgia,  situated  in  latitude  54°  and  55°,  a  situation  corresponding  to  that 
of  Scarborough  or  Durham.  But  what  a  difference  in  the  climate,  for  "  we  saw 
not  a  river  or  stream  of  water,"  says  the  great  navigator, "  on  all  the  coast  of 
Georgia.^  The  head  of  the  bay,  as  well  as  two  places  on  each  side,  was  termi- 
nated by  perpendicular  icebergs  of  considerable  height.  Pieces  were  continu- 
ally breaking  off  and  floating  out  to  sea,  and  a  great  fall  happened  while  we 
were  in  the  bay,  which  made  a  noise  like  a  cannon.  The  inner  parts  of  the 
country^were  not  less  savage  and  horrible.  The  wild  rocks  raised  their  lofty 
summits  till  they  were  lost  in  the  clouds,  and  the  valley  lay  covered  with  ever- 
lasting snow.  Not  a  tree  was  to  be  seen,  not  a  shrub  even  big  enough  to  make 
a  toothpick.  The  only  vegetation  was  a  coarse  strong-bladed  grass  growing 
in  tufts,  wild  burnet,  and  a  plant  like  moss,  which  sprang  from  the  rocks.  Tlie 
lands,  or  rather  rocks,  bordering  on  the  sea-coast  were  not  covered  with  snow 
like  the  inland  parts,  but  all  the  vegetation  we  could  see  on  the  clear  places  was 
the  grass  above  mentioned.'  To  find  scenes  of  a  similar  wintry  desolation,  we 
must  travel  in  the  north  as  far  as  Nova  Zembla  or  Spitzbergen,  which  are  20° 
or  24°  nearer  to  the  pole  ! 

Thus  the  influence  of  the  cold  Antarctic  waters  extends  far  Avithiu  the  tem- 
perate zone.     We  can  trace  their  chilling  effects  in  Kerguelen  Land  (50°  S. 


394  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

lat.),  which  when  visited  by  Cook  in  the  height  of  summer  was  found  covered 
with  snow,  and  where  only  five  plants  in  flower  were  collected ;  in  Tierra  del 
Fuego  (53°  S.  lat.),  where  the  mean  summer  temperature  is  fully  9^°  lower  than 
that'of  Duhlii^  (53°  21'  N.  lat.) ;  in  the  Falkland  Islands  (51°  30'),  which,  though 
flat  and  low  and  near  Patagonia,  have,  according  to  Mr.  Darwin,  a  climate  simi- 
lar to  that  which  is  experienced  at  the  height  of  between  one  and  two  thousand 
feet  on  the  mountains  of  North  Wales,  with  less  sunshine  and  less  frost,  but 
more  wind  and  rain ;  and  finally  along  the  south-west  coast  of  America,  where 
the  Peruvian  current  and  the  cold  sea-winds  so  considerably  depress  the  snow- 
line, that  while  in  Europe  the  most  southern  glacier  which  coiues  down  to  the 
sea  is  met  with,  according  to  Von  Buch,  on  the  coast  of  Norway  in  lat.  67°; 
the  "  Beagle  "  found  a  glacier  fifteen  miles  long  and  in  one  part  seven  miles 
broad  descending  to  the  sea-coast  in  the  ^uli^of  Penas,  in  a  latitude  (46°  50') 
nearly  corresponding  with  that  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva. 

"  The  position  of  this  glacier,"  says  Mr.  Darwin,  "  may  be  put  even  in  a 
more  striking  point  of  view,  for  it  descends  to  the  sea-coast  within  less  than  9° 
from  where  palms  grow ;  within  4|°  of  a  region  wdiere  the  jaguar  and  puma 
range  over  the  plains,  less  than  2+°  from  arborescent  grasses,  and  (looking  to 
the  westward  in  the  same  hemisphere)  less  than  2°  from  orchideous  parasites, 
and  within  a  single  degree  of  tree-ferns  !"  As  the  influence  of  the  tropical  gulf 
stream  reaches  as  far  as  Spitzbergen,  so  that  of  the  cold  Peruvian  streajn,  which 
issues  from  the  Antarctic  Seas,  extends  even  to  the  equator,  and  not  seldom  re- 
duces the  temperature  of  the  waters  about  the  Galapagos  to  less  than  +58^°, 
so  that  reef-building  corals,  which  require  a  minimum  warmth  of  +60°,  are 
unable  to  grow  near  islands  situated  directly  under  the  line. 

Though  the  Antarctic  lauds  are  so  bleak  and  inclement  that  not  a  single 
quadruped  is  to  be  found  within  60''  of  latitude,  yet  they  are  the  resort  of  in- 
numerable sea-birds  which,  belonging  to  the  same  families  as  those  of  the  north, 
generally  "form  distinct  genera  or  species,  for  with  mre  exceptions  no  bird  is 
found  to  inhabit  both  the  Arctic  and  the  Antarctic  regions. 

Thus  in  the  petrel  family  we  find  the  fulmar  {Proeellaria  glacialis\  and  the 
glacial  petrel  {P.  gelida)  of  the  high  north  represented  in  the  Antarctic  Seas 
by  the  giant  petrel  {Proeellaria  gigantea),  Avhich  extends  its  flight  from  Pata- 
gonia to  the  ice-banks  of  the  south,  where  the  Antarctic  and  the  snowy  petrels 
\p.  antarctica  et  nivea)  first  appear,  cold-loving  birds  which  never  lea^e  those 
dreary  waters,  and  are  often  seen  in  vast  flocks  floating  upon  the  drift-ice. 

The  giant  petrel,  which  has  received  from  the  Spaniards'the  significant  appel- 
lation oi"qicebranta  hnesos;'  or  "break-bones,"  is  a  more  powerful  bird  than 
the  fulmar.  It  is  larger  than  a  goose,  with  a  strong  beak  U  inches  long.  Its 
color  is  a  dirty  black,  white  below,  and  with  Avhite  spots  on  the  neck  and  back. 
In  its  habits  and  manner  of  flight  it  closely  resembles  the  albatross,  and,  as  with 
the  albatross,  a  spectator  may  watch  it  for  hours  together  without  seeing  on 
what  it  feeds.  Like  the  fulmar  it  feasts  upon  fishes,  or  the  carcasses  of  seals  and 
cetaceans,  but  it  also  chases  other  birds.  At  Port  Saint  Antonio  it  was  seen  by 
some  of  the  oflicers  of  the  "  Beagle  "  pursuing  a  diver,  which  tried  to  escape  by 
diving  and  flying,  but  was  continually  struck  down,  and  at  last  kiUed  by  a  blow 


THE  ANTARCTIC  OCEAN.  395 

on  its  head.  Sucli  is  its  voracity  that  it  does  not  even  spare  its  own  kind,  for 
a  gigantic  petrel  having  been  badly  Avounded  by  a  shot  from  the  "  Terror," 
and  falling  at  too  great  a  distance  for  a  boat  to  be  sent  after  it,  was  immediate- 
ly at'tacked  by  two  others  of  the  same  kind  and  torn  to  pieces.  It  is  a  common 
bird  both  in  the  open  sea  and  in  the  inland*  channels  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and 
the  south-west  coast  of  America. 

The  wandering  albatross  {Diomedea  exulans),  closely  alliecl  to  the  petrels, 
and  rivalling  the  condor  in  size  and  strength  of  wing,  may  truly  be  ranked  among 
the  Antarctic  birds,  as  it  is  seldom  seen  in  a  lower  latitude  than  36°,  and  in- 
creases in  numbers  towards  the  south.  Freyssinet  saw  it  most  frequently  be- 
tween 55°  and  59°  S.  lat.,  and  it  probably  knows  no  other  limits  than  those  of 
the  Polar  ice.  It  is  found  in  every  meridian  of  this  enormous  zone,  but  the 
regions  of  storms — the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Cape  Horn — are  its  favorite 
resorts.     Here  it  may  frequently  be  seen  in  the  full  majesty  of  its  flight. 

The  auks  of  the  northern  hemisphere  are  represented,  in  the  austral  regions, 
by  the  penguins,  who,  as  Buffon  remarks,  are  the  least  bird-like  of  all  birds. 
Their  small  wdng-stumps,  covered  with  short  rigid  scale-like  feathers,  are  alto- 
gether incapable  of  raising  the  body  in  the  air,  but  serve  as  admirable  paddles 
in  the  Avater,  and  on  land  as  fore  feet,  with  Avhose  help  they  so  alertly  scale  the 
grassy  cliffs  that  they  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  quadrupeds.  Their  feet, 
like  those  of  the  auks,  are  placed  so  far  back  that  the  body  is  quite  upright 
when  the  bird  is  standing  on  the  ground,  a  position  which  renders  their  gait 
uncommonly  slow  and  awkward,  but  greatly  facilitates  their  movements  in  the 
water.  When  at  sea  and  fishing,  the  penguin  comes  to  the  surface  for  the  pur- 
pose of  breathing  with  such  a  spring,  and  dives  again  so  instantaneously,  that  at 
first  sight  no  one  can  be  sure  that  it  is  not  a  fish  leaping  for  sport.  Other  sea- 
birds  generally  keep  a  considerable  part  of  their  body  out  of  the  water  while 
swimming,  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  the  penguin,  whose  head  alone  appears 
above  the  surface,  and  thus  rowing  at  the  same  time  Avith  its  wings  and  feet,  it 
swims  so  quickly  that  many  fishes  would  fail  to  keep  up  with  it.  Sir  James 
Ross  once  saw  two  penguins  paddling  away  a  thousand  miles  from  the  nearest 
land.  Protected  against  the  cold  by  a  thick  layer  of  fat  and  a  Avarm  great-coat 
of  feathers,  it  remains  for  months  on  the  high  seas,  and  seeks  land  only  in  the 
summer  for  the  purpose  of  breeding.  At  this  time  it  is  found  in  vast  numbers 
on  the  Falkland  Islands,  Kerguelen's  Land,  New  Shetland,  or  wherever  in  the 
Antarctic  Seas,  perhaps  even  to  the  pole  itself,  a  convenient  coast  invites  its 
stay.  On  Possession  Island,  for  instance,  a  desolate  rock,  discovered  by  Sir 
James  Ross  in  lat.  71°  56',  myriads  of  penguins  covered  the  whole  surface  of 
the  land,  along  the  ledges  of  the  precipices,  and  even  to  the  summit  of  the  hills. 
Undaunted  by  the  presence  of  beings  AA'hom  they  had  never  seen  before,  the 
birds  vigorously  attacked  the  British  seamen  as  they  Avaded  through  their 
ranks,  and  pecked  at  them  with  their  sharp  beaks,  a  reception  AVhich,  together 
Avith  their  loud  coarse  notes,  and  the  insupportable  stench  of  their  guano,  made 
our  countrymen  but  too  happy  to  depart,  after  having  loaded  their  boat  Avith 
geological  specimens  and  penguins.  There  are  several  species  of  this  singular 
bird.     The  largest  and  rarest  {Aptenodytes  Forstcrl)  is  generally  found  sin- 


396 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


-^.^ 


THi3   ALBATROSS. 


THE  ANTARCTIC  OCEAN.  397 

gly,  while  the  smaller  species  always  associate  in  vast  numbers.  Several  were 
caught  in  lat.  11°  by  Sir  James  Ross  and  brought  on  board  alive ;  indeed  it 
was  a  very  difficult  and  a  cruel  operation  to  kill  them,  until  hydrocyanic  acid 
was  resorted  to,  of  which  a  tablespoonful  effectually  accomplished  the  purpose 
in  less  than  a  minnte.  These  enormous  birds  varied  in  weight  from  sixty  to 
seventy-five  pounds.  They  ai'e  remarkably  stupid,  and  allow  a  man  to  ai> 
proach  them  so  near  as  to  strike  them  on  the  head  with  a  bludgeon,  and  some- 
times, if  knocked  off  the  ice  into  the  watei',  they  will  almost  immediately  leap 
upon  it  again  as  if  eager  for  a  fight,  though  without  the  smallest  means  either 
of  offense  or  defense.  They  were  first  discovered  during  Captain  Cook's  voyage 
to  the  Antarctic  regions,  but  Sir  James  Ross  was  fortunate  in  bringing  the  first 
perfect  specimens  to  England,  some  of  which  were  preserved  entire  in  casks  of 
strong  pickle,  that  the  physiologist  and  comparative  anatomist  might  have  an 
opportunity  of  thoroughly  examining  their  structure.  The  principal  food  of  the 
great  penguin  consists  of  various  species  of  crustaceous  animals,  and  in  its 
stomach  ai-e  frequently  found  from  two  to  ten  pounds'  weight  of  pebbles,  swal- 
lowed no  doubt  to  promote  digestion.  "Its  capture,"  says  Sir  James  Ross, 
"  afforded  great  amusement  to  our  people,  for  when  alai'med  and  endeavoring 
to  escape,  it  makes  its  way  over  deep  snow  faster  than  they  could  follow  it :  by 
lying  down  on  its  belly  and  impelling  itself  by  its  powerful  feet,  it  slides  along 
upon  the  surface  of  the  snow  at  a  great  pace,  steadying  itself  by  extending  its 
fin-like  wings,  which  alternately  touch  the  ground  on  the  side  opposite  to  the 
propelling  leg." 

Though  the  Antarctic  Seas  possess  neither  the  narwhal  nor  the  morse,  they 
abound,  perhaps  even  more  than  the  Arctic  waters,  in  whales,  dolphins,  and 
seals,  at  least  in  the  higher  latitudes. 

The  austral  smooth-backed  whale  {Balcena  australls)  differs  from  his  Green- 
land relative  in  many  respects :  the  head  is  comparatively  smaller,  being  only 
about  one-fourth  of  the  total  length,  the  mouth  is  broader,  the  baleen  shorter, 
the  pectoral  fins  are  larger  and  pointed,  and  the  color  is  almost  totally  black, 
the  white  on  the  lower  surface  being  confined  to  a  small  part  of  the  abdomen. 
The  skull  is  also  differently  formed ;  and  while  the  Greenland  whale  has  only 
thirteen  pairs  of  ribs,  the  austral  smooth-back  has  fifteen. 

According  to  Mr.  Bennett,  the  austral  smooth-back  seldom  attains  a  greater 
length  than  fifty  feet ;  but  as  it  yields  on  an  average  from  eighty  to  ninety 
barrels  of  oil,  its  capture  amply  rewards  the  whaler's  trouble.  Though  met 
with  in  the  highest  latitudes,  and  roaming  over  the  whole  extent  of  the  Antarc- 
tic Seas,  it  resorts  in  spring  to  the  sheltered  bays  of  New  Zealand,  Australia, 
Kerguelen's  Land,  Chili,  the  Falkland  Islands,  Algoa  Bay,  etc.,  for  the  purpose 
of  bringing  forth  its  young.  This  of  course  makes  its  capture  easier,  but  must 
at  the  same  time  lead  to  its  extirpation,  or  drive  it  to  the  most  inaccessible  re- 
gions of  the  Polar  Ocean.  Even  now  the  whale-fishery  of  the  southern  seas, 
which  twenty  or  thirty  years  ago  employed  hundreds  of  vessels,  has  much  di- 
minished in  importance  :  it  is  chiefly  carried  on  by  the  Americans,  the  French, 
and  our  Australian  colonies,  which  have  the  advantage  of  being  more  conven- 
iently situated  than  the  mother-country. 


398  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

• 

In  the  higher  latitudes  of  the  Antarctic  zone  the  hunch-back  and  fin-back 
whales  abound  ;  but  as  the  former  is  meagre  and  hardly  worth  the" boiling,  and 
the  latter,  like  the  rorquals  of  the  north,  dives  with  such  rapidity  that  he  snaps 
the  harpoon-line  or  drags  the  boat  along  with  him  into  the  water,  they  are  sel- 
dom hunted.  Hence  they  will  most  likely  continue  to  prosper  in  their  native 
seas,  unless  the  improved  missiles  recently  introduced  in  the  whale-fishery  can 
be  made  to  conquer  them.  The  hunch-back  is  distinguished  by  the  great 
length  of  his  pectoral  fins,  which  extend  to  full  eighteen  feet,  while  these  organs 
are  comparatively  small  in  the  fin-back.  A  kind  of  broad-nosed  whale  likewise 
makes  its  appearance  in  the  Antarctic  Seas,  but  it  is  not  yet  determined  whether 
all  these  fin-backed  whales  of  the  south  are  distinct  species  from  those  of  the 
Arctic  waters.  A  circumstance  which  seems  to  speak  for  their  identity  is  that 
fin-backs  are  met  with  in  the  intervening  temperate  and  tropical  seas,  so  that 
no  limits  appear  to  have  been  set  to  their  excursions. 

The  sperm  whale,  or  cachalot,  though  partial  to  the  equinoctial  ocean,  is  also 
found  in  the  cold  Antarctic  waters.  It  was  met  with  by  Sir  James  Ross  among 
the  icebergs  in  63°  20'  S.  lat. ;  and  near  Possession  Island  (71°  50'  S.  lat.),  whire 
the  hunch-backs  were  so  abundant  that  thirty  were  counted  at  one  time  in  va-  * 
rious  directions,  and  during  the  whole  day  wherever  the  eyes  turned  their  blasts 
were  to  be  seen.  A  few  sperm  whales  were  also  distinguished  among  them  by 
their  peculiar  manner  of  blowing  or  spouting. 

Among  the  dolphins  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean  we  find  a  species  of  grampus 
no  less  formidable  and  voracious  than  that  of  the  northern  seas.  On  January 
20,  1840,  the  American  ship  "  Peacock,"  while  cruising  in  the  Antarctic  waters, 
witnessed  a  conflict  between  one  of  them  and  a  whale.  The  sea  was  perfectly 
smooth,  so  that  the  whole  combat  could  be  distinctly  seen.  At  first  the  whale 
was  perceived  at  some  distance  from  the  ship  lashing  the  water  into  foam,  and 
apparently  making  desperate  efforts  to  shake  off  some  invisible  enemy.  On 
approaching,  they  found  that  an  enormous  grampus  had  seized  it  with  its  jaws. 
The  whale  yainly  turned  and  twisted  itself  in  every  direction,  and  its  blood 
tingeVl  the  water  far  around.  The  grampus  had  evidently  the  advantage,  and 
the  other  whales,  of  wlrich  there  were  many  in  sight,  instead  of  assisting  their 
comrade,  seemed  only  intent  on  their  own  safety.  Tlie  grampus  had  a  brown 
back,  a  white  abdomen,  and  a  large  fin  on  its  back.  The  speed  at  which  the 
monstrous  animals  shot  through  the  water  prevented  the  Americans  from  wit- 
nessing the  issue  of  the  fight.  The  classical  dolphin  of  the  ancients  has  been 
seen  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  most  likely  wanders  far  to  the  south,  as 
he  is  proverbial  for  his  arrow-like  rapidity,  and  can  easily  traverse  a  couple  of 
hundred  miles  in  a  single  day.  In  the  Strait  of  Magellan  and  about  Cape  Horn 
are  frequently  seen  the  Belphinus  superciliosus,  whose  turiled-up  mouth-cor- 
ners give  his  countenance  a  peculiarly  benevolent  and  friendly  expression,  belied 
by  his  ravenous  propensities,  and  the  DelpMnus  leucoramplms,  who,  like  the 
bjeluga  of  the  north,  has  no  dorsal  fin,  and  by  the  liveliness  of  his  movements 
emulates  the  classical  dolphin  of  the  Mediterranean. 

The  seal  family  plays  a  no  less  important  part  in  the  zoology  of  the  Antarc- 
tic Seas  than  in  that  of  the  nor'tliorn  waters.     Here  wa3  find  the  monstrous  sea- 


THE  ANTARCTIC  OCEAN.  399 

elephant  {Macrorhlmis  elej^hantinus),  so  called  not  only  from  his  size  attaining 
a  length  of  twenty-five  feet,  and  a  girth  at  the  largest  part  of  the  body  of  from 
fifteen  to  eighteen,  but  also  from  the  singular  structure  of  his  elongated  nostrils, 
which  hang  down  when  he  is  in  a  state  of  repose,  but  swell  out  to  a  proboscis  a 
foot  long  when  he  is  enraged.  This  gives  the  anipial  a  very  formidable  appear- 
ance, which,  along  with  his  bellowing  and  his  widely-gaping  jaws  armed  with 
tusk-like  canines,  might  strike  terror  into  the  boldest  heart.  But  in  reality  the 
sea-elephant  is  a  most  defenseless  creature,  for  on  land  it  moves  its  unwieldy 
carcass  with  the  utmost  diflSculty,  and  a  single  blow  upon  the  snout  with  a  club 
sufiices  to  stretch  it  lifeless  on  the  ground.  It  used  to  be  met  with  in  consid- 
erable numbers  on  all  the  flat  shores  or  islands  between  35°  and  62°  S.  lat.,  but 
as  it  yields  a  large  quantity  of  excellent  oil,  and  as  its  skin,  though  merely  cov- 
ered with  thick  short  bristles,  is  of  some  value  from  its  great  stren<Tth  and 
thickness,  incessant  persecution  has  greatly  thinned  its  rankfe,  and  in  some  parts 
iextirpated  it.  Thus  Sir  James  Ross  relates  that  the  sea-elephant  and  several 
other  species  of  seals,  which  were  formerly  in  great  abundance  at  Kergueleu's 
Land,  annually  drew  a  number  of  fishing-vessels  to  its  shores.  But  at  the  time 
of  his  visit  (1840),  after  so  many  years  of  slaughter,  they  had  quite  deserted 
the  place.  The  flesh  of  the  sea-elephant  is  black,  and  of  an  oily  taste,  but  Anson 
and  his  companions,  after  having  been  tossed  about  for  several  months  on  a 
tempestuous  sea  and  reduced  to  great  distress  by  scurvy,  felished  it  at  Juan 
Fernandez.     The  tongue  is  said  to  be  a  great  delicacy. 

As  the  soft  jet-black  fur  of  the  young  southern  sea-bear  {Arctocephalus  falc- 
lancUcus)  is  no  less  valuable  than  that  of  its  northern  relative,  the  eagerness 
with  which  it  is  pursued  may  easily  be  imagined.  Formerly  vast  herds  of  sea- 
bears  used  to  resort  every  summer  to  the  New  Shetland  Islands,  but  soon  after 
the  rediscovery  of  the  group  the  American  and  English  sealers  made  their  ap- 
pearance on  its  desolate  shores,  and  in  the  short  time  of  four  years  extirpated 
the  ursine  seals,  thus  destroying  by  wasteful  destruction  what  might  have  been 
a  permanent  source  of  profit. 

The  southern  sea-lion  ( Otaria  juhata)  is  a  larger  animal  than  his  northern 
namesake;  and  while  the  latter  is  furnished  only  with  to  erect  and  curly  hair- 
tuft  at  the  neck,  a  complete  mane  flows  round  his  breast.  The  remainder  of 
the  tawny  body  is  covered  with  short  smooth  hairs  or  bristles.  The  sea-lioness, 
who  is  much  smaller  than  her  mate,  has  no  rdane;  and  as  she  is  of  a  darker 
color  and  has  a  differently  shaped  head,  is  frequently  mistaken  for  another 
species,  and  called  wolf,  or  lobo,  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  south-western  coast 
of  America.  The  fore  flippers  of  the  sea-lion  have  the  appearance  of  lai-gc 
pieces  of  black  tough  leather,  showing,  instead  of  nails,  slight  horny  elevations  ; 
the  hind  fins,  which  are  likewise  black,  have  a  closer  resemblance  to  feet,  and  the 
five  toes  are  furnished  with  small  nails.  It  is  a  formidable-looking  beast,  par- 
ticularly when  full  grown  to  a  length  of  ten  feet  and  more.  The  sea-leo[)ard 
{LeiotonyxWeddeUi),  which  owes  its  name  to  its  spotted  skin,  is  peculiar  to  the 
southern  seas.  This  large  seal  is  from  eight  to  nine  feet  long;  the  hind  feet 
have  no  nails,  and  greatly  resemble  the  tail  of  a  fish. 

The  Antarctic  seals,  dolphins,  and  petrels  chiefly  prey  upon  a  genus  of  fish 


400  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

discovered  at  Kerguelen's  Land,  and  named  Notothenia  by  Dr.  Richardson. 
These  fish,  which  are  of  an  elongated  eel-like  shape,  conceal  themselves  from 
the  persecutions  of  their  enemies  in  the  small  cracks  and  cavities  of  the  pack- 
ice,  and  were  frequently  noticed  by  Sir  James  Ross  wheu  driven  from  shelter 
by  the  ship  as  it  struck  and  passed  over  their  protecting  pieces  of  ice.  They 
in  their  turn  live  upon  the  smaller  cancri  and  limaciuje,  and  these  again  upon 
creatures  of  a  still  more  diminutive  size,  until  finally  the  chain  of  created 
beings  terminates  in  the  diatoms,*  which  are  found  filling  these  seas  with  the 
minutest  forms  of  organic  life. 

*  "  The  Sea  and  its  Living  Wonders,"  p.  403. 


ANTAECTIC  VOYAGES  OF  DISCOVERY.  401 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

ANTARCTIC  VOYAGES  OF  DISCO\TERY. 

Cook's  Discoveries  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean,— Bellinghausen.—Weddell.—Biscoe.—Balleny. Dumont 

d'Urville. — Wilkes.— Sir  James  Ross  crosses  the  Antarctic  Circle  on  New  Year's  Dav'  1841.— Dis- 
covers Victoria  Land.— Dangerous  Landing  on  Franklin  Island.— An  Eruption  of  Jlount  Erebus.— 
The  Great  Ice  Barrier.— Providential  Escape.— Dreadful  Gale.— Collision.— Hazardous  Passage  be- 
tween two  Icebergs. — Termination  of  the  Voyage. 

"OEFORE  Cook,  no  navigator  had  left  Europe  with  the  cleat  rlesign  of  pen- 
-*-'  etrating  into  the  Antarctic  regions.  Dirk  Gheritz  indeed  had  been  driv- 
en by  a  furious  storm  far  to  the  south  of  Cape  Horn,  and  became  the  involun- 
tary discoverer  of  the  New  Shetland  Islands  in  1600  ;  but  his  voyage  was  soon 
forgotten,  and  in  an  age  when  the  love  of  gold  or  the  desire  of  conquest  were 
the  sole  promoters  of  maritime  enterprise,  no  mariner  felt  inclined  to  follow  on 
his  track,  and  to  plunge  into  a  sea  where  most  probably  he  would  find  nothing 
but  ice-fields  and  icebergs  to  reward  his  efforts.  Nearly  two  centuries  later  a 
more  scientific  age  directed  its  attention  to  the  unknown  regions  of  the  distant 
south,  and  Cook  sailed  forth  to  probe  the  secrets  of  the  Antarctic  Seas.  This 
dangerous  task  he  executed  with  an  intrepidity  unparalleled  in  the  annals  of 
navigation.  Beyond  60°  of  southern  latitude,  he  cruised  over  a  space  of  more 
than  100°  of  longitude,  and  on  January  30,  1774,  penetrated  as  far  as  71°  of 
southern  latitude,  wiiere  he  was  stopped  by  impenetrable  masses  of  ice.  Such 
were  the  difficulties  encountered  from  dense  fogs,  snow-storms,  intense  cold, 
and  every  thing  that  can  render  navigation  dangerous,  that  in  his  opinion  the 
lands  situated  to  the  southward  of  his  discoveries  must  forever  remain  un- 
known. 

Again  for  many  a  year  no  one  attempted  to  enter  a  field  where  the  most 
celebrated  of  modern  mariners  had  found  but  a  few  desert  islands  (South 
Georgia,  Sandwich's  Land,  Southern  Thule)  until  Smith's  casual  rediscovery  of 
New  South  Shetland  in  1819  once  more  turned  the  current  of  maritime  ex- 
ploration to  the  Antarctic  Seas. 

Soon  afterwards  a  Russian  expedition  under  Lazareff  and  Bellinghausen 
discovered  (January,  1821),  in  69°  3'  S.  lat.,  the  islands  Paul  the  First  and 
Alexander,  the  most  southern  lands  that  had  ever  been  visited  by  man. 

The  year  after  Captain  Weddell,  a  sealer,  penetrated  into  the  icy  ocean  as 
far  as  74°  15'  S.  lat.,  3°  nearer  to  the  pole  than  had  been  attained  by  Cook. 
The  sea  lay  invitingly  open,  but  as  the  season  was  far  advanced,  and  Weddell 
apprehended  the  dangers  of  the  return  voyage,  he  steered  again  to  the  north. 

In  1831  Biscoe  discovered  Enderby  Land,  and  soon  afterwards  Graham's 
Land,  to  which  the  gratitude  of  geographers  has  since  given  the  discoverer's 
name.     In  1839  Balleny  revealed  the  existence  of  the  group  of  islands  called 

26 


403  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

after  him,  and  of  Sabrina  Laud  (69°  S.  lat.).  About  the  same  time  three  con- 
siderable expeditions,  litted  out  by  the  governments  of  France,  the  United 
States,  and  England,  made  their  appearance  in  the  Antarctic  Seas. 

Dumont  d'Urville  discovered  Terre  Louis  Philippe  (63°  31'  S.  lat.)  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1838,  and  Terre  Adelie  (66°  67'  S.  lat.)  on  January  21,  1840.  Almost 
on  the  same  day,  Wilkes,  the^  commander  of  the  United  States  Exploring  Ex- 
pedition, reached  an  ice-bound  coast,  which  he  followed  for  a  length  of  1500 
miles,  and  which  has  been  called  Wilkes's  Land,  to  commemorate  the  discover- 
er's name. 

But  of  all  the  explorers  of  the  southern  frozen  ocean,  the  palm  unquestiona- 
bly belongs  to  Sir  James  Koss,  who  penetrated  farther  towards  the  pole  than 
any  other  navigator  before  or  after,  and  made  the  only  discoveries  of  extensive 
land  within  the  area  bounded  by  the  Antarctic  Circle. 

On  New  Year's  Day,  1841,  the  "Erebus,"  Captain  James  Clark  Ross,  and 
the  "  Terror,"  commanded  by  Francis  Crozier,  who  died  with  Franklin  in  the 
Arctic  Sea,  crossed  the  Antarctic  Circle,  and  after  sustaining  many  severe 
shocks  in  breaking  through  the  pack-ice,  emerged  on  January  9  into  a  clear  sea 
of  great  extent ;  but  the  fog  and  snow-showers  were  so  thick  that  the  naviga- 
tors could  seldom  see  more  than  half  a  mile  before  them.  On  the  following 
day  the  fog  began  to  disperse,  and  on  the  11th,  Victoria  Land,  rising  in  lofty 
peaks  entirely  covered  with  perennial  snow,  was  seen  at  a  distance  of  more 
than  one  hundred  miles.  On  steering  towards  Mount  Sabine,  the  highest 
mountain  of  the  range,  new  chains  of  hills  were  seen  extending  to  the  right 
and  left.  After  saihng  for  a  few  days  to  the  south  along  the  ice-bound  coast, 
a  gale  forced  the  ships  to  stand  out  to  sea ;  but  on  the  morning  of  January  15, 
the  weather  becoming  beautifully  clear,  allowed  a  full  view  of  a  magnificent 
chain  of  mountains  stretching  far  away  to  the  southward.  Ross  was  most 
anxious  to  find  a  harbor  in  which  to  secure  the  ships,  but  every  indentation  of 
the  coast  was  found  filled  with  snow  drifted  from  the  mountains,  and  forming 
a  mass  of  ice  several  hundred  feet  thick.  It  was  thus  impossible  to  enter  any 
of  the  valleys  or  breaks  in  the  coast  where  harbors  in  other  lands  usually  oc- 
cur. Yet  these  inhospitable  shores  (72°  73'  S.  lat.)  are  situated  but  one  or  two 
degrees  nearer  to  the  pole  than  Hammerfest,  the  seat  of  an  active  commerce 
on  the  Norwegian  coast. 

Favored  by  northerly  winds  and  an  open  sea,  the  ships  reached  on  January 
22  a  higher  southern  latitude  (74°  20'  S.)  than  that  which  had  beeA  attained 
by  Weddell.  Pursuing  their  way  to  the  southward  along  the  edge  of  the 
pack-ice,  which  now  compelled  them  to  keep  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  coast,  they  came  on  the  27th  within  two  or  three  miles  of  a  small  island 
connected  by  a  vast  ice-field  with  the  extreme  point  of  the  mainland.  Eager 
to  set  his  foot  on  the  most  southerly  soil  (76°  8'  S.)  he  had  as  yet  discovered, 
Ross  left  the  "Erebus,"  accompanied  by  several  oflicers,  and,  followed  by  Cro- 
zier and  a  party  from  the  "  Terror,"  pulled  towards  the  shore.  A  high  south- 
erly swell  broke  so  heavily  against  the  cliffs  and  on  the  only  piece  of  beach 
which  they  could  see  as  they  rowed  from  one  end  of  the  island  to  the  other,  as 
almost  to  forbid  their  landing. 


ANTARCTIC  VOYAGES  OF  DISCOVERY. 


403 


By  gveat  skill  and  management  Ross  succeeded  in  jumping  on  to  the  rocks. 
By  means  of  a  roiDc  some  of  the  ofKcers  landed  somewhat  more  easily,  but  not 
without  getting  thoroughly  wetted,  and  one  of  them  nearly  lost  his  life  in  this 
difficult  affair.  The  thermometer  being  at  22°,  every  part  of  the  rocks  washed 
by  the  waves  was  covered  with  a  coating  of  ice,  so  that  in  jumping  from  the 
boat  he  slipped  from  them  into  the  water  between  her  stern  and  the  almost 
perpendicular  rock  on  which  his  companions  had  landed.  But  for  the  prompt- 
itude of  the  men  in  the  boat  in  instantly  pulling  off,  he  must  have  been  crushed 
between  it  and  the  rock.  He  was  taken  into  the  boat  without  having  suffered 
any  other  injury  than  being  benumbed  by  the  cold. 

The  island,  which  received  the  name  of  Franklin,  bore  not  the  smallest  trace 
of  vegetation,  not  even  a  Uchen  or  piece  of  sea-weed  growing  on  the  rocks ;  but 
the  white  petrel  and  the  skua-gull  had  their  nests  on  the  ledges  of  the  cliffs  and 
seals  were  seen  sporting  in  the  water. 

The  following  day  was  memorable  for  the  discovery  of  the  southernmost 
known  land  of  the  globe,  a  magnificent  mountain  chain,  to  which  the  name  of 
Parry  was  given,  in  grateful  remembrance  of  the  honor  which  that  iUustrious 
navigator  had  conferred  on  Ross,  by  calHng  the  most  northern  land  at  that 
time  known  by  his  name.  It  is  not  often  that  men  are  able  to  reciprocate  such 
comi^hments  as  these !  The  most  conspicuous  object  of  the  chain  was  Mount 
Erebus  (77°  6'  S,),  a^  active  volcano,  of  which  Ross  had  the  good-fortune  to 
witness  a  magnificent  eruption.  The  enormous  columns  of  flame  and  smoke 
rising  two  thousand  feet  above  the  mouth  of  the  crater,  which  is  elevated 
12,400  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  combined  with  the  snow-white  mountain 
chain  and  the  deep-blue  ocean  to  form  a  magnificent  scene.  An  extinct  volcano 
to  the  eastward  of  Mount  Erebus,  and  a  little  inferior  in  height,  being  by  meas- 
urement 10,900  feet  high,  was  called  "  Mount  Terror."  A  brilliant *man tie  of 
snow  swept  down  the  sides  of  both  these  giants  of  the  south,  and  projected  a 
perpendicular  icy  cliff  several  miles  into  the  sea. 

Gladly  would  Ross  have  penetrated  still  farther  to  the  south,  but  all  his 
efforts  were  baffled  by  a  vast  barrier  of  ice,  forming  an  uninterrupted  wall, 
450  miles  in  length,  and  rising  in  some  parts  to  a  height  of  180  feet  above  the 
sea-level.  While  sailing  along  this  barrier,  the  ships  were  frequently  obliged 
by  the  wind  and  the  closely-packed  ice  to  keep  at  a  considerable  distance ;  but 
on  February  9,  having  entered  the  only  indentation  which  they  had  perceived 
throughout  its  whole  extent,  they  had  an  excellent  opportunity  of  getting  quite 
close  to  it,  though  at  no  little  hazard.  This  bay  was  formed  by  a  projecting 
peninsula  of  ice,  terminated  by  a  cape  170  feet  high  ;  but  at  the  narrow  isthmus 
which  connected  it  with  the  great  barrier  it  was  not  more  than  fifty  feet  high, 
affording  Ross  the  only  opportunity  he  had  of  seeing  its  upper  surface  from 
the  mast-head.  It  appeared  to  be  quite  smooth,  and  conveyed  to  the  mind  the 
idea  of  an  immense  plain  of  frosted  silver.  Gigantic  icicles  depended  from 
every  projecting  point  of  its  perpendicular  chffs,  proving  that  it  sometimes 
thawed,  which  otherwise  could  not  have  been  beheved ;  for  at  a  season  of  the 
year  equivalent  to  August  in  England,  the  thermometer  at  noon  did  not  rise 
above  14°,  and  the  young  ice  formed  so  quickly  in  the  sheltered  bay  as  to  warn 


404  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

them  of  the  necessity  of  a  speedy  retreat.  Favored  by  the  breeze,  and  by  dint 
of  great  exertion,  they  ultimately  emerged  from  their  dangerous  position,  but 
scarcely  had  they  escaped  when  the  wind  came  directly  against  them,  so  that 
had  they  lingered  but  half  an  hour  longer  near  the  barrier  they  would  certainly 
have  been  frozen  iip. 

On  February  13  the  a2:)proach  of  winter  convinced  Ross  that  it  was  high 
time  to  relinquish  the  further  examination  of  the  barrier  to  the  eastward ;  and 
as  no  place  of  security  where  it  was  possible  to  winter  could  be  found  upon 
any  part  of  the  land  hitherto  discovered,  he  reluctantly  resolved  to  recross  the 
Antarctic  Circle,  and  postpone  all  attempts  to  reach  the  pole  to  the  next  season. 
The  return  voyage  was  difficult  and  dangerous.  On  March  7,  the  ships,  while 
endeavoring  to  find  a  way  through  the  pack-ice  in  lat.  65°,  had  a  narrow  escape 
from  imminent  destruction.  The  wind  having  ceased,  they  found  themselves 
at  the  mercy  of  a  heavy  easterly  swell,  which  was  driving  them  down  upon  the 
pack,  in  which  were  counted  from  the  mast-head  eighty-four  large  bergs,  and 
some  hundreds  of  smaller  size.  As  they  rapidly  approached  this  formidable 
chain,  no  opening  could  be  discovered  through  which  the  ships  could  pass.;  the 
waves  Avere  beating  violently  against  the  bergs,  and  dashing  liuge  masses  of 
pack-ice  against  their  precipitous  faces,  now  lifting  them  nearly  to  their  summit, 
then  forcing  them  again  far  beneath  their  water-line,  and  sometimes  rending 
them  in  a  multitude  of  brilliant  fragments  against  thqjir  projecting  points. 
"  Sublime  and  magnificent,"  says  Ross,  "  as  such  a  scene  must  have  appeai-ed 
under  different  circumstances,  to  us  it  was  awful,  if  not  appalling.  For  eight 
hours  we  had  been  gradually  drifting  towards  what  to  human  eyes  appeared 
inevitable  destruction ;  the  high  waves  and  deep  rolling  of  our  ships  rendered 
towing  with  the  boats  impossible,  and  our  situation  the  more  painful  and  em- 
barrassing from  our  inability  to  make  any  effort  to  avoid  the  dreadful  calami- 
ty that  seemed  to  await  us We  were  now  within  half  a  mile  of  the 

range  of  bergs.  The  roar  of  the  surf,  which  extended  each  way  as  far  as  we 
could  see,  and  the  crashing  of  the  ice,  fell  upon  the  ear  with  fearful  distinctness, 
whilst  the  frequently  averted  eye  as  immediately  returned  to  contemplate  the 
awful  destruction  that  threatened  in  one  short  hour  to  close  the  world,  and  all 
its  hopes,  and  joys,  and  sorrows  upon  us  forever.  In  this  our  deep  distress 
'  we  called  upon  the  Lord,  and  He  heard  our  voices  out  of  His  temple,  and  our 
cry  came  before  Him.'  A  gentle  air  of  wind  filled  our  sails ;  hope  again  re- 
vived, and  the  greatest  activity  prevailed  to  make  the  best  use  of  the  feeble 
breeze ;  as  it  gradually  freshened,  our  heavy  ships  began  to  feel  its  .influence, 
slowly  at  first,  but  more  rapidly  afterwards,  and  before  dark  we  found  ourselves 
far  removed  from  every  danger." 

After  passing  the  winter  at  Ilobarton,  the  capital  of  Tasmania,  Sir  James 
Ross,  in  the  following  year,  once  more  crossed  the  Antarctic  Circle  to  examine 
the  icy  barrier  which  in  his  previous  yoyage  had  blocked  his  progress  to  the 
south,  and  to  renew  his  attempts  to  pass  round  or  through  it.  But  there  were 
new  dangers  to  be  encountered.  On  January  17, 1842,  a  fearful  storm  came  on 
as  the  "Erebus"  and  "Terror"  were  making  their  way  through  the  pack-ice, 
which  was  this  time  met  with  in  a  more  northern  latitude  than  the  year  before. 


ANTARCTIC  VOYAGES  OF  DISCOVERY.  405 

The  sea  broke  all  the  hawsers  which  held  them  to  a  large  piece  of  floe,  and 
drove  them  helplessly  along  into  the  heavy  pack.  They  Avere  now  involved  in 
au  ocean  of  rolling  fragments  of  ice,  which  were  dashed  against  them  by  the 
waves  with  so  much  violence  that  their  masts  quivered  as  if  they  would  fall  at 
every  successive  blow.  The  loud  crashing  noise  of  the  straining  and  working 
of  the  timbers  and  decks,  as  they  were  driven  against  some  of  the  heavier 
pieces,  might  well  appall  the  stoutest  heart,  and  thus  hour  passed  away  after 
hour.  During  this  terrible  scene  the  ships  were  at  one  time  so  close  together 
that  when  the  "  Terror  "  rose  to  the  top  of  one  wave,  the  "  Erebus  "  was  on  the 
top  of  the  wave  next  to  leeward  of  her,  the  deep  chasm  between  them  being  fill- 
ed with  heavy  rolling  masses ;  and  as  the  ships  descended  into  the  hollow  be- 
tween the  waves,  the  maintopsail-yard  of  each  could  be  seen,  just  level  Avith  the 
crest  of  the  intervening  wave,  from  the  deck  of  the  other.  The  night,  which 
now  began  to  draw  in,  rendered  their  condition,  if  possible,  more  hopeless  and 
helpless  than  before  ;  but  at  midnight  the  snow,  which  had  been  falling  thickly 
for  several  hours,  cleared  away,  as  the  wind  suddenly  shifted  to  the  westward ; 
the  swell  began  to  subside,  and  the  shocks  Avhich  the  ships  still  sustained,  though 
strong  enough  to  shatter  any  vessel  less  strongly  ribbed,  were  feeble  compared 
with  those  to  which  they  had  been  exposed.  On  the  following  day,  the  Avind 
having  moderated  to  a  fresh  breeze,  the  crippled  ships,  whose  rudders  had  been 
sorely  shattered,  were  securely  moored  to  a  large  floe-piece  in  the  now  almost 
motionless  pack,  Avhere,  by  dint  of  unceasing  labor,  the  damages  were  repaired 
in  the  course  of  a  Aveek,  and  the  vessels  once  more  fitted  to  fight  their  Avay  to 
the  south. 

On  February  22  the  great  barrier  was  seen  from  the  mast-head,  just  before 
midnight,  and  the  following  day,  the  Avind  bloAving  directly  on  to  its  cliffs,  they 
approached  it  Avithin  a  mile  and  a  half,  in  lat.  78°  11',  the  highest  ever  attained 
in  the  southern  hemisphere.  From  this  point,  situated  about  5°  of  longitude 
farther  to  the  east  than  the  indentation  Avhere  the  ships  had  so  narroAvly  esca])ed 
being  frozen  fast  in  the  preceding  year,  the  barrier  trended  considerably  to  the 
northAvard  of  east,  so  that  Ross  Avas  obliged  to  give  up  all  hope  of  rounding  it, 
and  extending  his  explorations  towards  the  pole,  as  the  season  Avas  already  con- 
siderably advanced.  On  his  return  A'oyage  to  the  Falklands,  Avhere  he  intended 
to  pass  the  Avinter,  he  had  already  reached  the  latitude  of  60°,  and  thought  him- 
self out  of  danger  of  meeting  with  bergs,  when,  in  the  afternoon  of  March  1 2, 
the  southerly  wind  changed  to  a  strong  north-westerly  breeze.  In  the  evening 
the  wind  increased  so  much,  and  the  snow-showers  became  so  incessant,  that  he 
Avas  obliged  to  proceed  under  more  moderate  sail.  Small  pieces  of  ice  were 
also  met  Avith,  warning  him  of  the  presence  of  bergs,  concealed  by  the  thickly- 
falling  snow,  so  that  before  midnight  he  directed  the  topsails  of  the  "  Erebus  " 
to  be  close-reefed,  and  every  arrangement  made  for  rounding  to  until  daylight, 
deeming  it  too  hazardous  to  run  any  longer,  "  Our  people,"  says  the  gallant 
explorer,  "  had  hardly  completed  these  operations,  Avhen  a  large  berg  Avas  seen 
ahead  and  quite  close  ;  the  ship  Avas  immediately  hauled  to  the  Avind  on  the 
port  tack,  Avith  the  expectation  of  being  able  to  Aveather  it;  but  just  at  this  mo- 
ment the  '  Terror '  Avas  observed  running  doAVU  upon  us,  under  her  topsail  and 


406  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

foresail ;  and  as  it  was  impossible  for  her  to  clear  both  the  berg  and  the  '  Ere- 
bus,' collision  was  inevitable.  We  instantly  hove  all  aback  to  diminish  the  vi- 
olence of  the  shock ;  but  the  concussion  when  she  struck  us  was  such  as  to 
throw  almost  every  one  off  his  feet ;  our  bowsprit,  foretopmast,  and  other  small- 
er spars,  were  carried  away,  and  the  ships  hanging  together  entangled  by  their 
rigging,  and  dashing  against  each  other  with  fearful  violence,  were  falling  down 
upon  the  weather  face  of  the  lofty  berg  under  our  lee,  against  which  the  waves 
were  breaking  and  foaming  to  near  the  summit  of  its  perpendicular  cliffs. 
Sometimes  the  '  Terror '  rose  high  above  us,  almost  exposmg  her  keel  to  view, 
and  again  descended,  as  we  in  our  turn  rose  to  the  top  of  the  wave,  threatening 
to  bury  her  beneath  us,  whilst  the  crashing  of  the  breaking  upper-works  and 
boats  increased  the  horror  of  the  scene.  Providentially  the  ships  gradually 
separated  before  we  drifted  down  amongst  the  foaming  breakers,  and  we 
had  the  gratification  of  seeing  the  '  Terror '  clear  the  end  of  the  berg,  and  of 
feeling  that  she  was  safe.  But  she  left  us  completely  disabled ;  the  wreck  of 
the  spars  so  encumbered  the  lower  yard  that  we  were  unable  to  make  sail  so 
as  to  get  headway  on  the  ship ;  nor  had  we  room  to  w*ear  round,  being  by  this 
time  so  close  to  the  berg  that  the  waves,  when  they  struck  against  it,  threw 
back  their  spray  into  the  ship.  The  only  way  left  to  us  to  extricate  ourselves 
from  this  aAvful  and  appalling  situation  was  by  resorting  to  the  hazardous  ex- 
pedient of  a  stern  board,  which  nothing  could  justify  during  such  a  gale  but  to 
avert  the  danger  which  every  moment  threatened  us  of  being  dashed  to  pieces. 
The  heavy  rolling  of  the  vessel,  and  the  probability  of  the  masts  giving  away 
each  time  the  lower  yard-arms  struck  against  the  cliffs,  which  were  towering 
high  above  our  mast-heads,  rendered  it  a  service  of  extreme  danger  to  loose 
the  mainsail ;  but  no  sooner  was  the  order  given,  than  the  dai'ing  spirit  of  the 
British  seaman  manifested  itself — the  men  ran  up  the  rigging  with  as  much 
alacrity  as  on  any  ordinary  occasion ;  and,  although  more  than  once  driven  off 
the  yard,  they  after  a  short  time  succeeded  in  loosing  the  sail.  Amidst  the  roar 
of  the  wind  and  sea,  it  was  difficult  both  to  hear  and  to  execute  the  orders  that 
were  given,  so  that  it  was  three-quarters  of  an  hour  before  we  could  get  the 
yards  braced  by,  and  the  main  tack  hauled  on  board  sharp  aback — an  expedient 
that  perhaps  had  never  before  been  resorted  to  by  seamen  in  such  weather; 
but  it  had  the  desired  effect ;  the  ship  gathered  sternway,  plunging  her  stern 
into  the  sea,  and  with  her  lower  yard-arms  scraping  the  rugged  face  of  the 
berg,  we  in  a  few  minutes  reached  its  Avestern  termination ;  the  '  under-tow,'  as 
it  is  called,  or  the  reaction  of  the  water  from  its  vertical  cliffs,  alone  preventing 
us  being  driven  to  atoms  against  it.  No  sooner  had  we  cleared  it  than  another 
was  seen  directly  astern  of  us,  against  which  we  were  running;  and  the  diffi- 
culty now  was  to  get  the  ship's  head  turned  round  and  pointed  fairly  through 
between  the  two  bergs,  the  breadth  of  the  intervening  space  not  exceeding  three 
times  her  own  breadth.  This,  however,  we  happily  accomplished  ;  and  in  a  few 
minutes,  after  getting  before  the  wind,  she  dashed  through  the  narrow  channel 
between  two  perpendicular  walls  of  ice,  and  the  foaming  breakers  which  stretch- 
ed across  it,  and  the  next  moment  we  were  in  smooth  water  under  its  lee.  The 
'  Terror's '  Hght  was  immediately  seen  and  answered ;  she  had  rounded  to,  wait- 


ANTARCTIC  VOYAGES  OF  DISCOVERY.  407 

ing  for  us  ....  ,  and,  as  soon  as  day  broke,  we  bad  tbe  gratification  of  learn- 
ing tbat  sbe  bad  not  suffered  any  serious  damage." 

On  December  1 7  Sir  James  Ross  sailed  from  tbe  Falkland  Islands,  witb  tbe 
intention  of  following  tbe  track  of  Weddell,  as,  from  tbe  account  of  tbat  daring 
navigator,  be  bad  every  reason  to  exjject  to  find  a  clear  sea,  wbicb  would  enable 
bim  considerably  to  extend  tbe  limits  of  geograpbical  knowledge  towards  tbe 
pole.  He  was  disappointed,  for  tbougb  be  discovered  some  new  land  (63°- 
64°  30'S.  lat.,  55°-57°W.  long.)  to  tbe  soutb  of  D'Urville's  Terre  Louis  Pbi- 
l.ippe,  yet  tbe  pack-ice  so  blocked  bis  progress  tbat  tbe  fartbest  point  be  could 
attain  was  in  lat.  71°  30'  S.,  long.  14°  51'  W.  On  Marcb  1  be  recrossed  tbe  An- 
tarctic Circle,  and  on  tbe  28tb  of  tbe  same  montb  dropped  bis  ancbors  at  tbe 
Cape.  Tbus  ended  tbis  most  remai'kable  voyage,  so  bonorabler  to  all  engaged 
in  it,  for,  as  Sir  John  Richardson  justly  remarks,  "  the  perseverance,  daring, 
and  coolness  of  tbe  commanding  ofiBcer,  of  tbe  other  oflacers,  and  of  the  crews 
of  the  '  Erebus '  and '  Terror,'  was  never  surpassed,  and  have  been  rarely,  if  ever, 
equalled  by  seamen  of  any  nation." 

Since  then  tbe  "  Pagoda,"  which  had  been  sent  out  by  tbe  Admiralty  for  the 
purpose  of  observing  magnetic  phenomena  in  a  quarter  of  the  Antarctic  Seas 
that  bad  not  been  visited  by  Sir  James  Ross,  attained  the  73d  parallel,  but  no 
more  recent  expedition  has  been  fitted  out  to  prosecute  his  discoveries,  and  no 
man  after  him  has  seen  Mount  Erebus  vomiting  forth  its  toi-rents  of  flame,  or 
traced  the  stupendous  barrier  which  stopped  his  progress  to  tbe  pole. 


408 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

THE  STRAIT  OF  MAGELLAN. 

Description  of  the  Strait.— Western  Entrance.— Point  Dungeness.— The  Narrows.— Saint  Philip's  Bay. 
—Cape  Froward.— Grand  Scenerj'.- Port  Famine.— The  Sedger  Puver.— Darwin's  Ascent  of  Mount 
Tarn.— The  Bachelor  River.— English  Reach.— Sea  Reach.— South  Desolation.— Harbor  of  Mercy.— 
Williwaws.— Discovery  of  the  Strait  by  Magellan  (October  20,  15-21).— Drake.— Sarmiento.— Cav- 
endish.—Schouten  and  Le  Maire.— Byron.— Bougainville.— Wallis  and  Carteret.— King  and  Fitz- 
roy.— Settlement  at  Punta  Arenas.— Increasing  Passage  through  the  Strait.— A  future  Highway  of 
Commerce. 

THE  celebrated  strait  which  bears  the  name  of  Magellan  is  generally  pic- 
tured as  the  scene  of  a  wild  and  dreary  desolation ;  but  though  its  chmate 
is  far  from  being  genial,  and  its  skies  are  often  veiled  with  mists  and  rain,  yet 
nature  can  smile  even  here. 

A  glance  at  the  map  shows  us  the  extreme  irregularity  of  its  formation,  as 
it  is  constantly  changing  in  width  and  direction ;  now  swelling  almost  to  the 
magnitude  of  a  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  then  again  contracting  to  a  narrow 
passage ;  sometimes  taking  a  rapid  turn  to  the  north,  and  at  others  as  sudden- 
ly deviating  to  the  south.  Islands  and  islets  of  every  form — some  mere  naked 
rocks,  others  clothed  with  umbrageous  woods — are  scattered  over  its  surface; 
promontories  without  number,  from  the  Patagonian  mainland  or  the  Fuegian 
archipelago,  protrude  their  bold  fronts  into  its  bosom,  as  if  with  the  intention 


THE  STRAIT  OF  IHAGELLAK  409 

of  closing  it  altogether ;  and  countless  bays  and  havens  arc  scooped  into  its 
rocky  shores,  as  if  the  sea  in  a  thousand  difCereut  places  had  striven  to  open 
a  new  passage  to  her  waters. 

The  Avestern  entrance  of  this  remarkable  strait  is  formed  by  Queen  Cathe- 
rine's Foreland  (Cape  Virgins)  and  Point  Duugeness,  the  latter  having  been 
thus  named  from  its  resemblance  to  the  well-known  Kentish  promontory  at  the 
eastern  mouth  of  the  channel.  Although  it  rises  at  most  nine  feet  above  low- 
water  mark,  the  snow-white  breakers  which  the  tides  are  constantly  dashing 
over  its  sides  render  it  visible  from  a  great  distance.  It  is  generally  the  resort 
of  a  number  of  sea-lions.  When  the  wind  comes  blowing  from  the  north-east, 
the  passing  mariner — who,  from  the  shallow  nature  of  the  shore,  is  obliged  to 
keep  at  some  distance  from  the  Ness — hears  their  hoarse  bellowing,  which  har- 
monizes well  with  the  wild  and  desolate  character  of  the  scene.  Albatrosses 
and  petrels  hover  about  them,  while  rows  of  grave-looking  penguins  seem  to 
contemplate  their  doings  with  philosophic  indifference. 

Beyond  these  promontories  the  strait  widens  into  Possession  Bay,  which  at 
Punta  Delgada  and  Cape  Orange  contracts  to  a  narrow  passage.  This  leads 
into  a  wide  basin,  to  which  the  Spaniards  have  given  the  name  of  Saint  Philip's 
Bay,  and  Avhich  again  terminates  in  a  second  narrow  passage  or  channel,  a 
formation  resembling  on  a  small  scale  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  which,  as  we  all 
know,  has  likewise  the  semblance  of  a  lake,  receiving  and  discharging  its  wa- 
ters through  the  Dardanelles  and  the  Strait  of  Constantinople.  During  the 
rising  of  the  flood,  a  strong  current  flows  through  all  these  bays  and  narrows 
from  the  west,  so  as  to  allow  ships  an  easy  passage,  even  against  the  wind ; 
but  during  ebb  tide  the  current  turns  to  the  east,  so  that  at  this  time  a  ves- 
sel, even  when  favored  by  the  wind,  makes  but  little  progress,  or  is  even 
obliged  to  anchor  to  avoid  losing  ground.  When  Magellan,  after  sailing  round 
Cape  Virgins,  penetrated  into  the  strait,  this  circumstance  at  once  convinced 
that  great  navigator  that  he  was  not  in  an  inclosed  bay,  but  in  an  open  chan- 
nel, which  would  lead  him  into  another  ocean.  Thus  far  the  country  on  both 
sides  of  the  strait  consists  of  nearly  level  plains,  like  those  of  Patagonia ;  but 
beyond  the  second  Narrows  the  land  begins  to  assume  the  more  bold  and  pic- 
turesque appearance  which  is  characteristic  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  Mountains 
rise  above  mountains  with  deep  intervening  valleys,  all  covered  by  one  thick, 
dusky  mass  of  forest;  while  farther  to  the  east  scarcely  a  bush  clothes  the 
naked  soil.  The  trees  reach  to  an  elevation  of  between  1000  and  1500  feet, 
and  are  succeeded  by  a  band  of  peat,  with  minute  Alpine  plants,  and  this  again 
is  succeeded  by  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  which,  according  to  Captain  King, 
descends  to  between  3000  and  4000  feet. 

The  finest  scenery  about  the  Strait  of  Magellan  is  undoubtedly  to  the  cast 
of  Cape  Froward,  the  most  southerly  point  of  the  mainland  of  South  America. 
This  promontory,  which  consists  of  a  steep  mass  of  rock  about  800  feet  high, 
abutting  from  a  mountain  chain  of  about  2000  or  3000  feet  in  height,  forms 
the  boundary  between  two  very  different  climates,  for  to  the  east  the  weather 
is  finer  and  more  agreeable  than  to  the  Avest,  where  wind  and  rain  are  almost 
perpetual. 


410  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

On  the  Patagonian  plains,  the  drought  and  the  want  of  protection  against 
the  piercing  winds  ahnost  entirely  impede  vegetation  ;  but  the  country  between 
Cape  Negro — a  little  within  the  second  Narrows — and  Cape  Froward,  or  the 
eastern  shore  of  Brunswick  Peninsula,  is  shielded  by  its  situation  against  the 
almost  perpetual  storms  from  the  west,  and  enjoys,  moreover,  a  sufficiency  of 
rain,  and  now  and  then  serene  weather.  As,  moreover,  the  soil  in  this  central 
part  of  the  strait  consists  of  disintegrated  clay-slate,  which  is  most  favorable  to 
the  growth  of  trees,  the  forests,  from  all  these  causes,  are  finer  here  than  any- 
where else. 

The  country  about  Port  Famme  is  particularly  distinguished  for  the  rich- 
ness of  its  vegetation ;  and  both  for  this  reason,  and  from  its  central  situation, 
this  harbor  has  become  a  kind  of  chief  station  for  the  ships  that  pass  through 
the  strait.  Several  unfortunate  attempts  at  colonization  have  been  made  at 
Port  Famine ;  here  many  a  naturalist  has  tarried,  and  thus  no  part  of  the 
strait  has  been  oftener  described  or  more  accurately  observed. 

"The  anchorage,"  says-Dumont  d'TJrville,  who,  in  December,  1837,  spent 
several  days  at  Port  Famine,  "  is  excellent,  and  landing  everywhere  easy.  A 
fine  rivulet  gives  us  excellent  water,  and  the  neighboring  forests  might  furnish 
whole  fleets  with  the  necessary  fuel.  The  chffs  along  the  shore  are  literally 
covered  with  mussels,  limpets,  and  whelks,  which  afford  a  delicious  variety  of 
fare  to  a  crew  tired  of  salt  beef  and  peas.  Among  the  plants  I  noticed  with 
pleasure  a  species  of  celery,  which,  with  another  herb  resembling  our  corn 
flower  in  form  and  taste,  gives  promise  of  an  excellent  salad. 

"  I  made  use  of  my  first  leisure  to  visit  the  romantic  banks  of  the  Sedger 
Rivei-,  which  discharges  its  waters  on  the  western  side  of  the  port.  At  its 
mouth  the  swampy  strand  is  completely  covered  with  enormous  trees  heaped 
upon  the  ground.  These  naked  giants,  stripped  of  their  branches,  afford  a  re- 
markable spectacle:  they  might  be  taken  for  huge  bones  bleached  by  time. 
No  doubt  they  are  transported  from  the  neighboring  forest  by  the  waters  of 
the  river,  which,  when  it  overflows  its  banks,  after  a  deluge  of  rain,  tears 
along  with  it  the  trees  it  meets  with  in  its  course.  Arrested  by  the  bar  at  the 
mouth  of  the  stream,  they  are  cast  out  upon  its  banks,  Avhere  they  remain 
when  the  waters  sink  to  their  usual  level. 

"  Having  crossed  the  river,  I  entered  the  large  and  fine  forest  with  which  it 
is  bordered.  The  chief  tree  is  the  Antarctic  beech  {Fagus  hetuloides),  which  is 
often  from  sixty  to  ninety  feet  high,  and  about  three  feet  in  diameter.  Along 
with  this  are  two  other  trees,  the  winter's  bark  {Winteria  aromatica),  and  a 
species  of  berberis,  with  a  very  solid  wood ;  but  they  are  much  less  abundant, 
and  of  a  much  smaller  size.  With  the  exception  of  mosses,  lichens,  and  other 
plants  of  this  order,  these  forests  afford  but  little  that  is  interesting  to  the 
naturalist — no  quadrupeds,  no  reptiles,  no  land-snails  ;  a  few  insects  and  some 
birds  are  the  only  specimens  to  be  gained  after  a  long  search.  After  collect- 
ing a  good  supply  of  mosses  and  lichens,  I  returned  to  the  boat  for  the  pur- 
pose of  rowing  up  the  river.  Although  the  current  was  tolerably  rapid,  we  ad- 
vanced about  two  miles,  admiring  the  beauty  of  its  umbrageous  banks.  On 
my  return  I  shot  two  geese  that  Avere  crossing  the  river  over  our  heads,  and 


THE  STRAIT  OF  MAGELLAN.  411 

whose  excellent  meat  amply  supplied  my  table  for  several  days.  This,  together 
with  the  little  gobies  which  were  abundantly  caught  with  hand-lines,  the  laro-e 
mussels  w^e  detached  from  the  rocks,  and  the  celery-salad,  gave  me  dinners  fit 
for  an  alderman.  How  often  since  have  I  regretted  the  plenty  of  Port  Fam- 
ine !" 

In  the  month  of  I'ebruary  (1834),  in  the  height  of  the  Antarctic  summer, 
Mr.  Darwin  ascended  Mount  Tarn,  which  is  2600  feet  high,  and  the  most  ele- 
vated point  in  the  vicinity  of  Port  Famine.  "  The  forest,"  says  our  great  nat- 
uraUst,  "  commences  at  the  line  of  high-water  mark,  and  during  the  first  two 
hours  I  gave  over  all  hopes  of  reaching  the  summit.  So  thick  was  the  Avood 
that  it  was  necessary  to  have  constant  recourse  to  the  compass,  for  every  land- 
mark, though  in  a  mountainous  country,  was  completely  shut  out.  In  the  deep 
ravines  the  death-like  scene  of  desolation  exceeded  all  description ;  outside  it 
was  blowing  a  gale,  but  in  these  hollows  not  even  a  breath  of  wind  stirred  the 
leaves  of  the  tallest  trees.  So  gloomy,  cold,  and  wet  was  every  part,  that  not 
even  the  fungi,  mosses,  or  fei'ns  could  flourish.  In  the  valleys  it  was  scarcely 
possible  to  crawl  along,  they  were  so  completely  barricaded  by  great  moulder- 
ing trunks,  w^hich  had  fallen  down  in  every  direction.  When  passing  over 
these  natural  bridges,  one's  course  was  often  arrested  by  sinking  knee-deep 
into  the  rotten  wood ;  at  other  times,  when  attempting  to  lean  against  a  tree, 
one  was  startled  by  finding  a  mass  of  decayed  matter,  ready  to  fall  at  the 
slightest  touch.  We  at  last  found  ourselves  among  the  stimted  trees,  and  then 
soon  reached  the  bare  ridge,  which  conducted  us  to  the  summit.  Here  was  a 
view  characteristic  of  Tierra  del  Fuego ;  irregular  chains  of  hills,  mottled  with 
patches  of  snow,  deep  yellowish-gi-een  valleys,  and  arms  of  the  sea  intersecting 
the  land  in  many  directions.  The  strong  wdnd  was  piercingly  cold,  and  the 
atmosphere  rather  hazy,  so  that  we  did  not  stay  long  on  the  top  of  the  mount- 
ain. Our  descent  was  not  quite  so  laborious  as  our  ascent;  for  the  weight 
of  the  body  forced  a  passage,  and  all  the  slips  and  falls  were  in  the  right  di- 
rection." 

To  the  west  of  Cape  Froward  the  strait  extends  in  a  north-westerly,  almost 
rectilinear  direction,  until  it  finally  opens  into  the  Pacific,  between  Cape  Pillar 
and  Cape  Victory.  Here  a  day  rarely  passes  without  rain,  hail,  or  snow. 
Where  the  dreadful  power  of  the  prevailing  winds  has  free  play,  the  mountain 
sides  are  naked  and  bare,  but  in  every  sheltered  nook  the  damp  climate  pi'oduces 
a  luxuriant  vegetation.  The  trees,  however,  do  not  attain  any  great  height,  and 
at  Port  Gallant  the  beech  is  already  decidedly  stunted  in  its  growth.  This  is  no 
doubt  caused  by  the  excessive  humidity  of  the  soil,  which  in  all  lower  situations 
is  converted  by  the  continual  rains  into  a  deep  morass.  The  trunks  and  the 
branches  are  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  moss,  and  the  tree  becomes  rotten  in 
its  youth.  But  many  shrubs,  herbs,  and  mosses  thrive  under  the  perpetual  del- 
uge; the  latter  particularly,  covering  large  patches  of  ground  with  a  spongy  car- 
pet. It  may  easily  be  imagined  how  difficult,  or  rather  impossible  it  must  be  to 
penetrate  into  the  interior  of  such  a  coimtry.  Yet  even  these  wild  inhospitable 
regions  can  boast  of  many  a  romantic  scene.  Thus  the  Englisli  Reach,  which 
extends  from  Cape  Froward  to  Carlos  Island,  is  bounded  on  both  sides  by  lofty 


413  THE    POLAR   WORLD. 

mountains,  their  cones  or  jagged  jDeaks  covered  witli  eternal  snow.  Its  south- 
ern bank,  formed  by  Clarence  Island,  is  intersected  with  bays  and  channels,  two 
of  which,  Magdalena  Sound  and  Barbara  Channel,  lead  through  a  maze  of  isl- 
ands into  the  open  sea.  Several  glaciers  descend  in  a  winding  course  from  the 
uj^per  great  expanse  of  snow  to  the  sea-coast,  and  many  a  cascade  conies  dash- 
ing down  from  rock  to  rock,  Skogman*  draws  an  enthusiastic  picture  of  the 
beauty  of  York  Roads  near  the  mouth  of  the  small  Bachelor  River.  To  the 
south,  behind  Carlos  Island,  mountains  rise  above  mountains,  and  snow-fields 
above  snow-fields ;  to  the  north  lies  the  jagged  colossus,  which  from  its  solitary 
grandeur  has  been  called  Bachelor  Peak,  and  at  whose  foot  the  crystal  river  now 
hides  itself  beneath  a  shady  wood,  and  now  rolls  its  crystal  waters  through  a 
green  lawn,  decorated  with  clumps  of  fuchsias.  But  in  spite  of  its  romantic 
beauty,  the  want  of  life  gives  a  melancholy  character  to  this  solitary  vale.  Be- 
yond Carlos  Island  in  Long  Reach,  the  banks  of  the  strait  become  yet  more  bare 
and  desolate.  Vegetation  descends  lower  and  lower  into  the  valleys,  and  even 
here  the  trees  are  misshapen  and  dwarfish.  But  the  mountain  scenery  has  still 
all  the  majesty  which  snow-fields  and  glaciers  of  a  beryl-like  blue  impart  to  an 
Alpine  landscape.  As  Sea  Reach  shoAvs  itself,  vegetation  is  almost  totally  ex- 
tinct, and  on  approaching  the  mouth  of  the  strait,  the  mountains  become  lower, 
their  forms  are  less  picturesque,  and  instead  of  the  stern  grandeur  which  marks 
the  middle  part  of  the  strait,  low,  rounded,  barren  hills  make  their  appearance, 
which  completely  justify  the  name  of  South  Desolation,  which  Sir  James  Nar- 
borough  gave  to  this  coast,  "because  it  was  so  desolate  a  land  to  behold." 

It  may  easily  be  imagined  that  the  prevailing  winds  beyond  Cape  Froward 
are  extremely  troublesome  to  ships  sailing  to  the  western  mouth  of  the  strait, 
and  that  if  not  entirely  beaten  back,  they  can  frequently  only  force  the  passage 
after  many  efforts.  Fortunately,  the  deeply  indented  coasts  possess  a  number 
of  small  havens  which  may  serve  the  mariner  as  stations  during  his  gradual  ad- 
vance. Thus,  close  to  the  mouth  of  the  strait,  where,  between  Cape  Victory 
and  Cape  Pillar,  the  sea  during  and  after  storms  is  so  boisterous  that  even 
steamers  require  their  utmost  strength  not  to  be  dashed  against  the  rocks,  a  se- 
cure port,  appropriately  called  "  Harbor  of  Mercy,"  allows  the  vessels  to  watch 
for  more  tranquil  weather,  and  to  seize  the  first  favorable  opportunity  for 
emerging  into  the  open  sea.  But  even  these  harbors  and  bays  are  subject  to 
peculTarllangers  from  sudden  gusts  of  wind  that  come  sweeping  down  from  the 
mountains,  and  are  known  among  the  seal-catchers  who  frequent  these  danger- 
ous waters  under  the  name  of  wilUwaws,  or  hurricane  squalls.  For  when  the 
wild  south-west  storms  come  rushing  against  the,  mountain-masses  of  Tierra 
del  Fuego,  the  compressed  air  precipitates  itself  with  redoubled  violence  over 
the  rock-walls,  and  then  suddenly  expanding,  flows  down  the  valleys  or  gullies, 
tearing  up  trees  by  the  roots,  and  hurling  rocks  into  the  abyss.  Where  such  a 
gust  oi  wind  touches  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  sea  surges  in  mighty  Avaves, 
and  volumes  of  spray  are  whirled  away  to  a  vast  distance.  If  a  ship  comes  un- 
der its  influence,  its  safety  depends  mainly  upon  the  strength  of  its  anchor  ropes. 
Some  situations  are  particularly  subject  to  wilUwaws,  and  then  the  total  want 

*  Vovage  of  the  Swedish  ship  "  Eugenie." 


THE   STRAIT   OF  MAGELLAN.  413 

of  vegetation  and  the  evident  marks  of  ruin  along  the  mountain  slopes  wai-n  the 
mariner  to  avoid  the  neighborhood.  In  Gabriel  Channel  Captain  King  saw  a 
spot  where  the  williwaws,  bursting  over  the  mountains  on  the  south  side,  had 
swept  down  the  declivities,  and  then  rushing  against  the  foot  of  the  opposite 
hills,  had  again  dashed  upward  with  such  fury  as  to  carry  away  with  them  every 
thing  that  could  possibly  be  attached  from  the  bare  rock. 

It  was  a  memorable  day  in  the  annals  of  maritime  discovery  (October  20, 
1521)  when  Magellan  reached  the  eastern  entrance  of  the  strait  that  was  to  lead 
him,  first  of  all  European  navigators,  from  the  broad  basin  of  the  Atlantic  into 
the  still  wider  expanse  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  was  the  day  dedicated  in  the 
Catholic  calendar  to  St.  Ursula  and  her  eleven  thousand  virgins,  and  he  conse- 
quently named  the  promontory  which  first  struck  his  view  "  Cabo  de  las  Vir- 
gines."  The  flood  tide,  streaming  violently  to  the  west,  convinced  him  that  he 
was  at  the  mouth  of  an  open  channel,  but  he  had  scarcely  provisions  for  three 
months — a  short  allowance  for  venturing  into  an  unknown  world,  and  thus  be- 
fore he  attempted  the  passage  he  convoked  a  council  of  all  his  officers.  Some 
were  for  an  immediate  return  to  Europe,  but  the  majority  voted  for  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  voyage,  and  Magellan  declared  that  should  they  even  be  re- 
duced to  eat  the  leather  of  their  shoes  he  would  persevere  to  the  last,  and  with 
God's  assistance  execute  the  cominauds  of  his  imperial  master  Charles  V.  He 
then  at  once  gave  orders  to  enter  the  strait  full  sail,  and  on  pain  of  death  for- 
bade any  one  to  say  a  word  more  about  a  return  or  the  want  of  provisions. 

Fortunately  the  winds  were  in  his  favor,  for  had  the  usual  inclemencies  of 
this  stormy  region  opposed  him,  there  is  no  doubt  that  with  such  crazy  ves- 
sels, and  such  discontented  crews,  all  his  heroism  would  have  failed  to  insure 
success.  It  was  the  spring  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  and  the  strait  showed 
itself  in  one  of  its  rare  aspects  of  calm.  Many  fish  were  caught,  and,  as  Pi- 
gafetti,  the  historian  of  the  voyage,  relates,  the  aromatic  winter's  bark  which 
served  them  for  fuel  "  wonderfully  refreshed  and  invigorated  their  spirits." 

The  fires  kindled  by  the  savages  on  the  southern  side  during  the  night  in- 
duced Magellan  to  give  that  part  of  the  country  the  name  of  Tierra  del  Fuego, 
or  Fireland;  while  from  their  high  stature  and  bulky  frames,  he  called  the  in- 
habitants of  the  opposite  mainland  Patagonians  (patagon  being  the  Spanish 
augmentative  of  pata,  foot).  Although  several  days  were  lost  in  exploring 
some  of  the  numerous  passages  and  bays  of  the  straits,  its  eastern  mouth  was 
reached  on  November  28,  and  Magellan  saw  the  wide  Pacific  expand  before 
him. 

In  1525  Charles  V.  sent  out  a  new  expedition  of  six  vessels,  under  Garcia 
de  Loaisa,  to  circumnavigate  the  globe.  The  vice-admiral  of  the  squadron  was 
Sebastian  el  Cano,  who,  after  the  death  of  Magellan,  had  brought  the  illustri- 
ous navigator's  ship  safely  back  to  Europe,  and  as  a  reward  had  been  ennobled 
with  the  globe  in  his  coat  of  arms,  and  the  motto, "  Primus  circumdedisti  me." 
Loaisa  entered  the  strait  on  January  26, 1526,  but  he  was  beaten  back  by 
storms  as  far  as  the  River  Santa  Cruz.  On  April  8  he  once  more  attempted  the 
passage,  and  emerged  into  the  Pacific  on  May  25.  Simon  de  Alcazaba,  who  in 
1534  attempted  to  pass  the  Magellans  with  a  number  of  emigrants  for  Peru, 


414  THE  POLAE  WORLD. 

Avas  less  successful,  but  in  1539,  Alfonso  cle  Camargo,  having  lost  two  vessels 
in  the  strait,  passed  it  with  the  third,  and  reached  the  port  of  Callao. 

Until  now  the  Spanish  flag  had  alone  been  seen  in  these  remote  and  solitary 
waters,  but  the  time  was  come  when  they  were  to  open  a  passage  to  its  most 
inveterate  foes.  On  August  20,  1579,  Francis  Drake,  commissioned  by  Queen 
Elizabeth  to  jjlimder  and  destroy  the  Spanish  settlements  on  the  west  coast  of 
America,  ran  into  the  strait,  and  on  December  6  sallied  forth  into  the  Pacific. 

To  meet  this  formidable  enemy,  the  Viceroy  of  Peru  sent  out  in  the  same 
vear  two  ships  under  Pedro  Sarmiento  de  Gamboa.  His  orders  were  to  inter- 
cept Drake's  passage  through  the  strait  and  then  to  sail  on  to  Spain.  Though 
he  failed  in  the  object  of  his  mission,  yet  Sarmiento  displayed  in  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  intricate  and  dangerous  passages  along  the  south-west  coast  of 
America,  the  courage  and  skill  of  a  consummate  seaman,  and  he  gave  the  first 
exact  and  detailed  account  of  the  land  and  waters  of  Fuegia.  His  voyage,  ac- 
cording to  the  weighty  testimony  of  Captain  King,  deserves  to  be  noted  as  one 
of  the  most  useful  of  the  age  in  which  it  was  performed. 

On  his  arrival  in  Spain,  Sarmiento  strongly  pointed  out  the  necessity  of  es- 
tablishing a  colony  and  erecting  a  fort  in  the  strait  (at  that  time  the  only  known 
passage  to  the  Pacific),  so  as  effectually  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  a  future 
hostile  expedition  like  that  of  Drake.  Commissioned  by  Philip  II.  to  carry 
his  plans  into  execution,  he  founded  a  colony,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
Ciudad  de  San  Felipe,  but  a  series  of  disasters  entirely  destroyed  it ;  and  when, 
a  few  years  later,  Cavendish,  who  had  fitted  out  three  ships  at  his  own  expense 
to  imitate  the  example  of  Drake,  appeared  in  the  strait,  he  found  but  three  sur- 
vivors of  many  hundreds,  and  gave  the  scene  of  their  misery  the  appropriate 
name  of  Port  Famine,  which  it  has  retained  to  the  present  day. 

After  Cavendish  and  Hawkins  (1594),  the  Dutch  navigators  De  Cordes^ 
(1599),  Oliver  Van  Noort  (1599),  and  Spilberg  (1615),  attempted,  with  more  or 
less  success,  to  sail  through  the  strait  with  the  intention  of  harassing  and  plun- 
dering the  Spaniards  on  the  coast  of  the  Pacific. 

Strange  to  say,  no  attempt  had  been  made  since  Magellan  to  discover  a  pas- 
sage farther  to  the  south,  so  universal  and  firmly  established  was  the  belief  that 
Fuegia  extended  without  interruption  to  the  regions  of  eternal  ice,  until  at 
length,  in  1616,  the  Dutchmen  Schouten  and  Le  Maire  discovered  the  passage 
round  Cape  Horn.  Two  years  later  Garcia  de  Nodales  sailed  through  the 
Strait  of  Le  Maire,  and,  returning  through  the  Magellans  into  the  Atlantic,  was 
thus  the  first  circumnavigator  of  Fuegia.  In  1669,  Sir  John  Xarborough  hav- 
ing been  sent  out  by  King  Charles  II.  to  explore  the  Magellanic  regions,  fur- 
nished a  good  general  chart  of  the  strait,  and  many  plans  of  the  anchorage 
within  it. 

More  than  sixty  years  now  elapsed  before  any  expedition  of  historical  renown 
made  its  appearance  in  the  strait.  The  dangers  and  hardships  which  had  as- 
sailed the  j)revious  navigators  discouraged  their  successors,  who  all  preferred 
the  circuitous  way  round  Cape  Horn  to  the  shorter  but,  as  it  was  at  that  time 
considered,  more  perilous  route  through  the  strait.  After  this  long  pause,  By- 
ron (December,  1764)  and  Bougainville  (February,  1V65)  once  more  attempted 


TIIE   STRAIT   OF  MAGELLAN.  415 

the  Magellans.  The  difficulties  encountered  by  them  were  surpassed  by  those 
of  Wallis  and  Carteret.  The  former  spent  neai-ly  four  months  (from  Decem- 
ber 17,  1766,  to  April  11,  1767)  in  a  perpetual  conflict  with  stormy  weather 
while  slowly  creeping  through  the  strait ;  and  the  latter  required  eighty-four 
days  for  his  passage  from  Port  Famine  to  Cape  Pillar,  No  wonder  that  the 
next  circumnavigators,  Liitke,  Krusenstern,  Kotzebue,  preferred  sailing  round 
Cape  Horn,  and  that  adventurous  seal-hunters  became  for  a  long  time  the 
sole  visitors  of  these  ill-famed  waters.  At  length  the  British  Government  came 
to  a  resolution  worthy  of  England,  and  resolved  to  have  the  Magellanic  regions 
carefully  surveyed,  and  to  conquer  them,  as  it  were,  anew  for  geographical 
science.  Under  the  command  of  Captain  King,  the  "  Adventure "  and  the 
"Beagle"  were  engaged  in  this  arduous  task  from  1826  to  1830;  but  such 
were  the  dangers  they  had  to  encounter,  that  Captain  Stokes,  the  second  in 
command,  after  contending  for  four  months  with  the  storms  and  currents  which 
frequently  threatened  to  dash  his  vessel  against  the  cliffs,  became  so  shattered 
in  mind  and  body,  that  after  his  return  to  Port  Famine  he  committed  suicide  in 
a  fit  of  melancholy. 

From  1831  to  1834  Captain  Fitzroy  was  engaged  in  comjDleting  the  sui'vey 
of  Patagonia  and  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  the  result  of  all  these  labors  was  a  col- 
lection of  charts  and  plans  which  have  rendered  navigation  in  those  parts  as 
safe  as"  can  be  expected  in  the  most  tempestuous  region  of  the  globe. 

While  formerly  the  passage  round  Cape  Horn  was  universally  preferred,  the 
more  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  for  which  navigation  is  in- 
debted to  the  labors  of  King  and  Fitzroy,  has  since  then  turned  the  scale  in 
favor  of  the  latter. 

For  a  trading-vessel,  with  only  the  ordinary  number  of  hands  on  board,  the 
passage  through  the  strait  from  east  to  west  is  indeed  very  difficult,  and  even 
dangerous  ;  but  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  almost  constant  westerly  winds 
render  it  commodious  and  easy  particularly  during  the  summer  months,  in 
which  they  are  most  prevalent. 

For  small  vessels — clippers,  schooners,  cutters — the  passage  in  both  directions 
is,  according  to  the  excellent  authority  of  CJiptain  King,  much  to  be  preferred. 
Such  vessels  have  far  more  reason  for  fearing  the  heavy  seas  about  Cape  Horn  ; 
they  can  more  easily  cross  against  the  west  winds,  as  their  manoeuvres  are  gen- 
erally very  skillful,  and  they  find  in  the  Sound  itself  a  great  number  of  anchor- 
ing-places,  which  are  inaccessible  to  larger  vessels. 

For  steamers  the  advantage  is  entirely  on  the  side  of  the  Strait,  and  they 
consequently  now  invariably  prefer  this  route.  Here  they  find  plenty  of  wood, 
which  enables  them  to  save  their  coals ;  and  moreover,  from  Cape  Tamar  as  far 
as  the  Gulf  of  Penas,  an  easy  navigation  for  about  360  sea  miles  through  the 
channels  along  the  west  coast  of  America. 

As  the  trade  of  the  Pacific  is  continually  increasing,  and  the  Strait  of  Magel- 
lan more  frequented  from  year  to  year,  we  can  not  wonder  that  the  old  project 
of  settling  a  colony  on  its  shores  should  have  been  revived  in  our  days.  About 
the  year  1840  the  Government  of  Chili  established  a  penal  colony  atPunta  Are- 
nas and  Port  Famine,  which  miserably  failed  in  consequence  of  a  mutiny  ;  but 


416 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


in  1853  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  German  emigrants  were  settled  at  Punta 
Arenas,  and  when  the  "  Novara  "  visited  the  strait  in  1858,  they  were  found  in  a 
thriving  condition.  Should  the  project  of  stationing  steam-tugs  in  the  strait, 
and  of  erecting  lighthouses  at  Cape  Virgins  and  at  the  entrance  of  Smyth  Chan- 
nel be  executed,  the  Magellans  would  become  one  of  the  high-roads  of  com- 
merce, and  the  dangers  which  proved  so  dreadful  to  the  navigators  of  former 
days  a  mere  tale  of  the  past. 


3^^-^^ 


A   HIGHWAY   OV    COMMEKCE. 


PATAGONIA  AND  THE  PATAGONIANS. 


PATAGONIANS. 


CHAPTER  XL. 

PATAGONIA  AND  THE  PATAGONIANS. 

Difference  of  Climate  between  East  and  West  Patagonia.— Extraordinary^  Aridity'  of  East  Patagonia.— 
Zoology.— The  Guanaco.— TheTiicutuco.— The  Patagonian  Agouti.— Vultures.— The  Turkey-buz- 
zard.—The  Carrancha.— The  Chimango.— Darwin's  Ostrich.— The  Patagonians.— Exaggerated  Ac- 
counts of  their  Stature.— Their  Physiognomy  and  Dress.— Religious  Ideas.— Superstitions.— Astro- 
nomical Knowledge.— Division  into  Tribes.— The  Tent,  or  Toldo.— Trading  Routes.— Tlie  great 
Cacique. — Introduction  of  the  Horse. — Industry. — Amusements. — Character. 

PATAGONIA,  the  southern  extremity  of  the  American  continent,  is  divided 
by  the  ridge  of  the  Andes  into  two  parts  of  a  totally  different  character. 
Its  western  coast-lands,  washed  by  the  cold  Antarctic  current  and  exposed  to 
the  humid  gales  of  a  restless  ocean,  are  almost  constantly  obscured  with  clouds 
and  drenched  with  rain.  Dense  forests,  dripping  with  moisture,  clothe  the 
steep  hill-sides ;  and,  from  the  coldness  of  the  summer,  the  snow-line  is  so  low 
that  for  650  miles  northward  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  almost  every  arm  of  the 
sea  which  penetrates  to  the  interior  higher  chain  is  terminated  by  huge  glaciers 
descending  to  the  water's  edge. 

East  Patagonia,  on  the  contrary,  a  vast  plain  rising  in  successive  terraces 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  foot  of  the  Cordillera,  is  one  of  the  most  arid  regions 
of  the  globe.  The  extreme  dryness  of  the  prevailing  westerly  winds,  wdiich 
have  been-  totally  deprived  of  their  humidity  before  crossing  the  Andes,  and 
the  well-rounded  shingles  which  compose  tlie  soil,  have  entailed  tlie  curse  of 

27 


418  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

sterility  on  the  land.  Monotonous  warm  tints  of  brown,  yellow,  or  light  red 
everywhere  fatigue  the  eye,  which  vainly  seeks  for  rest  in  the  dark  blue  sky, 
and  finds  refreshing  green  only  on  some  river-banks. 

Many  broad  flat  vales  transsect  the  plains,  and  in  these  the  vegetation  is 
somewhat  better.  The  sti'eams  of  former  ages  have  no  doubt  hollowed  them 
out,  for  the  rivers  of  the  present  day  are  utterly  inadequate  to  the  task.  On 
account  of  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  the  traveller  may  journey  for  days 
in  these  Patagouian  plains  without  finding  a  drop  of  water.  Springs  are  rare, 
and  even  when  found  are  generally  brackish  and  unrefreshing.  While  the 
"  Beagle  "  was  anchoring  in  the  spacious  harbor  of  Port  St.  Julian,  a  party  one 
day  accompanied  Captain  Fitzroy  on  a  long  walk  roiznd  the  head  of  the  harbor. 
They  were  eleven  hours  without  tasting  any  water,  and  some  of  the  party  were 
quite  exhausted.  From  the  summit  of  a  hill,  to  which  the  appropriate  name 
of  "  Thirsty  Hill "  was  given,  a  fine  lake  was  spied,  and  two  of  the  party  pro- 
ceeded, with  concerted  signals,  to  show  whether  it  was  fresh  water.  The  dis- 
appointment may  be  imagined  when  the  supposed  lake  was  found  to  be  a 
snow-white  expanse  of  salt,  crystallized  in  great  cubes. 

The  extreme  dryness  of  the  air,  which  imparts  so  sterile  a  character  to  the 
country,  favors  the  formation  of  guano  deposits  on  the  naked  islands  along 
the  coast,  which  are  frequented  by  sea-birds.  Protracted  droughts  are  essen- 
tial to  the  accumulation  of  this  manure,  for  repeated  showers  of  rain  would 
wash  it  into  the  sea,  and  for  this  reason  no  guano  deposits  are  found  on  the 
populous  bird-mountains  of  the  north.  A  similar  dryness  of  the  atmosphere 
favors  the  deposit  at  Ichaboe  on  the  African  coast,  at  the  Kooria  Nooria  Is- 
lands in  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  at  the  Chincha  Islands  on  the  Peruvian  coast ; 
and  this  kind  of  climate  appears  also  to  be  particularly  agreeable  to  the  sea- 
birds. 

Considering  the  Excessive  aridity  of  Patagonia,  it  seems  surprising  that  the 
country  should  be  traversed  from  west  to  east  by  such  considerable  rivers  as 
the  Rio  Negro,  the  Gallegos,  and  the  Santa  Cruz;  but  all  these  have  their 
sources  in  the  Andes,  and  are  fed  by  mountain  torrents,  which  no  doubt  derive 
their  waters  from  the  atmospherical  precipitations  of  the  Pacific. 

The  zoology  of  Patagonia  is  as  limited  as  its  flora,  and  greatly  resembles  in 
its  character  that  of  the  mountain  regions  of  Chili,  or  of  the  Puna  or  high  ta- 
ble-land of  the  tropical  Andes  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  the  height  of  which  varies 
from  10,000  to  14,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

In  all  these  countries,  situated  in  such  different  latitudes,  the  exi:)lorer  is  as- 
tonished to  find  not  only  the  same  genera,  but  even  animals  of  the  same  species. 
The  forest-loving  race  of  monkeys  is  nowhere  to  be  found  in  treeless  Patago- 
nia. None  of  the  quadrumana  ventures  farther  south  than  29°  Idt.,  but  on  the 
borders  of  the  Rio  Negro,  the  northern  boundary  of  Patagonia,  some  small  bats 
are  seen  fluttering  about  in  the  twilight. 

The  dark-brown  yellow-headed  GalicUs  vittata,  an  animal  allied  !o  the  Civ- 
ets and  Genets,  is  likewise  found  there,  but  much  more  frequently  its  relation  the 
Zorilla,  which  ranges  from  30°  lat.  to  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  and,  like  the  skunk 
of  the  north,  has  the  power  of  discharging  a  fluid  of  an  intolerably  fetid  odor. 


PATAGONIA  AND   THE  PATAGONIANS.  419 

The  guanaco  is  the  characteristic  quadruped  of  the  plains  of  Patagonia, 
where  it  is  uo  less  useful  to  man  than  the  wild  reindeer  to  the  savage  hunters 
of  the  north.  It  ranges  from  the  Cordillera  of  Peru  as  far  south  as  the  islands 
near  Cape  Horn,  but  it  appears  to  be  more  frequent  on  the  plains  of  South 
Patagonia  than  anywhere  else.  It  is  of  greater  size  than  the  llama,  and  re- 
sembles it  so  much  that  it  was  supposed  to  be  the  wild  variety,  until  Tschudi, 
in  his  "  Fauna  Peruana,"  pointed  out  the  specific  difference  between  both. 
The  guanaco  is  a  more  elegant  animal,  Avith  a  long,  slender  neck  and  fine  legs ; 
its  fleece  is  shorter  and  less  fine;  its  color  is  brown,  the  under  parts  bein<^ 
whitish.  It  generally  lives  in  small  herds  of  from  half  a  dozen  to  thirty  in  each  ; 
but  on  the  banks  of  the  Santa  Ci-uzMr.  Darwin  saw  one  herd  which  contained  at 
least  five  hundred.  Though  extremely  shy  and  wary,  it  is  no  match  for  the 
cunning  of  the  savage ;  and,  before  the  liorse  was  introduced  into  Patagonia, 
man  most  probably  could  not  have  existed  in  those  arid  plains  without  the 
guanaco.  It  easily  takes  to  the  w^ater,  and  tliis  accounts  for  its  presence  on  the 
eastern  islands  of  Fuegia,  where  it  has  been  followed  by  the  puma,  or  Ameri- 
can lion,  who  likewise  pursues  it  on  the  plateaus  of  the  Cordillera,  12,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  Brazilian  fox  ( Canis  Azarm)  is  also  met  with  as  far  as  the  strait.  It 
is  somewhat  smaller  than  our  fox,  but  more  robustly  built.  In  Patagonia  it 
preys  chiefly  upon  the  small  rodents,  with  wjiich  the  Jand,  in  spite  of  its  sterili- 
ty, is  perhaps  more  richly  stocked  than  any  other  country  in  the  world.  Among 
these  the  tucutuco  ( Ctenomys  magellanica),  which  may  briefly  be  described  as 
a  gnawer  with  the  habits  of  a  mole,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable.  It  abounds 
near  the  strait,  where  the  sandy  plain  is  one  vast  burrow  of  these  creatures. 
This  curious  animal  makes,  when  beneath  the  ground,  a  very  peculiar  noise,  con- 
sisting of  a  short  nasal  grunt,  monotonously  repeated  about  four  times  in  quick 
succession,  the  name  tucutuco  being  given  in  imitation  of  the  sound.  Where 
the  animal  is  abundant,  it  may  be  heard  at  all  times  of  the  day,  and  sometimes 
directly  beneath  one's  feet.  The  tucutuco  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits ;  its  food 
consists  chiefly  of  roots,  the  search  after  which  seems  to  be  the  cause  of  its  bur- 
rowing. 

Among  the  indigenous  quadrupeds  of  Patagonia  we  find,  moreover,  a  spe- 
cies of  agouti  {Dasyprocta  patagonicci),  which  in  some  measure  represents  our 
hare,  but  is  about  twice  the  size,  and  has  only  three  toes  on  its  hind  feet ;  the 
elegant  long-eare"d  mara  {Dolichotispatagonicus),  which,  unlike  most  burrowing 
animals,  Meanders,  commonly  two  or  three  together,  for  miles  from  its  home  ;  the 
Didelphis  AzarcB,  a  species  of  opossum;  and  the  pichy  {Dasyp>iis  miniitus),  a 
small  armadillo,  which  extends  as  far  south  as  50°  lat. 

It  would  be  vain  to  seek  among  the  Patagonian  birds  for  the  splendid 
plumage  of  the  tropical  feathered  tribes  ;  their  colors  are  simple  and  monoto- 
nous, as  those  of  the  naked  plains  which  are  their  home.  Many  birds  of  i)rey 
of  the  warmer  regions  of  America  likewise  frequent  .the  arid  wastes  of  Pata- 
gonia. When  a  horse  chances  to  perish  from  fatigue  or  thirst,  the  turkey-buz- 
zard ( Vnltur  aura  ?)  begins  to  feast  upon  its  carcass,  and  tlien  the  carrancha 
{Polyhorus  hrasiliensis)  and  the  ohims^ugo  {Folyhorus  cJumango)  pick  its  bones 


420  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

clean.  Though  these  birds,  which  well  supply  the  place  of  our  camon-crows, 
magpies,  and  ravens,  generally  feed  in  common,  they  are  by  no  means  on  a 
friendly  footing.  "When  the  carraucha  is  quietly  seated  on  the  branch  of 
a  tree  or  on  the  ground,  the  chimango  often  continues  for  a  long  time  flying 
backward  and  forward,  up  and  down,  in  a  semicircle,  trying  each  time,  at  the 
"bottom  of  the  curve,  to  strike  its  larger  relative,  which  takes  little  notice  ex- 
cept by  bobbing  its  head.  The  carrancha,  which  is  common  in  the  dry  and 
open  countries,  and  likewise  on  the  arid  shores  of  the  Pacific,  is  also  found  in- 
habiting the  forests  of  West  Patagonia  and  Tierra  del  Fuego.  The  chimango 
is  much  smaller  than  the  carrancha.  Of  all  the  carrion  feeders,  it  is  generally 
the  last  which  leaves  the  skeleton  of  a  dead  animal,  and  may  frequently  be  seen 
witliin  the  ribs  of  a'  horse,  like  a  prisoner  behind  a  grating.  It  is  frequently 
found  on  the  sea-coast,  where  it  lives  on  small  fishes. 

The  condor  may  likewise  be  reckoned  among  the  Patagonian  birds,  as  it 
follows  its  prey,  the  guanaco,  across  the  Strait  of  Magellan  as  far  as  the  eastern 
lowlands  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  In  the  winter  especially,  when  the  cold  forces 
vast  numbers  of  geese  and  ducks  to  quit  the  Antarctic  islands  in  the  higher 
latitudes,  all  these  birds  of  prey,  to  which  the  crowned  falcon  {Circcetes  co- 
ronalus),  the  three-colored  buzzard  {Buteo  tricolor),  the  Aguia  eagle)  Ha- 
lioitus  aguia),  and  several  others  must  be  added,  live  in  luxury.  Most  of  them 
are  likewise  migratory  birds,  and  disappear  in  summer,  with  the  defenseless 
tribes  on  which  they  prey.  The  Magellanic  thrush  {Tardus  magellanicus) 
leaves  in  winter  the  stormy  banks  of  the  strait,  and  retires  to  the  milder  skies 
of  the  Rio  Negro,  where  it  meets  the  tuneful  Patagonian  warbler  ( Orpheus 
patagonicus),  the  nimble  troglodyte  {Troglodytes  pallida),  and  the  inconstant 
fly-catcher  {Mtiscicape parvuhis). 

A  peculiar  species  of  ostrich,  the  nandu  {Ehea  Darwbii),  roams  over  the 
plains  of  Southern  Patagonia  as  far  as  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  It  is  smaller  than 
the  South  American  ostrich  {Jihea  americana),  which  inhabits  the  country  of 
La  Plata  as  far  as  a  little  south  of  the  Rio  Negro ;  but  it  is  more  beautiful, 
as  its  white  feathers  are  tipped  with  black  at  the  extremity,  and  its  black  ones 
in  like  manner  terminate  in  white. 

In  the  same  high  latitude  one  is  surprised  to  rneet  with  a  member  of  the 
parrot  tribe  {Psittaciis  patagonicus)  feeding  on  the  seeds  of  the  winter's  bark, 
and  to  see  humming-birds  ( Trochilus  forficatus)  flitting  about  during  the  snow- 
storms in  the  forests  of  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

The  plains  of  Patagonia  are  inhabited  by  a  race  of  Indians  supposed  to  be 
gigantic,  but  the  descriptions  of  modern  travellers  have  dispelled  the  idea. 
Thus  Pigafetti,  the  companion  of  Magellan,  relates  that  the  Europeans  only 
reach  to  the  waist  of  the  Patagonians ;  Simon  de  Weert  tells  us  that  they  are 
from  ten  to  eleven  feet  high  ;  Byron,  who  visited  them  in  the  last  century, 
reduces  them  to  seven  feet,  and  Captain  Kmg  finally,  who  accurately  measured 
them,  found  the  medium  height  of  the  males  about  five  feet  eleven  inches.  As 
the  Patagonians  have  most  likely  not  degenerated  within  the  last  few  centuries, 
we  may  infer  from  these  various  accounts  that  the  travellers  of  the  present  day 
are  less  prone  to  exaggeration  than  those  of  more  ancient  times.     So  much  is 


PATAGONIA  AND  THE  PATAGONIANS.  421 

certain,  that  the  Patagonians  are  a  fine  athletic  race  of  men,  with  remarkably 
broad  shoulders  and  thick  muscular  limbs.  The  head  is  long,  broad,  and  flat, 
and  the  forehead  low,  with  the  hair  growing  within  an  inch  of  the  eyebrows, 
which  are  bare ;  the  eyes  are  often  placed  obliquely,  and  have  but  little  expres- 
sion ;  the  forehead  and  the  large  lips  are  prominent,  so  that  if  a  pei-pendicular 
line  were  drawn  between  the  two,  the  thick  flat  nose  would  hardly  reach  it,  and 
but  seldom  project  beyond  it.  In  spite  of  these  coarse  features  the  physiogno- 
my of  the  young  girls  is  by  no  means  unpleasant,  as  it  has  an  amiable,  lively  ex- 
pression. All  of  them  have  small  hands  and  feet,  and  D'Orbigny  says  that 
they  have  the  finest  shapes  of  all  the  savages  he  saw.  Though  they  have  a 
wide  mouth  and  thick  lips,  this  fault  is  redeemed  by  their  beautiful  white  teeth, 
which  never  fall  out  even  in  old  age. 

The  color  of  the  Patagonians  is  much  darker  than  that  of  the  Pampas  In- 
dians and  others  farther  to  the  north,  and  most  closely  resembles  that  of  the 
mulatto ;  a  fact  totally  at  variance  with  the  common  belief  that  the  darkness 
of  the  human  skin  increases  on  aj)proaching  the  equator. 

The  chief  garment  is  the  maniihe,  a  wide,  square  mantle — eight  feet  long  and 
nearly  as  broad — which  they  wear  after  the  fashion  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans,  with  one  end  hanging  down  to  the  earth.  It  generally  consists  of 
guanaco  skins  neatly  sewn  together  Avith  ostrich  sinews.  In  cold  weather  the 
manuhe,  which  serves  also  as  a  blanket,  is  worn  Math  the  hair  inside ;  the  even 
surface  is  therefore  ornamented  with  red  drawings.  Sometimes  they  wear 
boots  of  horse-leather,  like  the  Gauchos,  from  whom  they  have  learned  to  make 
them ;  formedy  sandals  of  guanaco  skin  were  alone  in  use.  Their  long  black 
hair  is  tied  behind  with  a  thong  of  leather  or  a  piece  of  ribbon;  the  women 
plait  and  adorn  it  with  a  ijumber  of  ornaments  of  glass  and  copper.  The  face 
is  generally  painted  red,  white,  and  black,  and  a  Patagonian  is  never  seen  with- 
out the  little  pouch  in  which  he  carries  the  necessary  colors.  A  remarkable 
custom,  common  to  all  the  Indian  tribes  as  far  as  Bolivia,  is  that  of  eradicating 
the  hairs  of  tlie  beard,,  and  the  men  may  frequently  be  seen  plucking  them  but 
with  a  pair  of  pincers. 

The  religious  ideas  of  the  Patagonians  greatly  resemble  those  of  their  neigh- 
bors the  Aucas  and  the  Puelches.  The  divine  Achekenat  Kanet  is  reverenced 
as  the  genius  of  both  good  and  evil ;  but  beside  this  chief  deity  they  have  a 
number  of  inferior  spirits,  generally  of  a  malignant  nature,  which  can  be  held 
in  check  only  by  the  arts  of  their  magicians.  Like  the  shamans,  or  medicine- 
men of  the  north,  these  impostors  work  themselves  into  an  ecstatic  state,  in 
which  they  predict  things  to  come,  or  announce  the  will  of  the  unseen  gods ; 
but  their  trade  does  not  seem  to  be  very  lucrative  if  we  may  judge  from  the 
bad  condition  of  their  mantles.  They  also  act  as  physicians,  for  all  diseases 
are  invariably  ascribed  to  the  agency  of  evil  spirits. 

The  Patagonians  are  quite  as  superstitious  as  the  Indians  of  the  high  north- 
ern latitudes.  They  seldom  cut  their  hair,  but  when  they  do,  they  cast  it  into 
the  river  or  carefully  burn  it,  so  that  it  may  not  fall  into  the  hands  of  some  ma- 
lignant magician,  who  might  use  it  to  the  hurt  of  its  quondam  OAvner.  AVhen, 
on  journeying  along  a  river,  they  see  some  trunks  of  trees  descending  with  the 


423  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

current,  they  take  them  for  evil  spirits,  and  address  them  with  a  loud  voice.  If 
by  chance  the  trees  are  swept  by  less  rapidly  or  are  driven  round  in  a  whirl- 
pool, they  believe  that  this  takes  place  for  the  purpose  of  heai'ing  them.  They 
then  make  them  liberal  promises,  which  they  faithfully  keep.  They  cast  their 
weapons,  their  ornaments,  sometimes  even  their  horses  with  bound  feet,  into 
the  water,  fully  persuaded  that  by  this  sacrifice  they  have  averted  the  misfor- 
tunes that  otherwise  would  have  befallen  them.  Like  many  other  savage  na- 
tions, they  believe  in  a  future  paradise,  where  they  expect  to  find  again  all  that 
they  prized  on  earth.  For  this  reason  they  immolate  over  the  graves  of  their 
friends  all  the  animals  that  belonged  to  them,  and  inter  with  them  all  they  pos- 
sessed. 

The  astronomical  knowledge  of  the  Patagonians  is  surprising  in"  a  people 
ranking  so  low  in  the  scale  of  civilization.  Continually  migrating  over  their  arid 
land,  they  soon  felt  the  necessity  of  directing  their  movements  during  the  day 
by  the  position  of  the  sun,  during  the  night  by  the  stars ;  and  thus  they  gradu- 
ally learned  to  observe  the  march  of  the  constellations,  and  to  note  the  times  of 
their  appearance  and  disappearance,  giving  them  names,  so  as  to  be  able  to  com- 
municate their  observations  to  each  other.  Their  lively  fancy  traces  in  the 
starry  firmament  the  picture  of  the  Indian's  hunting  expedition.  The  Milky 
"Way  is  the  path  on  which  he  follows  the  ostrich ;  the  "  Three  Kings  "  are  the 
bolas,  or  balls,  with  which  he  strikes  the  bird  whose  feet  form  the.  Southern 
Cross ;  and  the  Magellanic  clouds  are  heaps  of  its  feathers  that  have  been  col- 
lected by  its  pursuer. 

When  the  Patagonians  speak  of  the  direction  they  intend  to  follow,  from 
north  to  south  or  from  east  to  west,  they  always  indicate  the  constellations  ;  so 
that  in  these  South  American  plains,  as  in  those  of  Chaldea,  a  similar  necessity 
has  led  man  to  lay  the  first  foundations  of  astronomical  knowledge. 

The  Patagonians  are  divided  into  a  number  of  small  migratory  tribes,  each 
consisting  of,  at  the  utmost,  thirty  or  forty  families.  As  they  live  exclusively 
by  the  chase,  it  is  evident  that  a  few  days  would  suffice  to  destroy  or  to  drive 
away  the  game  of  a  great  extent  of  territory  were  they  to  assemble  in  larger 
numbers.  Not  to  perish  of  want,  they  are  thus  compelled  to  wander  from 
place  to  place  in  small  companies,  and  to  carry  along  with  them  their  leathern 
toldos,  or  tents.  The  toldo  reposes  on  a  frame  of  poles  stuck  into  the  earth,  and 
is  scarcely  higher  than  six  feet  in  its  centre,  so  that  one  can  hardly  imagine  how 
a  family  of  tall  Patagonians  can  live  in  so  small  a  space.  The  door  is  invaria- 
bly to  the  east,  so  that  early  in  the  morning  the  chief  of  the  family  may  sprinkle 
before  it  a  few  drops  of  water  as  an  offering  to  the  rising  sun,  for  were  this  sac- 
rifice to  be  neglected,  the  evil  spirits  would  infalhbly  wreak  their  vengeance 
upon  the  inmates  of  the  tent.  Horse-hides,  or  guanaco  skins  coarsely  sewn  to- 
gether, cover  the  frame,  and  afford  but  a  scanty  protection  against  the  rain  and 
the  much  more  frequent  wind.  At  the  top,  as  in  the  Laplander's  hut,  an  open- 
ing is  left  to  let  out  the  smoke.  The  hearth  is  in  the  middle,  and  close  by  lie 
some  earthen  vases,  and  large  volute  shells  which  serve  as  drinking-horns.  The 
inmates  lie  on  sk'ins,  or  sit  in  a  corner  cross-legged,  after  the  Oriential  fashion. 
The  excessive  filth  of  these  wretched  tenements  makes  their  poverty  appear  still 


PATAGONIA  AND   THE  PATAGONIANS.  423 

more  squalid  tlian  it  really  is.  Thirty  or  forty  toldos  form  a  migratory  village, 
or  tokleria.  Though  the  dreadful  small-pox  epidemic  from  1809  to  1812  de- 
stroyed whole  tribes  of  Patagouiaus,  their  present  number  may  still  be  estimated 
at  from  eight  to  ten  thousand  ;  a  small  one,  when  compared  with  the  size  of  the 
country,  yet  large  enough  when  we  consider  the  sterile  nature  of  its  soil  and  the 
vast  space  of  desert  needed  to  feed  a  sufficient  number  of  guanacos  and  horses 
for  the  wants  of  even  a  scanty  population.  Each  tolderia  appears  to  have  its 
territory  Umited  by  the  hunting-grounds  of  its  neighbors,  but  commercial  trans- 
actions take  place  between  the  various  tribes,  and  occasion  longer  journeys. 
One  of  the  chief  trading  routes  runs  along  the  eastern  foot  of  the  Andes  from 
the  Strait  of  Magellan  to  the  Rio  Negro,  as  water  is  here  everywhere  found ; 
another,  leading  parallel  with  the  coast  from  the  Rio  Negro  to  Port  St.  Julian 
and  Port  Desire,  is  only  frequented  in  the  rainy  season,  and  even  then  there  are 
wide  spaces  without  any  sweet  water,  and  where  it  is  necessary  to  travel  night 
and  day  so  as  to  avoid  the  danger  of  dying  of  thirst. 

Every  year  the  various  Patagonian  tribes  wander  to  the  sources  of  the  Rio 
Negro,  where  they  provide  themselves  Avitli  araucaria  seeds,  which  serve  them 
as  food,  or  with  apples,  which  have  multiplied  on  the  eastern  spurs  of  the  Andes 
in  the  same  astonishing  manner  as  the  peach-trees  near  the  mouths  of  the  La 
Plata.  The  apple-tree  was  introduced  by  the  first  Spaniards  who  inhabited  the 
Chilian  Andes  soon  after  the  conquest ;  and  when  later  the  intruders  were  ex- 
pelled by  the  victorious  Araucanians,  the  natives  found  their  country  enriched 
by  this  valuable  acquisition.  ♦ 

One  of  the  chief  bartering  rendezvous  is  the  island  Cholechel,  wliich  is  form- 
ed by  two  arms  of  the  Rio  Negro,  about  eighty  leagues  from  the  mouth  of  the 
river.  Here  the  Patagonian  exchanges  his  guanaco  skins  for  the  articles  which 
the  Puelches,  his  northern  neighbors,  either  fabricate  themselves  or  procure  in 
a  more  easy  manner  by  stealing  them  from  the  white  settlers  in  their  neighbor- 
hood. This  bartering  trade  is  very  ancient,  and  has  always  existed  excepting  in 
times  of  war.  In  this  manner  the  Patagonians  were  provided  with  horses  soon 
after  the  introduction  of  this  valuable  animal  into  the  New  World,  and  thus 
also  articles  of'  Spanish  manufactui-e  soon  found  their  way  as  far  as  the  Strait 
of  Magellan. 

At  present  there  seems  to  be  peace  among  all  the  Patagonian  tribes,  which 
consider  themselves  as  brothers,  though  frequently  separated  several  hundred 
leagues  from  each  other. 

Their  system  -of  government  is  very  simple.  The  whole  nation  has  a  chief, 
or  great  cacique,  whom  they  call  carasken,  and  whose  autliority  is  very  limited. 
In  war  he  presides  in  the  assembly  of  the  minor  chiefs,  and  has  the  supreme 
command  in  battle.  In  peace  his  sway  is  confined  to  his  own  tribe.  lie  is  as 
poor  as  his  subjects,  and,  far  from  enjoying  a  copious  civil  list,  is  obliged  to 
hunt  for  his  subsistence  like  every  other  Patagonian  ;  the  only  advantage  he 
owes  to  his  exalted  station  being  a  somewhat  larger  share  of  the  products  of 
the  chase  ;  and  this  he  is  obliged  to  distribute  among  the  more  needy  of  liis  fol- 
lowers, to  maintain  his  influence.  The  dignity  of  carasken  is  not  always  licrcd- 
itary.     To  succeed  his  father,  the  son  must  first  prove  by  his  eloquence,  liis 


424  THE  POLAR  WORLD. 

courage,  and  his  liberality  that  he  is  worthy  to  siacceed  him ;  and  if  he  is  found 
wanting,  the  Indian  most  distinguished  by  his  moral  and  intellectual  quali- 
ties is  elected  in  his  place. 

The  Patagonians  are  very  awkward  fishermen;  they  merely  catch  what 
chance  throws  into  their  hands,  and  are  unacquainted  with  nets  or  any  other 
piscatorial  artifice.  In  this  respect  they  are  totally  different  from  the  Fuegians, 
who  derive  their  chief  subsistence  from  the  sea.  They  have  ever  been  a  nation 
of  hunters,  and  before  the  introduction  of  the  horse,  they  pursued  their  game 
on  foot,  using  their  bolas  with  great  dexterity  for  the  destruction  of  the  guanaco 
and  the  ostrich.  Their  dogs  afforded  them  a  valuable  assistance,  and  since  they 
have  become  accomplished  horsemen,  their  fleet  coursers  enable  them  to  over- 
take with  ease  all  the  animals  of  the  wilderness.  In  times  of  scarcity  they 
dig  for  a  small  root,  which  is  either  eaten  fresh  or  preserved  dry.  '  Horse-flesh 
is  their  favorite  food. 

The  Patagonian  toldos  and  their  weapons  are  very  rudely  made,  but  their 
skin  mantles  are  not  untastefully  ornamented  with  rectilinear  figures.  In  their 
war-dress  they  have  a  very  hideous  appearance,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  im- 
agine a  more  diabolical  figure  than  that  of  a  tall  Patagonian  ready  for  a  fight, 
his  broad  face  painted  scarlet,  with  black  or  blue  stripes  under  the  eyes,  and 
his  coarse  features  distorted  with  fury.  Their  arms  are  bows  and  arrows,  with 
points  of  flint  loosely  attached  with  sinews,  sa  as  to  remain  sticking  in  the 
wound.  They  are  excellent  archers,  and  use  with  skill  the  sling,  the  javelin, 
and  above  all  their  formidable  bolas,  which  serve  them  both  for  bringing  the 
guanaco  to  the  ground  or  for  breaking  the  skull  of  an  enemy.  When  not  en- 
gaged in  war  or  in  the  chase,  the  men,  like  most  savages,  pass  their  time  in  ab- 
solute idleness,  leaving  all  the  household  work  to  the  women.  Amusements 
they  have  but  few.  The  use  of  dice  they  have  learned  from  the  Spaniards. 
They  are  said  to  be  a  false  and  deceitful  people,  but  their  hospitality  and  good- 
nature have  been  frequently  extolled  by  travellers. 


THE   FUEGIANS. 


425 


COAsT    Ol    ILLOIV 


CHAPTER  XLI. 

THE  FUEGIANS. 

Their  miserable  Condition. — Degradation  of  Body  and  Mind. — Powers  of  Mimicrj'. — Notions  of  Barter. 
Causes  of  their  low  State  of  Cultivation. — Their  Food. — Limpets. — Cyttaria  Darwini. — Constant 
Migrations. — The  Fuegian  Wigwam. — Weapons. — Their  probable  Origin. — Their  Number,  and 
various  Tribes. — Constant  Feuds. — Cannibalism. — Language. — Adventures  of  Fuegia  Basket,  Jem- 
my Button,  and  York  Minster. — Missionaiy  Labors. — Captain  Gardiner. — His  lamentable  End. 

'T^HE  wilds  of  Tien-fi  del  Fuego  are  inhabited  by  a  race  of  men  generally  sup- 
-*-  posed  to  occupy  the  lowest  grade  in  the  scale  of  humanity.  In  a  far  more 
rigorous  climate,  the  Esquimaux,  their  northern  antipodes,  exhibit  skill  in  their 
snow  huts,  their  kayaks,  their  weapons,  and  their  dress  ;  but  the  wretched  Fue- 
gians  are  ignorant  of  every  useful  art  that  could  better  their  condition,  and 
contrive  scarcely  any  defense  against  either  rain  or  wind. 

But  even  among  the  Fuegians  there  are  various  grades  of  civilization — or 
rather  barbarism.  The  eastern  tribes,  which  inhabit  the  extensive  plains  of 
King  Charles's  South  Land,  seem  closely  allied  to  the  Patagonians,  and  are 
a  very  different  race  from  the  undersized  wretches  farther  westward.  A  man- 
tle of  guanaco  skin,  with  the  wool  outside— the  usual  Patagonian  garment — 
loosely  thrown  over  their  shoulders,  and  leaving  their  persons  as  often  exposed 
as  covered,  affords  them  some  protection  against  the  piercing  wind.  The  con- 
dition of  the  central  tribes  inhabiting  the  south-western  bays  and  inlets  of  this 
dreary  country  is  much  more  miserable.  Those  farther  to  the  west  possess 
seal-skins,  but  here  the  men  are  satisfied  with  an  otter  skin  or  some  other  cov- 
ering scarcely  larger  than  a  pocket-handkerchief.  It  is  laced  across  the  breast 
by  strings,  and  according  as  the  wind  blows  it  is  shifted  from  side  to  side. 


42G  THE   POLAR   WORLD. 

But  all  have  not  even  this  wretched  gai'ment,  for  near  Wollaston  Island  Mr. 
Darwin  saw  a  canoe  with  six  Fuegians,  one  of  whom  was  a  woman,  naked.  It 
was  raining  heavily,  and  the  fresh  water,  together  with  the  spray,  trickled  down 
their  bodies.  In  another  harbor  not  far  distant,  a  woman,  who  was  suckling 
a  recently-born  child,  came  one  day  alongside  the  vessel,  and  remained  there 
out  of  mere  curiosity,  whilst  the  sleet  fell  and  thawed  on  her  naked  bosom 
and  on  the  skin  of  her  naked  baby  !  These  poor  wretches  were  stunted  in 
their  growth,  their  faces  bedaubed  with  white  paint,  their  skins  filthy,  their  hair 
entangled,  their  voices  discordant,  and  their  gestures  violent. 

The  Fuegians  whom  Cook  met  with  in  Christmas  Sound  were  equally 
wi'etched.  Their  canoes  were  made  of  the  bark  of  trees  stretched  over  a  frame- 
work of  sticks,  and  the  paddles  which  served  to  propel  these  miserable  boats 
were  small,  and  of  an  equally  miserable  workmanship.  In  each  canoe  sat  from 
five  to  eight  persons ;  but  instead  of  greeting  the  strangers  with  the  joyful 
shouts  of  the  South  Sea  Islanders,  they  rowed  along  in  perfect  silence ;  and 
even  when  quite  close  to  the  vessel,  they  only  uttered  from  time  to  time  the 
word  "  Pescherah  !"  After  repeated  invitations  some  of  these  savages  came 
on  board,  but  without  exhibiting  the  least  sign  of  astonishment  or  curiosity. 
None  were  above  five  feet  four  inches  high ;  they  had  large  heads,  broad 
faces,  with  prominent  cheek-bones,  flat  noses,  small  and  lack-lustre  eyes ;  and 
their  black  hair,  smeared  with  fat,  hung  in  matted  locks  over  their  shoulders. 
Instead  of  a  beard,  their  chin  exhibited  'a  few  straggling  bristles,  and  their 
whole  appearance  afforded  a  striking  picture  of  abject  misery.  Their  shoul- 
ders and  breast  were  broad  and  strongly  built,  but  the  extremities  of  the  body 
so  meagre  and  shrivelled  that  one  could  hardly  realize  the  fact  that  they  be- 
longed to  the  upper  part.  The  legs  were  crooked,  the  knees  disproportionate- 
ly thick.  Their  sole  garment  consisted  of  a  small  piece  of  seal-skin,  attached  to 
the  neck  by  means  of  a  cord,  otherwise  they  were  quite  naked ;  but  even  these 
miserable  creatures  had  made  an  attempt  to  decorate  their  olive-brown  skin 
with  some  stripes  of  ochre.  The  women  were  as  ugly  as  the  men.  Their  food 
consisted  of  raw,  half-putrid  seal's  flesh,  which  made  them  smell  so  horribly, 
that  it  was  impossible  to  remain  long  near  them.  Their  intelligence  was  on  a 
par  with  the  filth  of  their  bodies.  The  most  expressive  signs  were  here  of  no 
avail.  Gestures  which  the  most  dull-headed  native  of  any  South  Sea  island  im- 
mediately understood,  these  savages  either  did  not,  or  would  not  give  them- 
selves the  trouble  to  comprehend.  Of  the  superiority  of  the  Europeans  they 
appeared  to  have  no  idea,  never  expressing  by  the  slightest  sign  any  astonish- 
ment at  the  sight  of  the  ship  and  the  various  objects  on  board.  It  would  how- 
ever be  doing  the  Fuegians  injustice  to  suppose  them  all  on  a  level  with  these 
wretches.  According  to  Forster,  they  were  most  likely  outcasts  from  the 
neighboring  tribes, 

Mr.  Darwin,  as  well  as  Sir  James  Ross,  describes  the  Fuegians  whom  they 
met  with  in  the  Bay  of  Good  Success  and  on  Hermit  Island  as  excellent 
mimics,  "As  often  as  we  coughed  or  yawned,"  says  the  former, "  or  made  any 
odd  motion,  they  immediately  imitated  us.  Some  of  our  party  began  to  squint 
and  look  awry,  but  one  of  the  young  Fuegians  (whose  whole  face  was  painted 


THE  FUEGIANS. 


427 


black,  excepting  a  white  liind  across  his  eyes)  succeeded  in  making  far  more 
hideous  grimaces.  They  could  repeat  with  perfect  correctness  each  word  in 
any  sentence  we  addressed  them,  and  they  remembered  such  words  for  some 
time.  Yet  we  all  know  how  difficult  it  is  to  distinguish  apart  the  sounds  in  a 
foreign  language." 

Close  to  the  junction  of  Ponsonby  Sound  with  the  Beagle  Channel,  where 
Mr.  Darwin  and  his  party  spent  the  night,  a  small  family  of  Fuegians  soon 
joined  the  strangers  round  a  blazing  fire.  They  seemed  well  pleased,  and  all 
joined  in  the  chorus  of  the  seamen's  songs.  During  the  night  the  news  had 
spread,  and  early  in  the  morning  other  Fuegians  arrived.  Several  of  these  had 
run  so  fast  that  their  noses  were  bleeding,  and  their  mouths  frothed  from  the 
rapidity  with  which  they  talked  ;  and  with  their  naked  bodies  all  bedaubed  with 
black,  white,  and  red,  they  looked  like  so  many  demons. 


/        I 


|T=|   ip 

"-! 

"  1 

1 

_ 

1    1 
// 

ll 

^ 

-^^^^ 

1           ll  1 ' 

a 

' 

FUEGIAN   TRADERS. 


These  people  plainly  showed  that  they  had  a  fair  notion  of  barter.  Mr.  Dar- 
win gave  one  man  a  large  nail  (a  most  valuable  present)  without  making  any 
signs  for  a  return  ;  but  he  immediately  picked  out  two  fish,  and  lianded  them 
up  on  the  point  of  his  spear.  Here  at  least  we  see  signs  of  a  mental  activity 
favorably  contrasting  with  the  stolid  indifference  of  the  Fuegians  seen  by  For- 
ster  at  Christmas  Harbor ;  and  Mr.  Darwin  is  even  of  opinion  that  in  general 
these  people  rise  above  the  Australians  in  naental  power,  although  their  actual 
acquirements  may  be  less. 

The  reason  why  the  Fuegians  are  so  little  advanced  in  the  arts  of  life. 


428  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

are  partly  to  be  sought  for  in  the  nature  of  the  land,*ancl  partly  in  their  political 
state.  The  perfect  equality  among  the  individuals  in  each  tribe  must  retard 
their  civilization ;  and  until  some  chief  shall  arise  with  power  sufficient  to  se- 
cure any  acquired  advantage,  such  as  the  domesticated  animals,  it  seems  scarce- 
ly possible  that  their  condition  can  improve.  But  the  chief  causes  of  their 
wretchedness  are  doubtless  the  barrenness  of  their  country  and  their  constant 
forced  migrations. 

With  the  exception  of  the  eastern  part,  the  habitable  land  is  reduced  to 
the  stones  on  the  beach.  In  search  of  food  they  are  compelled  to  wander  from 
spot  to  spot ;  and  so  steep  is  the  coast  that  they  can  only  move  about  in  their 
canoes.  Whenever  it  is  low  water,  winter  or  summer,  night  or  day,  they  must 
rise  to  pick  limpets  from  the  rock ;  and  the  women  either  dive  to  collect  sea- 
eggs,  or  sit  patiently  in  their  boats,  and  with  a  baited  hair-line,  without  any 
hook,  jerk  out  little  fish.  If  a  seal  is  killed,  or  the  floating  carcass  of  a  putrid 
whale  discovered,  it  is  a  feast ;  and  such  miserable  food  is  assisted  by  a  few 
tasteless  berries,  chiefly  of  a  dwarf  arbutus,  or  by  a  globular  bright  yellow  fun- 
gus {Cyttaria  2>rtritu';ii),  which  grows  in  vast  numbers  on  the  beech -trees. 
When  young,  it  is  elastic,  with  a  smooth  surface ;  but,  when  mature,  it  shrinks, 
becomes  tougher,  and  has  its  entire  surface  deeply  pitted  or  honey-combed. 
In  this  mature  state  it  is  collected  in  large  quantities  by  the  women  and  chil- 
dren, and  is  eaten  uncooked.  It  has  a  mucilaginous,  slightly  sweet  taste,  with 
a  faint  smell  like  that  of  a  mushroom. 

The  necessity  of  protecting  themselves  against  the  extremity  of  cold,  and  of 
obtaining  their  food  from  the  sea,  or  by  the  chase  of  the  reindeer  or  the  white 
bear,  forces  the  Esquimaux  to  exert  all  their  faculties,  and  thus  they  have 
raised  themselves  considerably  higher  in  the  scale  of  civilization  than  the  Fue- 
gians,  whose  mode  of  life  Requires  far  less  exertion  of  the  mind.  To  knock  a 
limpet  from  the  rock  or  to  collect  a  fungus  does  not  even  call  cunning  into  ex- 
ercise. Living  chiefly  upon  shell-fish,  they  are  obliged  constantly  to  change 
their  abode,  and  thus  they  hardly  bestow  any  thought  on  their  dwellings,  which 
are  more  like  the  dens  of  wild  beasts  than  the  habitations  of  human  beings. 
The  Fuegian  wigwam  consists  of  a  few  branches  stuck  in  the  ground,  and  very 
imperfectly  thatched  on  one  side  with  a  few  tufts  of  grass  and  rushes.  The 
whole  can  not  be  the  work  of  an  hour,  and  it  is  only  used  for  a  few  days.  At 
intervals,  however,  the  inhabitants  of  these  wretched  huts  return  to  the  same 
spot,  as  is  evident  from  the  piles  of  old  shells,  often  amounting  to  several  tons 
in  weight.  These  heaps  can  be  distinguished  at  a  distance  by  the  bright  green 
color  of  certain  plants,  such  as  the  wild  celery  and  scurvy  grass,  which  invari- 
ably grow  on  them. 

The  only  articles  in  the  manufacture  of  which  the  Fuegians  show  some 
signs  of  ability  are  a  few  ornaments  and  their  weapons,  which  again  are  far 
inferior  to  those  of  the  Esquimaux.  Their  bows  are  small  and  badly  shaped, 
their  arrows,  which  are  between  two  and  three  feet  long,  feathered  at  one  end 
and  blunted  at  the  other.  The  points  are  only  attached  when  the  arrow  is 
about  to  be  used,  and  for  this  purpose  the  archer  carries  them  about  with  him 
in  a  leathern  pouch.     The  shaft  of  their  larger  spears  is  about  ten  feet  long, 


THE   FUEGIANS.  429 

and  equally  thick  at  both  ends.  At  one  of  the  extremities  is  a  fissure,  into  wliich 
a  pointed  bone  with  a  barbed  hook  is  inserted  and  tightly  bound  with  a  thread. 
With  this  weapon  they  most  probably  attack  the  seals ;  they  also  use  it  to  de- 
tach the  shell-fish  from  the  rocks  below  the  surface  of  the  water,  A  second 
spear,  longer  and  lighter  than  the  first,  with  a  barbed  point,  serves  most  likely 
as  a  weapon  of  Avar ;  and  a  third  one,  much  shorter  and  comparatively  thin, 
]nay  perhaps  bo    destined  for  the  birds.      The  females  know  how  to  make 


A  FUEGIAN  AND   HIS   FOOD. 


pretty  necklaces  of  colored  shells  and  baskets  of  grafs  stalks.  Here,  as  with 
all  other  races  of  mankind,  we  find  the  germs  of  improvement,  which  only 
require  for  their  development  the  external  imjiulse  of  more  favorable  circum- 
stances. 

If  it  be  asked  whether  they  feel  themselves  as  miserable  as  their  wretched 
appearance  would  lead  us  to  believe  them,  it  must  be  replied  that  most  travel- 
lers describe  them  as  a  cheerful,  good-humored,  contented  people ;  and  as  Mr. 
Darwin  finely  remarks,  "  Nature,  by  making  habit  omnipotent  and  its  effects 


430  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

hereditary,  has  fitted  the  Fuegian  to  the  dimate  and  the  productions  of  his 
country." 

The  number  of  these  savages  is  no  doubt  very  small,  as  seldom  more  than 
.thirty  or  forty  individuals  are  seen  together.  The  interior  of  the  mountainous 
islands,  which  is  as  little  known  as  the  interior  of  Spitzbergen,  is  no  doubt  com- 
pletely uninhabited  ;  as  the  coasts  alone,  with  the  exception  of  the  eastern  and 
more  level  part  of  the  country,  where  the  guanaco  finds  pasture,  are  able  to 
furnish  the  means  of  subsistence.  The  various  tribes,  separated  from  each 
other  by  a  deserted  neutral  territory,  are  nevertheless  engaged  in  constant 
feuds,  as  quarrels  are  perpetually  arising  about  the  possession  of  some  limpet- 
bank  or  fishing-station.  When  at  war  they  are  cannibals ;  and  it  is  equally  cer- 
tain that  when  pressed  in  winter  by  hunger  they  kill  and  devour  their  old  wom- 
en before  they  kill  their  dogs,  alleging  as  an  excuse  that  their  dogs  catch  otters, 
and  old  women  do  not. 

It  has  not  been  ascertained  whether  they  have  any  distinct  belief  in  a  future 
life.  They  sometimes  bury  their  dead  in  cav-es,  and  sometimes  in  the  mountain 
forests.  Each  family  or  tribe  has  a  wizard,  or  conjuring  doctor.  Their  lan- 
guage, of  which  there  are  several  distinct  dialects,  is  likewise  little  known ;  it 
is  however,  far  inferior  to  the  copious  and  expressive  vocabulary  of  the  Esqui- 
maux. 

In  1830,  while  Captain  Fitzroy  was  surveying  the  coasts  of  Fuegia,  he  seized 
on  a  party  of  natives  as  hostages  for  the  loss  of  a  boat  which  had  been  stolen, 
and  some  of  these  natives,  as  well  as  a  child  belonging  to  another  tribe,  whom 
he  bought  for  a  pearl  button,  he  took  wiJth  him  to  England,  determining  to 
'educate  them  at  his  own  expense.  One  of  thera  afterwards  died  of  the  small- 
pox ;  but  a  young  girl,  Fuegia  Basket,  and  two  boys,  Jemmy  Button  (thus 
named  from  his  purchase-money)  and  York  Minster  (so  called  from  the  great 
rugged  mountain  of  York  Minster,  near  Cliristmas  Sound),  were  placed  in  a 
school,  at  Walthamstow,  and  moreover  had  the  honor  of  being  presented  to 
King  William  and  Queen  Adelaide.  Three  years  Jemmy  and  his  companions 
remained  in  England,  at  the  end  of  which  time  Captain  Fitzroy  was  again  sent 
out  to  continue  the  survey,  and  took  with  him  these  three  Fuegians,  intending 
to  return  them  to  the  place  whence  they  had  come.  In  this,  however,  he  was 
disappointed;  but  at  their  own  request  York  and  Fuegia  were,  with  Jemmy, 
deposited  at  Woollya,  a  pleasant  looking  spot  in  Ponsonby  Sound,  belonging 
to  Jemmy's  tribe.  His  family,  consisting  of  his  mother  and  three  brothers, 
was  absent  at  the  time,  but  they  arrived  the  following  morning.  Jemmy  rec- 
ognized the  stentorian  voice  of  one  of  his  brothers  at  a  prodigious  distance,  but 
the  meeting,  as  Mr.  Dar^^in,  who  witnessed  the  scene,  relates,  was  less  interest-' 
ing  than  that  between  a  horse  turned  out  into  a  field  and  an  old  companion. 
There  was  no  demonstration  of  affection  ;  they  simply  stared  for  a  short  time 
at  each  other.  Three  large  wigwams  were  built  for  them,  gardens  planted,  and 
an  abundant  supply  of  every  thing  landed  for  their  use.  Jemmy,  who  had  be- 
come quite  a  favorite  on  board,  was  short  and  fat,  but  vain  of  his  personal  ap- 
pearance ;  he  used  always  to  wear  gloves,  his  hair  was  neatly  cut,  and  he  was 
distressed  if  his  well-polished  shoes  were  dirtied.     York  was  somewhat  coarse 


THE    FUEGIANS.  431 

and  less  intelligent,  though  in  some  things  he  could  be  quick.  lie  became  at- 
tached to  Fuegia,  and  as  both  were  of  the  same  tribe,  they  became  man  and 
wife  after  their  return  to  Tierra  del  Fuego.  She  was  the  most  intelligent  of 
the  three,  and  quick  in  learning  any  thing,  especially  languages. 

Thus  these  semi-civilized  savages  were  left  among  their  barbarous  country- 
men, with  the^hope  that  they  might  become  the  means  of  improving  their  whole 
tribe;  but  when  Captain  Fitzroy  returned  to  the  spot  twelve  months  after, 
he  found  the  wigwams  deserted  and  the  gardens  trampled  under  foot.  Jemmy 
came  paddling  up  in  his  canoe,  but  the  dandy  who  had  been  left  plump,  clean, 
and  well-dressed,  was  now  turned  into  a  thin,  haggard  savage,  with  long,  disor- 
dered hair,  and  naked,  except  a  bit  of  a  blanket  round  his  waist.  He  could  still 
speak  English,  and  said  that  he  had  enough  to  eat,  that  he  was  not  cold,  and 
that  his  relations  were  very  good  people.  He  had  a  wife  besides,  who  was  de- 
cidedly the  best-looking  female  in  the  company.  With  his  usual  good  feeling, 
he  brought  two  beautiful  otter  skins  for  two  of  his  best  friends,  and  some  spear- 
heads and  arrows  made  with  his  own  hands  for  the  captain.  He  had  lost  all 
his  property.  York  Minster  had  built  a  large  canoe,  and  with  his  wife  Fuegia 
had,  several  months  since,  gone  to  his  own  country,  and  had  taken  farewell  by 
an  act  of  consummate  villainy.  He  persuaded  Jemmy  and  his  mother  to  come 
with  him,  and  then  on  the  way  deserted  them  by  night,  stealing  every  article 
of  their  property.  It  was  the  opinion  of  all  on  board  that  the  cunning  rogue  had 
planned  all  this  long  before,  and  that  with  this  end  in  view  he  had  desired  so 
earnestly  to  remain  with  Jemmy's  tribe  rather  than  be  landed  on  his  own  coun- 
try. Eight  years  after  an  English  vessel  put  into  a  bay  in  the  Magellans  for 
water,  and  there  was  found  a  woman,  without  doubt  Fuegia  Basket,  who  said, 
"  How  do  ?•  I  have  been  to  Plymouth  and  London."  York  Minster  was  also 
seen  in  1851.  From  Captain  Snow,  commander  of  the  mission  yacht  "Allen 
Gardiner,"  we  have  the  last  accounts  of  Jemray  Button  in  1855.  Twenty-three 
years  had  not  obliterated  his  knowledge  of  the  English  language,  but  he  Avas  as 
wild  and  shaggy  as  his  untaught  countrymen.  In  spite  of  his  superior  knowl- 
edge, he  was  treated  as  a  very  inferior  personage  by  the  members  of  his  tribe ; 
yet  he  declared  that  though  he  loved  England,  he  loved  his  country  still  better ; 
that  nothing  should  induce  him  to  leave  it,  and  that  he  would  never  allow  any 
of  his  children  to  quit  their  native  soil. 

Other  efforts  have  been  made  to  civilize  the  Fuegians.  A  Spanisli  vessel 
having  been  shipwrecked  on  the  eastern  coast  in  1767,  its  crew  was  hospitably 
treated  by  the  natives,  who  even  assisted  in  saving  the  cargo.  Out  of  gratitude, 
the  Governor  of  Buenos  Ayres  sent  out  some  missionaries,  who,  however,  totally 
failed  to  make  any  impression  on  the  savages. 

A  no  less  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  about  the  year  1835  by  English  mis- 
sionaries ;  and  the  e^^pedition  of  Captain  Gardiner,  who,  accompanied  by  a  sur- 
geon, a  catechist,  and  four  Cornish  fishermen,  sailed  to  Fuegia  in  1851,  with  the 
intention  of  converting  the  natives,  proved  equally  fruitless,  and  had  a  far  more 
tragic  end.  His  measures  for.  securing  the  necessary  supplies  of  food  Avere  so 
ill  calculated  that  the  whole  party  died  of  hunger  in  Spaniards'  Harbor,  on  the 
southern  coast.     Captain  Morshead,  of  the  "  Dido,"  had  received  orders  on  his 


433 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


STARVATION   BEACH. 


way  to  Valparaiso  to  visit  the  scene  of  the  mission,  and  afford  Captain  Gardi- 
ner any  aid  he  might  require,  but,  on  arriving  at  the  cove,  he  found  it  deserted. 
After  a  few  days'  search  the  bodies  were  discovered,  and  fragments  of  a  jom-- 
nal  written  by  Captain  Gardiner  gave  proof  of  the  sufferings  Avhioh  they  had 
endured  before  death  reheved  them  from  their  misery.  The  spot  lias  received 
the  name  of  Starvation  Beach. 


CHARLES  FRANCIS  ILVLL  AND  THE  INNUITS. 


433 


M_^f  ^W. 


SURVEYING    IX    GKEENLAND. 


CHAPTER  XLII. 

CHARLES  FRANCIS  HALL  AND  THE  INNUITS. 

Hall's  Expedition.— His  early  Life. — His  reading  of  Arctic  Adventure. — His  Resolve.— His  Arctic  Out- 
fit.—Sets  Sail  on  the  "  George  Henry." — The  Voyage.— Kudlago.—Holsteinborg,  Greenland.— Pop- 
ulation of  Greenland.— Sails  for  Davis's  Strait.— Character  of  the  Inniiits. — Wreck  of  the  "  Rescue." 
— Ebierbing  and  Tookoolito. — Their  Visit  to  England. — Hall's  first  Exploration. — European  and  In- 
nuit  Life  in  the  Arctic  Regions.— Building  an  Igloo. — Almost  Starved.— Fight  for  Food  with  Dogs. 
—Ebierbing  anives  with  a  Seal.— How  he  caught  it. — A  Seal-feast.— The  Innuits  and  Seals.— The 
Polar  Bear.— How  he  teaches  the  Innuits  to  catch  Seals.— At  a  Seal-hole. — Dogs  as  Seal-hunters.— 
Dogs  and  Bears.— Dogs  and  Reindeers.— Innuits  and  Walruses. — More  about  Igloos. — Innuit  Imple- 
ments.— Uses  of  the  Reindeer. — Innuit  Improvidence. — A  Deer-feast.— A  frozen  Delicacy.— Whale- 
skin  as  Food.— Whale-gum.— How  to  eat  Whale  Ligament.— Raw  Meat.— The  Dress  of  the  Innuits. 
—A  pretty  Style.— Religious  Ideas  of  the  Innuits.— Their  kindly  Character. —  Treatment  of  the 
Aged  and  Infirm. — A  Woman  abandoned  to  die.— Hall's  Attempt  to  rescue  her.— The  Innuit  Nomad.*, 
without  any  form  of  Government.— Their  Numbers  diminishing.— A  Sailor  wanders  away.— Hall's 
Search  for  him. — Finds  him  frozen  to  death. — The  Ship  free  from  Ice.— Preparations  to  return. — 
Reset  in  the  Ice-pack.— Another  Arctic  Winter. — Breaking  up  of  the  Ice. — Departure  for  Home.— 
Tookoolito  and  her  Child  •'  Butterfly."— Death  of  "  Butterfly."— Arrival  atHoqje.- Results  of  Hall's 
Expedition.— Innuit  Traditions.— Discovery  of  Frobisher  Relics.— Hall  undertakes  a  second  Expedi- 
tion.—His  Statement  of  its  Object  and  Prospects.— Last  Tidings  of  Hall. 

A  MONG  the  most  remarkable  expeditions  ever  undertaken  in  the  Polar  M'orld 
-^-^  is  that  of  Charles  Francis  Hall,  performed  during  the  years  1860, 1861,  and 
1862.  Its  primary  object  was  to  discover  the  survivoi'S  of  Sir  John  Franklin's 
party;  for  at  this  time  there  was  good  reason  to  believe  that  out  of  the  105  who 
were  known  to  be  living  on  the  25th  of  April,  1848,  some  Avere  still  surviving. 
Towards  the  main  purpose  of  the  undertaking  nothing  was  indeed  accomplished. 
Hall  came  upon  no  traces  of  Franklin  and  his  men;  but  he  acquired  a  more  ac- 
curate knowledge  of  the  Esquimaux — or  rather  as  they  call  themselves,  and  as 
we  shall  call  them,  the  Innuits — a  word  meaning  simply  "  men  "  or  "  people*" — 
and  their  mode  of  life  than  Avas  ever  before,  or  is  likely  to  be  hereafter,  gained 


434 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


HALL  AND   COMPANIU 


MIT   COSTUME. 


by  any  other  white  man  capable  of  telling  what  he  saw,  and  a  part  of  which  he 
was.  The  remarkable  book  in  which  Mr.  Hall  describes  his  expedition*  seems 
not  to  have  come  under  the  notice  of  Dr.  Hartweg,  It  is  proposed  in  this  chap- 
ter to  supplement  the  account  of  the  Innuits  from  this  work  of  Mr.  Hall. 

*  Arctic  Researches,  and  Life  amove,  the  Esquimaux.    By  Charles  Fk.AXCIs  Hall.     Xew  York,  ISGG. 


CHARLES  FRANCIS  HALL  AND  THE  INNUITS.  4:3.'5 

Up  to  middle  life  Hall  had  resided  in  the  inland  city  of  Cincinnati.  He  had 
eagerly  read  every  thing  that  he  could  find  on  record  of  the  searches  made  for 
Franklin.  Large  shijis  and  small  ships  had  been  sent  out.  Brave  hearts  and 
stout  hands  had  been  enlisted  in  the  search,  but  with  no  tangible  result  beyond 
ascertaining  the  spot  where  the  surviving  105  were  when  they  abandoned  their 
ships  and  took  to  the  shore,  hoping  to  make  their  way  to  their  homes.  Onl}- 
tv/o  of  these  men  were  proven  to  have  died;,  and  it  was  more  than  probable 
that  of  the  105  known  to  have  been  living  in  1848,  some  would  yet  be  alive  in 
1860,  for  not  a  few  of  these  men,  if  living,  would  be  still  of  middle  age. 

Hall  had  read  the  story  of  the  sufferings  of  Kane's  party  during  the  long 
months  of  the  Arctic  winter,  but  he  had  come  to  the  conclusion  that  most  of 
these  resulted  from  the  mode  of  life  adopted  by  them.  The  Innuits,  he  knew, 
lived  to  a  good  old  age  through  a  succession  of  such  winters,  and  he  believed 
that  a  civilized  man  could  live  where  a  savage  could.  Tliis  conviction  was  con- 
firmed by  one  of  Kane's  companions,  who  told  him,  "  When  we  lived  like  the 
Esquimaux,  we  immediately  recovered,  and  enjoyed  our  usual  health.  If  Prov- 
idence had  so  ordered  it  that  we  should  cast  our  lot  with  the  Esquimaux,  I  < 
have  no  doubt  that  we  would  have  lived  quite  as  long,  and  in  quite  as  good 
liealth  as  in  the  United  States  or  England.  White  men  can  live  Avhere  Esqui- 
maux can,  and  frequently  when  and  where  they  can  not." 

So  Hall  grew  into  the  conviction  that  some  of  these  lost  ones  could  yet  be 
found ;  and  he  writes,  "  It  seemed  to  me  as  if  I  had  been  called,  if  I  may  so 
speak,  to  try  and  do  the  work.  My  heart  felt  sore  at  the  thought  of  so  great  a 
mystery  in  connection  with  any  of  our  fellow-creatures,  especially  akin  to  oui'- 
selves,  yet  remaining  imsolved."  How  should  he  obey  this  call  ?  His  own 
means,  beyond  a  stout  frame  and  strong  will,  were  of  the  smallest.  He  broach- 
ed the  project  at  the  West,  where  it  was  received  with  favor.  Then  he  came 
East,  and  was  met  with  like  consideration.  Funds  were  raised,  and  the  expe- 
dition which  Hall  contemplated  Avas  fitted  out. 

This  expedition  consisted  simply  of  Hall  himself.  The  cash  contributed  for 
the  outfit  was  just  |980,  of  which  more  than  a  third  was  contributed  by  Henry 
Grinnell,  of  New  York.  In  addition  to  this  was  about  a  quarter  as  much  in 
the  way  of  presents.  "  These,"  says  Hall,  "  constituted  all  the  means  and  ma- 
terial I  had  to  carry  out  the  great  undertaking  my  mind  had  led  me  to  embark 
in."  Hall's  list  of  the  articles  on  his  outfit  for  a  three  years'  residence  and  ex- 
ploration is  worthy  of  record.  It  shows  in  what  way  his  |980  in  casli  Avas  ex- 
pended. 

"My  outfit,"  he  writes,  "for  the  voyage  and  the  whole  of  my  expedition, 
consisted  of : — a  boat,  length  twenty-eight  feet,  beam  seven  feet,  depth  twenty- 
nine  and  one-half  inches,  drawing  eight  inches  of  water  when  loaded  with  stores 
and  a  crew  of  six  persons;  one  sledge;  one  half-ton  of  pemmican;  two  hun- 
dred pounds  of  Boi-den's  meat  biscuit ;  twenty  pounds  pork  scrap ;  one  pound 
preserved  quince  ;  one  pound  pi'eserved  peaches ;  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds 
powder  ;  a  quantity  of  ball,  shot,  and  percussion  caps  ;  one  rifle,  six  double-bar- 
relled guns ;  one  Colt's  revolver  ;  beads,  needles,  etc.,  for  presents  ;  two  dozen 
pocket-knives;  some  tin  ware  ;  one  axe,  two  picks,  files,  etc.;  tobacco  and  pipes  ; 


43G  THE  POLAR   WORLD. 

M^earing  apparel  for  self,  and  red  shirts  for  natives  ;  stationery  and  journal- 
books  ;  Avatch,  opera-glass,  spy-glass  ;  sextant,  pocket  sextant,  artificial  horizon, 
azimuth  compass,  common  compass,  two  pocket  compasses  ;  three  ordinary  and 
two  self-registering  thermometers.  Some  navigation-books  and  several  Arctic 
works,  with  my  Bible  and  a  few  other  volumes,  formed  my  library."  The  boat 
and  fixtures  cost  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars;  meat, biscuit,  pemmican,. 
etc.,  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars ;  astronomical  instruments,  about  one 
hundred  dollars ;  guns  and  accoutrements,  about  two  hundred  and  twenty-five 
dollars;  clothing, fifty  dollars  ;  pipes  and  tobacco,  twenty  dollars;  travelling  ex- 
penses and  express  payments,  seventy-five  dollars ;  dog-team,  bought  in  Green- 
land, fifty  dollars.  The  other  items  making  up  the  nine  hundred  and  eighty 
dollars  are  all  duly  given.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  balance  left  for  minor,  but  . 
necessary,  expenditures  was  very  small. 

New  London,  Connecticut,  is  the  port  from  which  vessels  mainly  sail  for  the 
Arctic  whale-fishery.  Here  was  the  place  of  business.  Williams  and  Haven 
largely  engaged  in  that  enterprise.  They  relieved  Hall  of  a  great  load  of 
.anxiety  by  a  brief  note,  in  which  they  said :  "  As  a  testimony  of  our  person- 
al regard,  and  the  interest  we  feel  in  the  proposed  expedition,  we  will  convey 
it  and  its  required  outfit,  boats,  sledges,  provisions,  instruments,  etc.,  free  of 
charge,  on  the  barque  '  George  Henry,'  to  Northumberland  Inlet ;  and,  when- 
ever desired,  we  will  give  the  same  free  passage  home  in  any  of  our  vessels." 

On  the  29th  of  May,  1860,  the,  "  George  Henry  "  set  sail,  with  a  crew,  officers 
and  men,  of  twenty-nine  souls.  Accompanying  as  tender  was  a  schooner,  which 
had  a  history.  She  was  now  known  as  the  "  Amaret ;"  but  under  the  name  of 
the  "  Rescue  '  she  had  won  fame  in  Arctic  research,  for  in  her  Kane  had  made 
his  first  Arctic  voyage.  Hall  always  calls  her  by  her  old  name,  and  the  ac- 
count of  her  loss  forms  a  striking  episode  in  his  narrative. 

We  have  said  that  Hall's  expedition  consisted  of  himself  alone.  But  when 
he  started  he  had  with  him  a  companion,  who  he  hoped  would  greatly  aid  him. 

This  was  Kudlago,  an  Innuit,  who  had 
acquired  some  knowledge  of  our  Ian-  • 
guage  in  Greenland  from  whalers,  had 
come  to  the  United  States  on  a  whal- 
ing-vessel, and  was  now  anxious  to  re- 
turn to  Greenland.  But  he  fell  sick  on 
the  voyage,  and  died  on  the  1st  of  July. 
His  last  words  were,  "  Do  you  see  the 
ice  ?"  for  he  knew  that  the  appearance 
of  ice  at  this  season  would  show  that  he 
was  near  his  home.  He  died  three  hun- 
dred miles  at  sea,  and  was  committed 
to  the  ocean.  Hall  reading  the  funeral 
J  '  service.     A  great  iceberg — the  slender 

KUDLAGO.  ^^^^  represented  on  page  48  of  this  vol- 

ume—was drifting  close  by,  and  Hall  named  it  "  Kudlago's  Monument." 

On  the  n\i  of  July  they  reached  Holsteinborg,  the  capital  of  the  Danish  col- 


CHARLES  FRANCIS  HALL  AND  THE  INNUITS. 


ony  of  Greenland,  a  town  consisting  of  twenty-four  houses.  The  entire  popula- 
tion of  Greenland  is  estimated  at  about  2450,  of  whom  2300  are  Innuits,  and  the 
remainder  Europeans.  Of  the  Innuits,  1700  live  by  sealing,  and  400  by  fishing ; 
the  others  being  mainly  mechanics  and  sailors,  besides  twenty  native  catechists. 
Of  the  Europeans,  thirty-one  are  "  First  and  Second  Governors  ;"  twenty-four 
missionaries  and  priests ;  thirty-six  clerks ;  the  others  mechanics  and  sailors. 
The  forty-four  native  and  European  missionaries  receive,  in  all,  13,600  Danish 
paper  dollars,  equal  to  about  S8500  in  specie.  The  head-schoolmaster  has  one 
hundred  and  twenty -five  paper  dollars ;  three  others  receive  one  hundred  dollars 
each  ;  three,  twenty-five  dollars  ;  "two,  six  dollars.  Of  these  last,  one  teaches  his 
own  two  children,  who  are  the  only  ones  in  his  district.  There  are  also  four 
women,  who  get  a  dollar  a  year  each  for  teaching  children  their  letters.  The  six- 
teen Government  employes  get  from  forty  to  ninety  dollars  a  year,  besides  pro- 
visions for  themselves  and  their  families.  Bread  is  baked  for  them  every 
fortnight.  The  currency  of  the  colony  is  paper,  the  "  six-skilling "  note  be- 
ing worth  about  three  cents. 


^I'ihV. 


GREENLAND  CURRENCY. 


^  The  native  Greenlanders  are  by  no  means  deficient  in  intelligence.  Mr.  Hall 
gives  a  facsimile  of  a  wood-cut  representing  a  woman  and  child  drawn  and 
engraved  by  one  of  thera  who  had  received  no  instruction  in  art,  and  no  educa- 
tion of  any  sort  beyond  that  of  the  majority  of  his  countrymen.  The  great 
festival  of  Greenland  isthe  birthday  of  the  King  of  Denmark,  in  which  all  the 
population,  native  and  European,  who  can  be  assembled,  take  part,  his  Majesty 
furnishing  the  cheer.  Hall  gives  a  view  of  this  celebration,  taken  from  a  draw- 
ing made  by  a  native.     The  original  drawing  was  full  of  character. 

The  "  Rescue"  having  rejoined  her  consort,  the  "George  Henry,"  from  whom 
she  had  been  separated  on  the  voyage,- the  captain  proposed  to  set  sail  for  his 
proposed  whaling-ground  on  the  west  side  of  Davis's  Strait.     They  sailed  on  the 


438 


THE   POLAR  WORLD. 


24th  of  July,  Hall  accompanying.  Thi'ee  days  after,  they  encountered  a  violent 
snow-storm,  and  were  beset  by  icebergs.  On  the  8th  of  August  they  anchored 
in  a  bay  in  latitude  63°  20',  called  by  the  natives  Ookoolear,  but  by  Hall  named 
Cornelius  Grinnell  Bay.  Here  and  hereabouts  the  whalers  went  to  work,  and 
Hall  began  his  acquaintance  with  the  Esquimaux  at  home. 


WOMAN  AND  CHILD.     (Drawu  and  Eugraved  by  ax  innuit.) 


CHARLES  FRA]SrrT«?   w^tt 

i^ANCIS  HALL  AND   THE   INNUITS 


lo. 


Two  ^Yeve 


'^^^ay  noticed  about  a  dozeiMv. 


^•^-^ ^,jt. 


■"----.  ..c::;:t:;:::::^--::--. 


440 


THE   POLAR  WORLD. 


PREPARING   BOOT-SOLES. 


boot-soles,  others  were  sewing,  while  one  was  tending  a  cross  baby.  It  is  rare 
to  find  an  Iiuiuit  child  who  is  not  very  quiet,  but  this  little  fellow  had  eaten  a 
jjieee  of  raw  blubber,  which  had  disordered  him.  Some  of  the  amusing  tricks 
played  by  these  Esquimaux  women  are  especially  deserving  of  notice.  The  va- 
riety of  games  performed  by  a  string  tied  at  the  ends,  similar  to  a  '  cat's  cra- 
dle,' completely  throws  into  the  shade  our  adepts  at  home.  I  never  before  wit- 
nessed such  a  number  of  intricate  ways  in  which  a  simple  string  could  be  used. 
One  arrangement  represented  a  deer  ;  another,  a  whale;  a  third,  the  walrus  ;  a 
fourth,  the  seal ;  and  so  on  without  end." 

The  short  Arctic  sunimer  soon  came  to  a  close.  On  the  morning  of  the 
26th  of  September  came  light  winds  from  the  north-west ;  by  noon  it  began  to 
snow,  the  wind  increasing  to  a  gale.  The  whaling-boats  all  came  in,  and  prep- 
arations were  made  for  bad  weather.  During  the  night  the  storm  grew  hourly 
fiercer.  The  "  Rescue  "  dragged  her  anchor,  and  was  dashed  upon  the  rocks  an 
Titter  wreck.  Hall's  little  b'oat,  upon  A\'hich  he  had  so  much  relied,  was  torn 
from  its  moorings  and  lost, "  dooming  me,"  says  Hall,  "  to  a  Avreck  of  disap- 
pointment in  the  hopes  I  had  cherished  concerning  her.  The  '  George  Hen- 
ry '  was  also  in  imminent  peril,  but  outrode  the  tempest ;  but  on  her  next 
voyage,  eighteen  months  later,  was  lost  at  a  point  hardly  a  hundred  miles  dis- 
tant," 

The  "  George  Henry"  was  soon  after  laid  up  in  winter-quarters,  fairly  blocked 
in  by  ice.     Hall  in  the  mean  time  had  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  Es- 


CHARLES  FRANCIS   HALL  AND   THE   INNUITS. 


441 


quimaux  of  the  region.     Prominent  among  these  were  a  couple— Imsband  and 
wife — whose  history  is  worthy  of  record. 


t 


One  day — it  was  November  2 — Avhile  Hall  was  writing  in  liis  cabin,  he  heard 
a  low,  sweet  voice  saying,  "  Good-morning,  Sir."  Looking  up,  lie  saw  a  comely 
woman,  dressed  in  very  good  imitation  of  civilized  costume.    'He  had  heard  of 


442 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


THE  GEORGE  HENRY  LAID  UP  FOR  THE  WINTER. 


Jiei-  befoi-e.  Her  name  was  Tookoolito,  She  was  the  wife  of  Ebievbing,  a 
ratlier  famous  seal-hunter  and  pilot.  Seven  years  before  a  British  whaler  had 
taken  them  to  England,  where  they  were  received  as  the  lions  of  the  day. 
They  dined  with  Prince  Albert,  and  were  introduced  to  the  Queen.  Ebierbing 
thought  that  the  Queen  was  "  very  pretty ;"  indeed  she  bore  no  very  distant 
likeness  to  his  own  wife.  Tookoolito  thought  Prince  Albert  was  a  "very  kind, 
good  man."  Both  agreed  that  the  Queen  had  "  a  very  fine  place."  Tookoolito, 
as  many  thousands  in  the  United  States  afterwards  had  occasion  to  know, 
spoke  English  almost  perfectly!  Her  husband  was  less  fluent,  but  still  quite  in- 
telligible. This  pair  became  Hall's  constant  companions  in  the  Arctic H-egions; 
came  with  him  upon  his  return  to  the  States,  remained  there  with  him  for  two 
years,  and  went  back  with  him  upon  his  second  expedition,  which  now  (Septem- 
ber, 1869)  is  not  completed. 

Early  in  January  Hall  resolved  to  make  an  exploring  expedition  with  the 
dog-team  which  he  had  bought  at  Holsteinborg.  The  ])ai-ty  consisted  of  him- 
self, Ebierbing,  Tookoolito,  and  another  Esquimaux,  named  Koodloo.  The 
sledge  was  drawn  by  ten  dogs — five  of  wliich  belonged  to  Hall,  and  five  to 
Ebierbing.  They  relied  for  food  mainly  upon  the  proceeds  of  their  hunt- 
ing, taking  Avith  them  only  a  pound  and  a  half  of  preserved  mutton,  three 
pounds  of  salt  pork,  fifteen  pounds  of  sea-bread,  three  pounds  of  pork  scraps 
for  soup,  and  a  little  coffee,  pepper,  and  molasses.  The  trip  lasted  nearly  a 
month  and  a  half,  during  which  time  Hall  learned  to  live  like  the  Esquimaux 
in  their  snow  cabins,  and  subsisted  mainly  upon  raw  seal  flesh.  When  he  re- 
turned to  the  sliip  it  was  hard  for  him  to  accustom  himself  to  the  change  from 
the  pure  atmosphere  of  a  snow-house  to  the  confined  air  of  a  small  cabin. 


CHARLES   FRANCIS   HALL   AND   THE   INNUITS. 


443 


STUllM-ilOt'ND. 


Had  Kane  biU  known  how  to  pass  an  Arctic  winter,  the  world  would  ne\-er 
iiave  had  occasion  to  read  one  of  the  most  pathetic  accounts  ever  Avritten  of 
suffering.  Buddington,  the  captain  of  the  "  George  Henry,"  had  learned  the  les- 
son by  dear  experience.  Five  years  before,  when  in  command  of  another  ves- 
sel, he  had  lost  thirteen- of  bis  men  by  scurvy.  "  But,"  said  he,  "  I  am  not  now 
afraid  of  losing  any  more  men  by  scurvy  while  I  have  command  over  them. 
Whenever  there  are  appearances  of  it  on  board,  I  will  have  every  pork  and  beef 
barrel — salt  provisions  of  every  kind — headed  up  at  once,  and  every  man  shall 
live  upon  bread  and  fresh  provision,  such  as  whale,  walrus,  seal,  deer,  bear,  ptar- 
migan, duck,  and  the  like.  It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  persons  afflicted 
with  scurvy  seem  madly  inclined  to  salt  provisions,  which  they  know  to  be  in 
their  case  absolute  poisons.  They  will  go  any  length  to  obtain  salt  pork,  even 
when  they  have  fresh  food  in  abundance." 

Hall's  first  night  in  an  igloo  may  stand  as  a  sample  of  many  more.  We 
cite,  with  much  abridgment,  from  his  journal : 

"  We  encamped  at  5  p.m.,  having  found  good  material  for  building  a  snow- 
house.  Ebierbing  and  Koodloo  at  once  commenced  sawing  out  snow-blocks, 
while  I  carried  them  to  a  suitable  spot  for  erecting  the  igloo,  Avhich  took  us 
one  hour  to  make.  As  soon  as  it  was  completed  Tookoolito  entered,  and  com- 
menced placing  the  stone  lamp  in  its  proper  position,  It  was  trimmed,  and 
soon  a  kettle  of  snow  was  over  it,  making  water  for  coffee  and  soup.  She  then 
placed  several  pieces  of  board,  which  we  had  brought  with  us,  on  the  snow  plat- 
form where  our  beds  were  to  be  made.  Upon  these  were  placed  canvas  and 
deer-skins,  and  our  sleeping  accommodations  were  complete.  The  drying  of 
any  thing  that  has  become  wet  during  the  day  falls  to  the  lot  of  the  woman. 


444  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

She  places  them  in  a  net  hung  over  the 

lamp  and  attends  to  them  through  the 

.^  night,  meanwhile  mending  all  articles 

of  clothing  that  need  repairs.  Presently 
our  evening  meal  was  ready.  It  con- 
sisted of  Cincinnati  '  crackling  '  soup. 
a  bit  of  raw  salt  pork,  half  a  biscuit  for 
each,  and  coffee." 

A  snow-house,  built  in  an  hour,  is 
abandoned  when  the  use  for  it  is  over, 
iNNuiT  STONE  LAMP.         ^  The  dogs  arc  suffered  to  enter,  and  ap- 

propriate any  thing  that  is  left  M'hich 
suits  their  taste.  Nothing  comes  amiss  to  them.  On  the  third  night  Hall  had 
his  hair  cut  by  Tookoolito,  and  the  clippings  were  left  on  the  floor.  Tlie  dogs 
swallowed  these,  among  other  things.  Stormy  weather  soon  came  on.  '  There 
was  no  hunting  or  sealing,  and  the  party  had  nothing  to  eat  except  some  bits  of 
raw,  frozen  whale's-skin  which  they  found  in  a  cache,  which  a  party  from  the 
ship  had  made  a  few  weeks  before.  Not  far  off  was  an  igloo  belonging  to  an 
Innuit  named  Ugarng,  Avhom  they  knew.  Hall  went  to  it  hoping  to  find  some- 
thing to  eat.  Ugarng  had  just  come  in,  having  spent  two  whole  days  and  a 
night  in  watching  over  a  seal-hole  without  success.  He  had  heard  the  seal 
blow,  and  that  was  all.  He  bore  his  disappointment  coolly.  "  Away  I  go  to- 
morrow again,"  he  said.  He  went  next  day,  remained  all  night  over  the  seal- 
hole,  and  came  back  with  nothing.  "  This  was  very  bad  for  the  whole  of  us," 
says  Hall.  How  bad  it  was  for  the  poor  wife  of  TJgarng  and  her  children  may 
be  inferred  from  her  own  words.  They  were  without  food  or  light ;  her  infant 
w^as  restless  from  hunger.  She  said  simply,  "  Me  got  no  milk,  meat  all  gone, 
blubber  too  ;  nothing  to  eat,  no  heat ;  must  wait  till  get  seal." 

Hall  was  about  as"  near  starvation  as  were  the  Innuits.  All  he  had  to  eat 
was  a  bit  of  the  "  black  skin  "  of  a  whale,  and  this  he  relished  ;  he  could  have 
eaten  any  thing  which  would  have  gone  to  keep  up  internal  heat,  and  make  bone 
and  flesh.  Ebierbing  Avas  away  hunting.  At  length  Tookoolito  managed  to 
extemporize  a  warm  dinner.  From  the  black  skin  she  tried  out  enough  oil  to 
fill  the  lamp  and  heat  some  snow-water.  This  w^as  thickened  Avith  a  couple  of 
ounces  left  of  a  quart  of  meal  which  formed  a  part  of  the  stores  with  which 
they  set  out.  The  pair  shared  the  "  pudding,"  and  thought  it  excellent.  The 
cold  was  severe.  Within  the  dark  igloo  the  thermometer  stood  at  about  zero; 
outside,  25°  to  52°below-  zero.  Under  these  circumstances  Hallkeptat  his  journal, 
sitting  wrapped  in  furs  to  keep  from  freezing.  So  passed  ten  days.  Ebierbing 
had  gone  back  to  the  vessel  in  order  to  bring  back  some  food.  Day  by  day 
Hall  went  to  the  top  of  a  hill,  straining  his  eyes  over  the  snowy  waste  in  hope 
of  seeing  the  approach  of  the  messenger.  On  the  evening  of  the  24th  of  Jan- 
uary, fourteen  days  after  their  starting  upon  the  expedition,  they  were  reduced 
to  their  last  ration  of  food,  which  was  a  piece  of  black  skin  two  inches  long,  an 
inch  and  a  half  wide,  and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick. 

At  midnight  footsteps  were  heard  approaching ;  Hall  sprang  from  his  bed 


CHARLES  FRANCIS   HALL  AND   THE  INNUITS. 


44.- 


and  opened  the  snow-block  door.  There  Avas  "  Jack,"  an  Innuit,  who  had  gone 
out  on  a  hunt,  with  his  spear  strung  with  strips  of  seal-blubber.  Hall's  favor- 
ite dog  had  been  allowed  to  sleep  in  the  igloo.  The  half-starved  creature 
scented  the  blubber,  gave  a  desperate  leap,  and  grasped  a  portion  of  the  food, 
and  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  Hall. and  the  others  swallowed  it.  Before  the 
door  could  be  closed  all  the  other'dogs  outside  were  aroused,  and  fightin<i-  for  a 
slmre.     Among  them  they  got  nearly  the  whole.     Next  morning  Hall  went  out, 


FIGHTING  FOR  FOOD. 


and  gazing  in  the  direction  from  which  the  approach  of  Ebierbing  was  hoped 
for,  saw  something  black  moving  over  the  snow.  It  was  Ebierbing  with  dogs 
and  a  sledge,  loaded  with  provisions  from  the  ship,  and  also  witli  a  seal  which 
he  had  caught  that  morning.  A  great  seal-feast  took  place  at  once,  which  Hall 
thus  describes : 

"  According  to  Innuit  custom,  an  immediate  invitation  was  given  by  the  suc- 
cessful hunter's  family  for  every  one  to  attend  a  seal-feast.  Our  igloo  was  soon 
crowded.  My  station  was  on  the  dais,  or  bed-place,  so  that  I  could  watch 
what  was  going  on.  The  first  thing  done  was  to  consecrate  the  blubber  by 
sprinkling  water  over  it.  Then  our  host  proceeded  to  separate  the  blubber 
and  skin  from  the  meat  and  skeleton  of  the  seal.  The  body  -was  then  opened, 
and  the-  blood  scooped  out.  The  blood  is  considered  very  precious.  The  liver 
came  next,  cut  into  pieces  and  eaten  raw,  I  getting  a  share.  Then  followed  dis- 
tributmg  the  ribs,  for  social  picking,  also  eaten  raw,  I  doing  my  duty,  and  be- 
coming quite  an  Innuit  in  all  except  in  the  quantity  eaten.  This  I  might  chal- 
lenge any  white  man  to  do.     No  human  stomach  but  an  Innuit's  could  possibly 


446 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


THKOUGH»THE   SNOW. 

liold  what  I  saw  these  men  and  women  devour.  When  the  feast  was  ended, 
the  coinpany  dispersed.  Tookoolito  then  sent  around  bountiful  gifts  of  seal- 
blubber  for  fire-lamps,  also  some  seal-meat  and  blood.  This  is  the  usual  cus- 
tom among  the  Innuits.  They  share  each  other's  success,  and  bear  each  oth- 
er's wants.  Generally  if  it  is  found  that  one  is  short  of  provisions,  it  may  be 
known  that  all  are  so." 

The  manner  in  which  Ebierbing  secured  that  precious  seal  is  a  striking  ox- 
ample  of  Inn  nit  patience.  On  his  way  to  the  ship  the  dogs  discovered  a  seal- 
hole.  He  marked  the  spot  by  making  a  small  pile  of  snow  close  by,  and  squirt- 
ing a  mouthful  of  tobacco-juice  upon  it  by  w^ay  of  mark.  On  his  return  he 
■found  the  hole,  and  determined  to  try  to  secure  the  animal.  So  wrapping  his 
feet  and  legs  in  furs  taken  from  the  sledge,  he  took  his  position,  spear  in  hand, 
over  the  seal-hole.  It  w^as  buried  two  feet  deep  under  the  snow.  He  thrust 
his  spear  through  the  snow  again  and  again  Until  he  found  the  little  aperture 
leading  through  the  ice ;  then  in  the  dark  night  he  seated  himself  close  by, 
waiting  to  hear  the  blowing  of  the  seal.  Towards  morning  the  welcome  sound 
was  heard.  One  well-aimed  thrust  of  the  spear  secured  the  prize.  Ebierbing 
was  nearly  frozen,  his  nose  being  frostbitten ;  but  he  suffered  more  from  tliirst 
than  from  cold.  There  was  indeed  snow  all  around,  but  in  that  intense  cold 
the  mouth  does  not  retain  sufficient  caloric  to  melt  a  piece  of  snow  placed  in  it. 
His  first  call  when  he  reached  the  igloo  was  for  water.  To  w\atch  all  night  at 
a  seal-hole  would  seem  to  be  a  sufficient  trial  of  patience  and  endurance  ;  but 
Hall  notes  another  time  when  Ebierbing  passed  two  whole  days  and  nights 
without  food  by  a  hole,  and  then  failed  to  secure  the  seal. 

To  the  Innuit  the  seal  is,  in  the  broadest  sense,  the  staff  of  life.  It  is  to 
them  all  that  flocks  and  herds,  grain-fields,  forests,  coal  mines,  and  petroleum 
M-ells  are  to  dwellers  in  more  favored  lands.  It  furnishes  to  them  food,  fuel, 
and  clothing.  The  seal  is  the  most  wary  and  suspicious  of  creatures ;  to  cap- 
ture him  demands  a  patience  and  dexterity  which  throws  into  the  shade  all  the 
exploits  of  deer-stalkers  and  lion-hunters.  "  Nutchook,"  for  so  the  Innuits  name 
the  seal,  has  good  reason  for  wariness,  for  his  chief  enemy,  "  Xinoo,"  the  bear, 


CHARLES   FRANCIS   HALL   AND   THE   INNUITS. 


447 


riEAL-UULE. 


against  whom  he  has  to  keep  constant  watch,  is  a  keen  Imnter.  The  Innii- 
its  acknowledge  that  "  Ninoo  "  has  taught  them  how  to.  catch  "  Nutchook," 
the  common  seal,  and  his  big  cjjusin  "  Oookgook,"  the  ^reat  seal.  Hall,  no  con- 
temptible sportsiiian,  acknowledges  that  he  Avas  never  able  to  get  within  rifle- 


448 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


shot  of  a  seal  when  basking  upon  the  ice ;  yet  Niuoo  catches  them  with  his 
own  paws  ;  and  the  lunuits,  taught  by  him,  come  within  the  distance  of  a 
sjDear's  cast. 

The  way  Ninoo  goes  to  work  at  seal-hunting  upon  the  ice,  according  to  In- 
nuit  accounts,  is  this :  He  sees  far  away  upon  the  ice  a  black  spot,  which  he 
knows  to  be  a  seal  resting  at  the  edge  of  his  hole,  and  taking  a  succession  of 
"  cat  naps,"  hardly  ten  seconds  long,  hfting  up  his  head  between  times,  and  nar- 
rowly surveying  the  whole  horizon.  Ninoo  flings  himself  upon  his  side,  and 
creeps  along  when  the  seal's  head  is  down.  The  moment  the  seal's  head  is 
raised  the  bear  stops  short,  and  begins  "  talking "  to  the  seal.  The  sound 
which  he  utters  is  quite  distinct  from  his  ordinary  voice.  The  seal  is  charmed, . 
suspects  no  harm,  and  down  goes  his  head  for  another  nap.  Forward  goes 
Ninoo,  and  so  on  for  a  long  time,  until  he  gets  within  leaping  clistance  ;  then 
one  spring,  and  it  is  all  over  wdth  Nntchook.  The  Innuits  say  that  if  they 
could  only  talk  to  Nutchook  as  cleverly  as  Ninoo  does,  they  would  catch  more 
seals.     The  Innuit  imitates  Ninoo. 

Hall  describes  one  of  these  hunts,  the  main  actor  being  an  Innuit  named 
Koojesse:  "  Koojesse  had  '  talk'  with  seals,  and  it  Avas  Avith  great  intere«t  that 
I  watched  him.  He  lay  down  on  one  side,  and  crawled  by  hitches  or  jerks  to- 
wards his  victim;  then  as  the  seal  raised  its  head  Koojesse  w^ould  stop,  and 
commenced  pawing  with  his  right  hand  and  foot,  Avliile  he  uttered  his  '  seal- 
talk.'  On  this  the  seal  w^oiild  feel  a  charm,  raise  and  shake  its  flippers  both 
foi-e  and  aft,  and  roll  over  on  its  side  and  back  as  if  perfectly  delighted ;  after 


LOOKING   FOR  SEALS. 


CHARLES  FRANCIS   HALL  AND   THE   INNUITS. 


449 


this^it  would  droi)  its  head  to  sleep.  Then  Koojesse  would  hitcli  along  till  the 
seal's  head  would  pop  up  again,  which  usually  occurred  every  few  moments." 
In  this  particular  case  the  seal  escaped,  for  the  Inuuit  had  approached  too  near, 
and  had  thus  broken  the  charm. 

In  the  winter,  when  the  seal  lives  under  the  ice,  its  capture  requires  great 

29 


450 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


SEAL-HOLE  AND  IGLOO. 


skill  and  perseverance.     She,  for  some- 
how the  male  seal  seems  now  not  to  be 

noticed,  has  a  breathing-hole  through 

the  ice,  to  which  she  must  come  now 

and  then  for  air.     Upon  the  surface  of 

the  solid  ice,  which  is  covered  with 

snow,  the  prospective  mother  constructs 

an  igloo  for  her  progeny.     She  scrapes 

off  the  snow  until  she  has  formed  a 

dome,  carrying  away  the  snow  down 

through  the  hole  in  the  ice.     Upon  the 

shelf  of  ice  surrounding  the  hole  the 

young  one  is  born,  and  there  it  is  regu- 
larly visited  by  the  mother.     None  but 

very  keen-scented  animals,  such  as  the 

bear,  fox,  and  dog,  can  discover  such 

an  igloo.    The  dog  sometimes  captures 

a  seal.     Hall  describes  such  an  event: 

"  Ebierbing  had  one  day  been  out  with 

dogs  and  sledge  where  the  ice  was  still 

firm,  when  suddenly  a  seal  was  noticed 

ahead.     In  an  instant  the  dogs  were  off  towards  the  prey,  drawing  the  sledge 

after  them  at  a  marvellous  rate.     The  seal  for  a  moment  acted  as  if  frightened, 

and  kept  on  the  ice  a  second  or  two  too  long,  for  just  as  he  plunged,  Smile, 

the  best  seal  and  bear  doo-  T  ever  saw,  caught  him  by  the  tail  and  flippers.     The 

seal  struggled  violently,  and  so  did 
Smile  ;  but  in  a  moment  more  the  oth- 
er dogs  laid  hold,  and  aided  in  dragging 
the  seal  out  of  his  hole,  when  Smile 
took  it  in  charge.  The  prize  was  se- 
cured wholly  by  the  dogs."  » 
Dogs  seem  to  hunt  the  seal  only 
upon  their  master's  account ;  but  the 
fox  and  the  bear  capture  him  for  them- 
selves. How  the  fox  contrives  to  get 
into  a  seal  igloo  we  are  not  told;  but 
i>  they  manage  to  break  open  the  best 
packed  provision-cases,  we  may  assume 
that  they  know  how  to  commit  bur- 
glary upon  the  igloo  of  a  poor  seal.  If 
the  Innuits  are  to  be  believed,  the  way 
the  bear  goes  to  work  is  this :  When 
he  has  scented  out  the  precise  position 
of  an  igloo  he  goes  back  a  Httle  dis- 
tance, so  as  to  get  a  good  run ;  and 
WAITING  FOK  A  BLOW.                        then,  glvlug  a  high  leap,  comes  down 


CHARLES   FRANCIS   HALL   AND   THE   INNUITS.  4.'51 


DOG   AND   SEAL. 


with  all  his  weight  upon  the  roof  of  the  dome,  crushes  it  in,  and  with  his  paw 
seizes  the  young  seal,  who  was  quietly  asleep  upon  the  ice-shelf.  The  cunning 
bear  is  not  always  satisfied  with  the  little  infant  seal,  but  uses  it  as  a  bait  to 
catch  its  mother.  Having  caught  the  young  one,  and  holding  it  fast  by  the 
hind  flijipers,  the  bear  scrapes  away  all  the  snow,  and  lets  the  young  seal  paddle 
about  in  the  water;  its  cries  draw  the  mother  to  the  hole,  and  within  reach 
of  the  bear's  paw,  when  one  grab  is  given,  and  the  anxious  mother  is  secured. 
At  all  events  the  Innuits  practise  this  sort  of  strategy  with  the  seal,  and  they 
declare  that  they  have  learned  it  from  the  bear. 

The  bear  is  to  the  Innuits  the  embodiment  of  all  Avisdom,  They  tell  sto- 
ries of  his  sagacity  which  are  hard  to  believe.  Thus  they  say  that  Avhen  he 
sees  a  walrus  basking  upon  the  ice  at  the  foot  of  a  high  cliff,  he  mounts  to  the 
summit  of  the  cliff,  and  picking  up  a  big  stone  flings  it  down  with  perfect  aim 
upon  the  head  of  the  walrus  and  crushes  its  thick  skull.  If  it  should  happen 
that  the  walrus  is  only  stunned,  the  bear  crawls  down  the  cliff,  picks  up  a  stone, 
and  with  it  hammers  away  at  the  head  of  the  walrus  until  the  skull  is  broken. 
This  story  of  the  Innuits  needs  confirmation,  though  Hall  seems  to  credit  it. 
•■  The  dog  is  essential  to  the  existence  of  the  Innuits.  As  they  have  never 
domesticated  the  reindeer,  without  the  dog  they  could  not  travel  from  place  to 
place,  which  they  are  obliged  to  do  in  order  to  follow  the  migrations  of  the  seal 
and  walrus,  upon  which  they  mainly  subsist.-  Without  him  they  could  never 
find  out  the  holes  in  the  ice  through  which  the  seal  comes  up  to  breathe  in  the 
winter.  Their  doo-s  seem  to  be  much  more  intelligent  and  docile  than  those  of 
any  other  of  the  Polar  tribes.  When  one  is  found  to  be  more  than  usually  in- 
telligent he  is  carefully  trained  as  a  seal-dog.  When  the  dog  scents  a  seal- 
hole^  which  he  does  though  it  is  covered  deep  undei;  the  snow,  he  unerringly 
follows  the  scent  to  the  very  spot. 

The  Innuit  proceeds  to  "  prospect "  by  driving  the  slender  spear  through 
the  snow  u.ntil  he  finds  the  small  opening  in  the  ice  which  leads  to  the  main 
hole.  He  then  withdraws  the  spear,  taking  the  utmost  care  not  to  disturb  the 
snow,  and  seats  himself  close  by  to  await  the  coming  of  the  seal.  He  watches 
for  hours,  and  sometimes  for  days,  before  he  hears  the  welcome  "  blow."     At 


453 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


k 


SPEAKING  THROUGH  THE   SNOW. 


the  second  or  third  puff,  he  knows  that  the  nose  of  the  seal  \s  at  thq  bottom  of 
the  breathing-hole,  perhaps  two  yards  below  the  spot  where  he  is  standing. 
The  spear  must  be  thrust  with  perfect  accuracy  ;  for  an  error  of  a  quarter  of  an 
mcli  on  either  side  would  miss  the  hole,  and  the  spear-point  woidd  strike  the 


CHARLES  FRANCIS  HALL  AND  TIIP]  INNUITS.  40:5 

solid  ice,  and  the  seal  would  be  away  in  an  instant.  If  the  blow  is  weil-aiineil 
and  at  the  ri^^'ht  instant,  it  pierces  the  head  of  tlie  xmseen  seal,  who  instantly 
dives,  and  runs  out  the  eight  or  ten  fathoms  of  line  which,  fastened  to  the  har- 
poon, is  tied  around  the  waist  of  the  Innuit.  The  snow  is  then  dug  away,  the 
breathinw-hole  enlarged,  so  as  to  permit  the  seal  to  be  drawn  tlirough. 


DOGS  AND  BEAK. 


The  dogs  also  take  special  delight  in  hunting  the  bear.  When  a  team  scent 
a  bear  it  is  impossible  to  restrain  them.  Once  when  Hall  was  on  a  journey  a 
bear  with  her  cub  was  seen  on  the  ice  at  the  foot  of  a  high  mountain.  When 
within  two  hundred  yards,  the  leading  dog  was  cut  loose,  and  he  made  straight 
for  the  bear ;  one  by  one  the  others  were  set  free  from  the  sledge,  and  all  were 
in  hot  pursuit.  One  dog  set  upon  the  cub,  and  finally  separated  it  from  its 
mother;  another  caught  the  dam;  and  both  rolled  down  a  precipice,  up  which 
the  bear  scrambled  again  and  escaped,  for  it  was  so  steep  that  the  dogs  could 
not  follow.  All  the  dogs,  eleven  in  number,  now  set  upon  the  cub.  Hall  com- 
ing up,  the  young  brute  made  at  him  ;  he  ran  it  through  with  his  spear.  He 
expected  that  the  Innuits  would  applaud  his  courage  and  de.xterity ;  but  they 
shook  their  heads  and  said  nothing  at  the  time.  They  soon  showed  the  utmost 
determination  to  leave  the  neighborhood,  and  explained  by  saying  that  the  old 
bear  would  come  back  at  night,  smell  the  blood  of  the  cub,  and  become  en- 
raged, and  kill  them  all.  The  Innuits  avoid  killing  a  young  bear  until  they 
have  dispatched  the  old  one,  for  they  say  that  knowing  the  death  of  her  young 
makes  her  a  hundred  times  more  terrible.     Although  the  liver  of  the  seal  is 


454 


THE    POLAR   WORLD. 


BARBEKARK  AND   THE   REINDEER. 


held  to  be  a  great  delicacy,  the  Iimuits  never  eat  that  or  the  head  of  the  bear ; 
nor,  if  they  can  prevent  it,  will  they  suifer  their  dogs  to  do  so. 

The  Innuit  dogs  also  sometimes  hunt  the  reindeer.  Hall's  dogs  one  day 
gave  chase  to  a  deer,  and  one  of  them,  Barbekark,  sprung  at  its  throat,  and  bit 
through  skin,  windpipe,  jugular,  and  tongue,  taking  out  the  piece  as  clearly  as 
though  it  had  been  cut  with  a  knife.  Barbekark  was  brought  to  the  United 
States  by  Mr.  Hall,  and  died  there.  His  stuffed  skin  showed  him  to  be  a  noble 
beast  of  unusual  size. 

The  walrus  enters  largely  into  the  supplies  of  the  Innuits.  They  manifest 
much  courage  and  skill  in  harpooning  these  ungainly  beasts.  The  hunter  goes 
out  armed  with  a  lance  and  a  peculiar  harpoon  made  for  that  purpose.  A  long 
hide-rope  is  attached  to  the 
head  of  the  harpoon,  and  coil- 
ed around  the  neck  of  the 
hunter,  who  crawls  along  un- 
til he  comes  within  striking 
distance  of  the  walrus,  who 
lies  basking  upon  the  ice.  The 
walrus  dives  at  once;  the  hun- 
ter slips  the  coil  off  fi'om  his 
neck,  and  fastens  the  end  of  it 
to  a  spear  driven  into  the  ice ; 
thus  tethering  the  animal.  As 
soon  as  the  walrus  comes  up 
he  is  dispatched  with  a  long  head  of  keindeek. 


CHARLES  FRANCIS   HALL  AND   THE   INNUITS. 


455 


SPEAKING   THE   WALKUS. 


lance.  Should  the  Innuit  fail  to  slip  off  the  coil  in  time,  he  would  infallibly  be 
drawn  into  the  water,  and  almost  certainly  lose  his  life ;  but  as  Hall  records  no 
instance  of  such  a  catastrophe,  we  infer  that  these  rarely  happen. 

The  Innuits  show  remarkable  ingenuity  in  availing  themselves  of  every  fa- 


456 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


cility  afforded  by  their  inhospitable  country.  Of  their  igloos  or  snow-houses 
we  have  already  spoken.  In  half  an  hour  a  couple  of  men  Avill  build  one  of 
these,  which  answers  very  well  for  a  temporary  shelter.  When  one  is  to  be 
built  for  a  longer  residence,  more  care  is  taken  in  the  construction.  A  site  is 
chosen  where  the  snow  is  hard — if  possible,  over  a  running  stream,  so  that  they 


m 

!§'¥ 


R.  ■■■■ 
I'll  'ii 


;  "iv''""^'  ■  ■ 


iiaiMiiiiiiig&  III!  I  II  I    i II   I  J  I 


CPIARLES  FRANCIS  HALL  AND   THE  INNUITS. 


45: 


WALRUS  SKULL  AND   TUSKS. 


can  obtain  watei-  without  the  la- 
bor of  melting  the  ice.  A  circK' 
is  marked  out  for  the  ground 
plan.  Blocks  of  snow  are  cut 
with  a  large  kuife  or  saw.  These 
blocks  are  three  feet  long,  eight- 
een inches  wide,  and  six  inches 
thick,  shajied  rounding,  so  that 
each  block  forms  the  segment  of 
a  circle  of  the  proposed  diameter 
of  the  igloo.  Tile  blocks  are  slight- 
ly tapered  off  on  the  inner  side, 
and  are  laid  spirally,  one  man 
building  from  within,  while  the 
other  brings  the  blocks  from  without.  The  coin-ses  grow  smaller  and  smaller 
as  the  dome  rises,  until  there  is  only  a  narrow  open  circle,  into  which  a  block 
of  snow  is  dropped  by  way  of  keystone,  binding  the  whole  dome  firmly  together. 
The  man  within  now  carefully  examines  every  part,  and  if  there  are  any  open- 
ings left  they  are  stopped  up  with  snow.  A  hole  for  a  door  is  then  cut ;  and 
through  this  are  passed  the  snow-blocks  to  build  the  divan,  which  forms  the 
seats  and  bed,  A  tunnel-like  passage  is  then  dug  and  covered  over.  This  is  so 
low  and  narx'ow  that  one  must  crawl  on  all  fours  to  pass  through  it.  The  outer 
door  of  the  passage  consists  of  a  block  of  ice  or  hard  snow  fitting  closely  to 
the  opening  and  turning  upon  a  sort  of  pivot.  The  usual  diameter  of  a  family 
igloo  is  twelve  or  sixteen  feet,  and  its  height  about  eight.  It  will  accommodate 
ten  or  a  dozen  people. 

When  newly  built,  an  igloo  is  one  ot  the  most  beautiful  structures  conceiv- 
able. The  blocks  are  more  transparent  than  the  clearest  alabaster  and  whiter 
than  the  purest  marble,  but  they  soon  become  defaced  by  the  smoke  and  the 
filth  of  all  kinds  which  rapidly  accumulates.  Apart  from  the  divan,  almost  the 
only  article  of  furniture  is  the  stone  lamp,  which  serves  the  purpose  both  of 
lamp  and  furnace.  It  reminds  one  of  an  implement  common  among  civilized 
people,  and  known  as  an  "  Etna." 

The  Innuits  show  great  dexterity  in  the  construction  of  their  implements 
and  in  the  fabrication  of  their  clothing.  Their  canoes  have  been  the  admira- 
tion of  every  voyager  in  the  Arctic  regions,  and  they  are  wonderfully  dexterous 
in  the  management  of  them.  Their  sledges  have  the  runners  made  of  bits  of 
bone  ingeniously  tied  together  with  the  sinews  of  the  deer.  When  they  wish 
them  to  run  very  smoothly  they  shoe  them  with 
ice,  by  simply  squirting  from  their  mouths  a 
thin  stream  of  water  upon  the  runner,  where  it 
congeals  in  an  instant.  The  "  oodloo,"  or  woman's 
knife,  is  shaped  like  our  common  meat-chopper. 
It  is  made  of  bone,  merely  edged  with  iron ;  but 
in  the  hands  of  an  Innuit  woman  it  takes  the 
place  of  the  knife,  hatchet,  scraper,  and  shears  of 


TUE    woman's  knife. 


458 


THE   POLAR  WORLD. 


INNUIT   IMPLEMENTS. 


lier  civilized  sisters.  The  different  kinds  of  spears  and  harpoons  used  iu  captur- 
ing the  seal,  walrus,  and  whale  are  admirably  adapted  for  their  purpose.  We 
doubt  whether  we  could  improve  upon  the  design,  and,  with  all  our  facilities  in 
the  way  of  material,  very  much  in  the  way  of  execution.  The  Innuits  have 
clearly  given  their  whole  minds  to  the  fabrication  of  these  weapons.  They  have 
the  bow  and  arrow,  and  are  quite  clever  in  its  employment ;  but  for  them  it  is 
of  little  use  except  in  the  shooting  of  birds,  for  a  seal  or  walrus  would  not  even 
feel  an  arrow  shot  from  the  strongest  bow. 

Although  the  Innuits  have  never  domesticated  the  reindeer,  it  yet  plays  a 
great  part  in  their  economy.  Their  clothing  and  bedding  is  composed  almost 
wholly  of  deer-skin,  which  is  one  of  the  best  non-conductors  of  heat  known. 
Even  when  the  thermometer  marks  70  degrees  below  the  freezing-point,  they 
never  use  but  one  for  bedding ;  and  Mr.  Hall  says  that  he  has  slept  under  a 


CHARLES   FRANCIS   HALL   AND   THE   INNUITS.  459 

dozen  of  the  best  woollen  blankets  and  been  almost  frozen,  while  a  single  slender 
skin  kept  him  abundantly  warm.  During  the  summer  the  deer  furnishes  a 
great  part  of  the  food  of  the  people.  The  grass  and  mosses  upon  which  the 
deer  live  are  very  abundant.  Nowhere,  except  on  the  prairies  of  the  West,  had 
Hall  ever  seen  such  luxuriant  pasturage,  and  the  deer  in  August  were  so  plenti- 
ful that  they  were  killed  merely  for  the  sake  of  their  hides  and  tallow,  which  is 
■  a  great  luxury,  fully  equal,  in  IlaU's  opinion,  to  tlie  finest  butter.  If  the  Innuits 
would  only  store  up  their  provisions  in  the  season  of  plenty,  they  need  never 
suffer  from  famine ;  but  they  never  do  this,  and  the  consequence  is  that  from 
November  till  May  they  are  almost  always  on  the  verge  of  starvation,  while 
during  the  rest  of  the  year  they  revel  in  plenty. 

As  a  pendant  to  Mr.  Hall's  account  of  a  seal-feast,  we  give  his  description  of 
a  reindeer-feast.  The  date  is  December,  the  season  of  scarcity.  "  Four  months 
before,  they  had  more  deer-meat  than  they  could  eat— and  the  quantity  that  an 
Innuit  and  his  dog  can  consume  is  something  almost  incredible.  But  one  day  a 
man  came  in  from  a  hunting  excursion  bearing  with  him  a  portion  of  the  car- 
casses of  two  deer,  frozen  as  hard  as  a  rock.  A  general  invitation  for  a  feast 
was  of  course  given  out ;  and  the  entire  population,  about  thirty  in  all,  rushed 
in.  Sampson,  the  giver  of  the  feast,  acted  as  master  of  ceremonies.  He  first 
made  the  ladies  on  the  bed  give  away,  so  as  to  clear  a  space  whereon  he  might 
do  the  carving.  Then  he  placed  a  huge  seal-skin  on  this  spot,  by  way  of  table- 
cloth, upon  which  the  frozen  carcass  was  laid.  This  he  began  to  carve  with  a 
hatchet.  Slabs  of  its  side  were  chopped  and  peeled  off;  chips  of  ice  flew  here 
and  there  into  the  faces  of  the  guests  at  each  stroke  of  the  axe.  As  fast  as  the 
fragments  of  venison  rolled  off,  other  men  took  the  pieces,  and  by  means  of  a 
saw  and  seal-knives  reduced  them  to  a  size  adapted  for  handling.  Then  Samp- 
son distributed  these  bits,  one  to  each,  till  every  mill  had  its  grist  to  grind. 
Thus  for  half  an  hour  Sampson  carved ;  then  his  hatchet-handle  broke  off  close 
up  to  the  head.  Another  axe  was  sent  for,  and  meanwhile,  with  the  half  of  a 
saw,  the  two  saddles  were  divided  into  the  proper  number  of  pieces,  ready  for 
distribution.  The  carcass  was  then  once  more  attacked,  and  the  shell  was 
broken,  split,  and  sawed  to  pieces.  In  it  was  the  '  kernel,'  to  which  all  looked 
•with  anxious  eyes ;  this  was  at  last  divided  into  as  many  pieces  as  there  were 
pieces  of  saddle,  and  then  one  of  each  was  given  to  every  guest.  I  received 
my  share  with  gratitude,  and,  with  a  piece  in  each  hand,  began  eating.  I  bit 
off  a  mouthful  of  the  saddle-piece  ;  it  was  good.  I  took  a  morsel  of  the  other ; 
it  was  deliglitf  ul :  its  flavor  was  a  kind  of  sorrel  acid  ;  it  had  an  ambrosial  taste ; 
it  fairly  melted  in  my  mouth.  When  nearly  through,  I  had  the  curiosity  to 
crowd  my  way  to  a  light  to  see  what  this  delicious  frozen  food  was,  for  where  I 
sat  I  was  shaded  by  large  forms  between  me  and  the  firelight.  I  looked  at  it, 
rolled  it  over,  and  looked  again.  Behold,  it  was  the  contents  of  a  reindeer's 
paunch !     On  this  discovery  I  stopped  feasting  for  that  night." 

Mr.  Hall  passes  judgment  upon  various  other  articles  of  Innuit  food.  Seal's 
blood,  smoking  hot,  is  excellent.  The  skin  of  the  whale,  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  thick,  looking  like  India-rubber,  even  when  raw,  is  good  catiiig ;  but  when 
boiled  and  soused  in  vinegar,  is  most  excellent.     The  "  gum ''  of  the  whale,  that 


460  THE   POLAR  WORLD. 

is,  the  substance  in  which  whalebone  is  set,  is  a  special  Innuit  delicacy ;  it  looks 
like  cocoa-nut  meat,  and  tastes  like  unripe  chestnuts.  Hall  could  not  fully  ap- 
preciate this  ;  but  he  adds  savingly,  "  If  the  struggle  was  for  life,  and  its  pres- 
ervation depended  upon  the  act,  I  would  undoubtedly  eat  whale's  gura  until  I 
got  something  better  to  my  liking."  Once  a  substance  which  looked  like  a 
choice  bit  from  a  turkey's  breast  was  handed  to  him.  He  thought  he  had 
stumbled  upon  a  delicacy,  but  after  vainly  trying  to  masticate  it  for  half  an 
hour,  he  found  it  as  solid  as  when  he  began.  This  substance  was  the  ligament 
lying  between  the  vertebrse  of  the  whale.  He  had  made  a  mistake  in  the  way 
of  disposing  of  it.  The  Innuit  mode  is  to  take  a  huge  piece  into  the  mouth, 
lubricate  it  thoroughly,  and  then  bolt  it  whole,  as  the  boa-constrictor  swallows 
a  deer.  Hall  thinks  well  of  the  Innuit  'practice  of  ■eating  their  meat  raw,  in  a 
sanitary  point  of  "view  ;  but  he  never  quite  liked  it.  He  never  fully  came  up  to 
the  opinion  of  Mansfield  Park^ms,  the  Abyssinian  traveller,  who  assures  us  that 
no  man  knows  what  a  good  beef-steak  is  until  he  has  eaten  it  raw,  before  it  has 
had  time  to  get  cold. 

Tlie  costume  of  the  Innuits  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  climate.  The  win- 
ter dress,  commencing  with  the  feet,  is  thus  composed  :  Long  stockings  of  rein- 
deer skin,  with  the  hairy  side  next  to  the  person  ;  socks  of  eider-duck  skin,  with 
the  feathers  on  both  sides,  and  of  seal-skin  with  the  hair  outside ;  boots,  the 
legs  of  reindeer  skin  with  the  hair  outside,  the  soles  of  seal-skin.  The  jacket 
is  of  reindeer  skin,  fitting  rather  loosely ;  those  of  the  women  have  long  tails 
reaching  almost  to  the  ground.  The  ornamentation  of  the  female  dress  de- 
pends on  the  means  and  taste  of  the  weai-er.  One  "very  pretty  style,"  men- 
tioned by  Ml',  Hall,  had  a  fringe  of  colored  beads  across  the  neck,  bowls  of 
Britannic-metal  tea-spoons  down  the  front  flap,  and  a  double  row  of  copper 
cents,  surmounted  by  a  small  bell,  down  the  tail,  which  was  bordered  by  a 
beading  of  leaden  shot.  The  jacket  has  no  opening  before  or  behind,  but  is 
slipped  on  over  the  head.  The  women's  jacket  has  a  hood  which  serves  a 
variety  of  purposes,  among  others,  that  of  carrying  the  children.  The  breeches 
reach  below  the  knee,  and  are  fastened  by  a  string  drawn  about  the  waist. 
Finger-rings  and  a  head-band  of  bright  brass,  complete  the  fashionable  cos- 
tume. 

The  religious  ideas  of  the  Innuits  are  very  vague.  They  believe  that  there 
is  one  Supreme  Being  who  created  the  earth,  sea,  and  stars ;  and  also  a  second- 
ary divinity,  his  daughter,  who  created  all  things  having  life,  whether  animal 
or  vegetable.  She  is  the  tutelary  deity  of  the  Innuits.  They  believe  in  a  heav- 
en and  a  hell,  but  have  no  very  well  defined  ideas  about  them.  According  to 
Tookoolito,  heaven  was  upward ;  it  is  light  there  all  the  time,  and  there  are  no 
ice  or  storms.  Hell  is  downward ;  no  sun  there,  but  storms  and  snows  all  the 
while ;  it  is  cold,  and  there  is  a  great  deal  of  ice  there.  Any  one  who  has  been 
killed  by  accident  goes  straight  to  heaven.  They  have  a  kind  of  priests,  or 
rather  conjurers,  called  Angekos,  whose  business  is  to  charm  away  sickness, 
and  secure  good  hunting-seasons,  with  an  abundance  of  seals,  walrus,  and  deer, 
and  an  early  disappearance  of  the  ice.  "When  his  services  are  called  for,  he  is 
always,  like  a  wise  man,  careful  to  get  his  pay  in  advance,  and  it  is  generally 


CHARLES  FRANCIS   HALL   AND   THE  INNUITS. 


4G1 


FINDING  THE   DEAD. 


understood  that  the  success  of  his  incant;;itions  depends   greatly  upon  the 
amount  of  his  fee. 

Upon  the  whole,  the  Innuits  must  be  regarded  as  an  amiable  and  kindly 
people.  They  are  exceedingly  tender  parents,  and  not  unaffectionate  Imsbands 
and  wives.  The  main  exception  to  their  general  kindness  is  their  treatment  of 
the  aged  and  infirm.  When  one,  especially  a  Avoman,  is  hopelessly  sick  or  in- 
firm, she  is  not  unfrequently  abandoned.  Mr.  Hall  relates  several  incidents  of 
tliis  kind  which  came  within  his  own  knowledge.  In  one  case  the  husband, 
when  he  found  that  his  wife  was  hopelessly  sick  of  consumption,  abandoned 
her,  and  took  another  while  the  poor  creature  was  still  alive.  The  deserted 
woman  lingered  several  weeks,  supplied  with  food  by  the  neighbors.  In  anotli- 
er  case  a  sick  woman,  in  the  depth  of  winter,  was  left  behind  in  an  igloo,  with 
a  small  quantity  of  provisions.  Hall,  learning  of  this,  made  an  attempt  to  go 
to  her  rescue.  But  in  the  mean  time  a  heavy  snow-storm  "had  come  on,  and 
the  igloo  was  entirely  buried,  so  that  no  traces  of  it  could  be  found.  A  few 
days  after,  Hall,  accompanied  by  Ebierbing,  made  another  attempt.  The  spot 
was  finally  found,  though  the  snow  lay  level  above  the  ice-hut,  the  position  of 


462 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


which  could  be  ascertained  only  by  exploring  with  their  spears.  They  broke  ' 
throuo-h  the  roof,  and,  looking  down,  saw  the  woman  frozen  as  sohd  as  a  mar- 
ble statue.  She  had  been  dead  for  days,  and  the  indications  showed  that  she 
had  perished  from  cold  very  soon  after  being  abandoned.  There  were  supplies 
of  whale-skin  for  food,  and  blubber  to  keep  up  the  fire,  but  she  was  too  feeble 
to  rise  from  the  bed  and- replenish  the  lamp. 

The  Innuits  of  the  present  day  are  a  purely  nomadic  race,  roamijig  from 
place  to  place,  following  the  seal,  walrus,  and  deer.  But  their  wanderings  ap- 
pear to  be  confined  to  the  region  of  the  coast,  never  extending  far  into  the  in- 
terior. Their  dwellings  are  therefore  constructed  for  mere  temporary  occupa- 
tion, being  snow-huts  (igloos)  for  winter,  and  tents  {tupics)  for  suaimer.     But 


INNUIT  SUMMER  VILLAGE. 


there  are  indications  in  the  form  of  trenches  and  excavations  which  show  that 
they  formerly  led  a  more  settled  life,  and  constructed  more  permanent  habita- 
tions. Their  numbers  have  been  gradually  diminishing  ever  since  they  have 
come  into  contact  with  the  whites.  How  this  comes  to  pass  is  a  mystery. 
There  is  nothing  to  show  that  the  climate  has  become  more  rigorous,  or  that 
the  annuals  which  constitute  their  food  have  grown  scarcer  or  less  easy  of  cap- 
ture. The  Indians  of  America  have  been  destroyed  by  the  occupation  of  their 
hunting-grounds,  by  whisky,  and  the  small-pox,  introduced  by  the  whites.  The 
natives  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  have  been  eaten  up  by  nameless  diseases,  con- 
tracted from  their  licentious  white  visitors.  There  is  scarcely  a  trace  of  either 
drunkenness  or  licentiousness  among  the  Innuits.     Consumption  is  the  great 


CHARLES  FRANCIS   HALL  AND   THE  INNUITS.  403 

"1 


If    H  '  II  111 


III  iliiiil  III 


destroyer  among  them ;  but  we  can  see  no  reason  why  this  should  be  moix- 
l^revalent  now  than  it  was  generations  ago. 

It  seems  that  in  former  times  there  were  chiefs  among  the  Innuits,  but  at 
the  present  time  there  is  no  trace  of  any  thing  like  government  among  them. 
In  each  community  there  is  usually  some  one  who,  from  age,  personal  prowess 


464 


THE  POLAR  WORLD. 


OV'EK    THE   ICE. 


as  a  hunter,  or  native  shrewdness,  is  looked  up  to  with  respect,  and  his  opinions 
are  regarded  with  deference ;  but  he  has  no  sort  of  authority  except  that  M'hich 
each  person  voluntarily  concedes  to  him. 

We  left  Mr.  Hall  near  the  close  of  January^  1861,  Avhen  he  was  just  return- 
ing to  the  ship  after  his  first  overland  expedition.  W'e  do  not  propose  to  fol- 
low him  through  the  course  of  his  personal  narrative,  although  it  abounds  with 
striking  incidents  and  details  of  hardship  and  peril.  Thus,  one  day  in  March, 
John  Brown,  one  of  the  ship's  cx'ew,  in  company  with  two  Innuits,  started  off 
from  an  igloo  a  few  miles  distant  to  rejoin  the  ship.  Somehow  he  got  sepa- 
I'ated  from  his  companions,  but  the  next  morning  he  had  not  arrived.  The  night 
had  been  intensely  cold,  the  thermometer  marking  57  degrees  below  freezing- 
point.  A  party  of  a  dozen.set  off  in  the  attempt  to  find  him.  In  two  hours 
they  came  upon  the  tracks  of  the  wanderer,  but  only  Hall  and  four  others 
could  hold  out ;  the  others,  one  by  one,  fell  back.  They  kept  on,  following  the 
tracks,  which  now  began  to  grow  faint,  being  partly  filled  up  Avith  snow.  For 
a  time  the  tracks  went  straight  for  the  ship  ;  then  they  began  to  Avaver,  now  in 
one  direction,  and  then  in  another,  showing  that  the  man  had  lost  his  way. 
They  followed  the  tracks,  in  the  intense  cold,  60  degrees  below  freezing-point. 
They  were  tormented  by  thii-st,  which  they  attempted  to  allay  by  the  use  of 
ice.  The  first  fragment  which  Hall  put  into  his  mouth  froze  it  fast.  He 
managed  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  ice  by  holding  the  fragments  in  his 
mittened  hand,  so  that  he  could  place  them  in  his  mouth.  After  six  hours,  Hall's 
companions  said  they  could  go  no  farther  and  must  return ;  for  they  had 
brought  along  no  snow-knife,  with  which  they  could  build  an  igloo  for  the  night ; 
and  if  a  storm  should  spring  up,  they  must  all  be  inevitably  lost.  Hall  went  on 
alone.  One  of  the  crew  named  Johnston  soon  overtook  him,  saying,  "Brown 
was  my  shipmate,  and  I  loved  him.  I  will  go  on  with  you.  If  I  were  to  go 
back  now,  I  shall  always  regret  it."  They  followed  the  tracks,  which  now  be-, 
sran  to  run  in  circles,  interlocking  one  another.     There  were  twelve  of  these 


CHARLES  FRANCIS  HALL   AND   THE   INNUITS. 


405 


TUE    FKOZEN    S\II( 


within  less  than  two  miles.  Every  little  while  they  came  upon  places  where 
the  wanderer  had  lain  down  to  rest.  At  five  o'clock,  nine  hours  after  setting 
out,  they  Avere  overtaken  by  Captain  Buddington,  with  two  sailors  and  two  In- 
nuits,  accompanied  by  a  dog-team.  They  all  pressed  on  with  renewed  vigor, 
and  in  a  few  minutes  came  upon  poor  Brown,  frozen  dead.  They  could  not  con- 
vey the  corpse  to  the  ship,  fully  ten  miles  away,  and  so  buried  him  in  the  snow 
upon  the  spot  Avhere  he  was  found. 

It  was  the  middle  of  July  before  the  ship  was  released  from  her  icy  prison. 
The  whalers  went  to  work,  and  Hall  made  several  important  expeditions  by 
land  and  water,  living  nearly  all  the  while  with  the  Inuuits.  Towards  the 
middle  of  October  the  captain  began  to  prepare  for  returning  home.  But  he 
was  a  few  days  too  late.  The  ship  was  beset  in  the  ice-pack,  with  no  hope  of 
escape.  There  was  nothing  left  but  to  make  up  their  minds  to  spend  another 
winter  in  the  ice. 

We  must  pass  wholly  over  the  incidents  and  adventures  of  this  second  win- 
ter. It  is  the  old  tale  of  suffering  and  privation.  On  the  12th  of  January  the 
thermometer  fell  to  72  degrees  below  the  freezing  point.  One  of  the  men  who 
had  left  to  visit  an  Innuit  encampment  came  back,  saying  that  he  thought  he 
had  frozen  his  toe.  Upon  pulling  off  his  boots  both  feet  were  found  to  be 
frozen  stiff,  and  as  hard  as  ice.  Tlie  usual  attempts  to  save  the  members  were 
made  in  vain;  mortification  began,  and,  to  save  the  man's  life,  the  captain  was 
obliged  to  amputate  portions  of  both  his  feet. 

This  year,  1862,  the  ice  held  on  unusually  late  ;  but  on  the  8th  of  August  it 

30 


4G6  THE   POLAR    WORLD. 

was  found  that  the  pack  had  broken  up.  The  way  home  was  apparently  open ; 
and  all  hands  Avere  summoned  on  board.  The  vessel  spread  her  canvas  and 
sailed  off,  the  Innuits  surrounding  her  in  their  canoes,  and  shouting  farewell. 

Tookoolito  and  Ebierbing  resolved  to  accompany  Hall  to. the  States, taking 
with  them  Tukeliketa  ("Butterfly"),  their  infant,  a  year  old.  The  child  died  a 
few  months  after  their  arrival  in  the  States,  and  lies  buried  in  the  graveyard  at 
Groton,  Connecticut.  "  I  never  saw,"  says  Hall,  "  a  more  animated,  sweet-tem- 
pered, and  engaging  child."  For  days  the  mother  was  delirious;  then  she 
longed  to  die,  that  she  might  be  with  her  lost  Butterfly.  Upon  his  grave  were 
laid,  according  to  the  custom  of  his  people,  all  his  childish  playthings.  They 
were  sacred  to  the  dead.  The  mother  went  to  the  grave  one  day,  and  found 
that  one  article,  a  gayly-painted  little  tin  pail,  had  been  taken  away.  She  was 
inconsolable.  "  Poor  little  Butterfly,"  she  said,  "  how  he  will  miss  his  beauti- 
ful pail !" 

The  homeward  voyage  Avas  speedy  and  prosperous.  On  the  1 3th  of  Septem- 
ber the  "  George  Henry "  dropped  anchor  at  New  London,  whence  she  iiad 
sailed  two  years  and  three  and  a  half  months  before. 

The  ne1» results  of  Hall's  expedition  were  these  :  Many  new  discoveries  were 
made  in  Arctic  geography ;  much  information  was  gathered  in  relation  to  the 
inhabitants  ;  and  experience  acquired  of  immense  value  to  all  future  Arctic  ex- 
plorers. Mr.  Hall  also  made  a  very  interesting  discovery  in  regard  to  the  fate 
of  the  expedition  of  Martin  Frobisher,  undertaken  almost  three  centuries  ago. 
He  found  a  tradition  among  the  natives  that  many  years  ago  white  men  in  ships 
had  visited  a  place  still  called  "  White  Man's  Island."  Hall  compared  these  tra- 
ditions with  the  accounts  extant  in  books  respecting  this  voyage,  and  was  struck 
with  their  remarkable  coincidence.  He  visited  the  place  designated  as  the 
white  man's  encampment,  and  found  many  things  wliich  had  evidently  been  left 
by  Europeans.  Among  these  was  a  heap  of  coal  amounting  to  several  tons,  a 
large  fragment  of  iron,  and  some  bricks.  Every  thing  was  covered  over  with 
moss  Avhose  thick  growth  showed  that  they  must  have  remained  there  undis- 
turbed for  ages. 

The  bearing  of  this  upon  the  possibility  of  revealing  the  whole  mystery  of 
the  fate  of  Franklin  is  evident.  If  the  Innuits  have  preserved  tolerably  accu- 
rate traditions  of  what  took  place  three  centuries  ago,  it  is  not  to  be  doubted 
that  they  still  have  information  of  what  took  place  within  a  single  generation. 
It  is  now  past  hoping  that  any  members  of  Franklin's  expedition  are  yet  living ; 
but  there  must  be  Innuits  who  can  tell  how  and  where  they  died. 

To  further  this  investigation  Hall  resolved  upon  a  second  expedition.  Ho 
spent  nearly  two  years  in  preparing  his  book  for  publication,  and  in  making  prep- 
arations for  this  enterprise.  Abundant  facilities  were  now  placed  at  his  dis- 
posal; and  on  the  30th  of  July,  1864,  he  again  set  sail.  In  the  preface  to  his 
book,  written  on  board  the  vessel,  he  says  : 

"I  am  persuaded  that  among  the  Innuits  maybe  sought, by  one  competent, 
with  every  chance  of  complete  success,  the  sad  history  of  Sir  John  Franklin's 
men.  To  make  myself  competent  for  this  more  interesting  and  important  re- 
search, I  patiently  acquired  the  language  and  familiarized  myself  with  the  habits 


CHARLES   FRANCIS    HALL   AND    THE    INNUITS.  4G7 

of  the  Esquimaux.  I  now  return  to  their  country  able  to  speak  with  tliein,  to 
live  among  them,  to  support  my  life  in  the  same  manner  that  they  do  theirs ; 
to  migrate  with  them  from  place  to  place,  and  to  traverse  and  patiently  explore 
all  the  region  in  which  it  is  reasonable  to  supj)ose  Franklin's  crew  travelled  and 
perished.  I  shall  be  accompanied  by  the  two  intelligent  Esquimaux,  Ebierbing 
and  Tookoolito,  who,  having  accompanied  me  on  my  return  from  my  first 
expedition,  and  after  remaining  with  me  for  two  years,  now  go  back  with  me 
on  this  second  voyage.  I  enter  upon  this  undertaking  Avith  the  liveliest  hope 
of  success.  I  shall  not,  like  previous  explorers,  set  my  foot  on  shore  for  a  few 
days  or  weeks,  or,  like  others,  journey  among  men  whose  language  to  rae  is 
unintelligible.  I  shall  live  for  two  or  three  years  among  the  Esquimaux,  and 
gain  their  confidence ;  and  I  have  the  advantage  of  understanding  their  lan- 
guage, and  of  making  all  my  wishes  known  to  them." 

This  second  expedition  of  Hall,  instead  of  the  two  or  three  years  Avhich  he 
had  anticipated,  occupied  more  than  five  years,  during  a  great  part  of  which 
he  was  shut  out  from  all  communication  with  the  world.  Up  to  1867,  he 
wrote  as  opportunity  afforded  to  his  fast  friend  and  warm  supporter,  Henry 
Grinnell ;  but  his  letters  gave  only  faint  indications  of  what  he  hoped  to 
accomplish.  He  had  expected  to  return  in  1868,  but  in  that  year  no  Avhaling 
vessels  came  back  from  the  Arctic  seas,  and  he  Avas  doomed  to  another  year 
in  that  region.  Late  in  1869  he  returned,  and  Avas  received  Avith  plaudits  not 
■less  Avarni  than  those  Avhich  had  Avelcomed  Kane,  fifteen  years  before.  Con- 
gress in  a  few  months  passed  a  bill  making  adeqitate  appropriations  for  a 
national  expedition  to  the  Arctic  regions,  to  be  placed  under  the  direction  of 
Hall.  On  the  day  following  Christmas,  1870, 1  met  Hall  in  New  York.  He 
Avas  little  changed  in  appearance  from  the  aspect  which  he  had  borne  five  years 
before,  as  shoAvn  upon  page  434  of  this  a' olume.  He  Avas  busily  engaged  in 
preparations  for  his  ncAV  voyage,  and  Avas  in  high  spirits.  "  I  have  demonstra- 
ted in  my  oAvn  person,"  he  said,  "  that  Avhite  men  can  live,  Avith  no  extraor- 
dinary sufFeiings,  for  years  in  the  depths  of  the  Arctic  regions.  I  have  lived 
there  for  years,  and  can  teach  my  associates  how  to  do  so.  Upon  this  new 
expedition  I  shall  be  amply  provided  Avith  all  means  for  a  thorough  explora- 
tion. I  shall  have  Avith  me  a  scientific  observer,  a  naturalist  fully  qualified 
to  report  upon  every  thing  in  his  department,  and  an  artist  and  photographer, 
who  will  be  able  to  depict  every  thing  relating  to  the  Arctic  regions.  Thus 
I  abundantly  supplied,  and  aided  by  my  OAvn  experience  of  more  than  ten  years, 
I  think  that  I  shall  be  able  to  accomplish  something  Avorthy  of  the  means 
j  i)laced  at  my  dis]>osal." 

About  the  time  Avhen  these  pages  meet  the  eye  of  the  reader.  Hall  Avill 
have  set  out  on  his  third  expedition.  We  bid  him,  by  anticipation,  "  Hail, 
and  farewell." 

Livingstone  says  that  he  found  it  easier  to  perform  his  African  journeys 
than  Avrite  the  account  of  them.  Something  like  this  may  be  the  case  Avith 
Hall;  at  all  events,  so  fully  has  he  been  occupied  in  fitting  out  his  third  cx]>c- 
dition  that  he  has  not  found  time  to  prepare  the  narrative  of  the  one  Avhich 


468 


THE   POLAR   WORLD. 


he  has  just  completed.  But  his  journals  and  drawings  are  preserved,  and 
Avill  undoubtedly  see  the  light.  Of  their  value,  as  they  stand,  I  have  means 
of  knowing  something;  and  trust  that  he  may  return  safely,  and  be  able  to  re- 
vise them  for  publication.  In  a  few  weeks  he  will  have  set  out  on  his  third 
voyage.  From  the  capacity  which  he  has  manifested  in  two  expeditions,  occu- 
pying together  more  than  ten  years,  and  from  the  abundant  resources  now  at 
his  disposal,  there  is  every  reason  to  hope  that  he  will  be  able  to  soh^e  the 
remaining  problems  relating  to  the  Arctic  regions.  If  there  be,  as  there  is 
good  reason  to  suppose,  an  open  sea  surrounding  the  North  Pole ;  and  if  that 
sea  is  accessible  to  man,  by  land  or  by  water,  Ave  can  hardly  doubt  that  Hall, 
certainly  the  first  of  white  Men,  and  most  likely  first  of  all  men,  will  make 
his  way  to  it. 

Until  such  time  as  he  shall  have  returned  from  his  present  voyage,  we  bid 
him  hail  and  farewell.  And  also,  copying  his  own  last  drawing  made  during 
his  first  expedition,  we  bid  forewell  to  the  Innuits  —  that  interesting  people 
whom  he  is  the  first  fairly  to  introduce  to  the  world ;  since  he  was  the  first 
white  man  who  ever  lived  with  them,  faring  summer  and  Avinter  as  they  fared, 
and  experiencing  with  them  the  pleasures  and  the  sorrows  of  their  hyijerbo- 
rean  life. 


FAKEWELL   OF    THE   INNUITS. 


THE  TEOPICAL  WOELD, 


M 


THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 


'''^-^'/ 


avati:rspout. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  OCEAN  AND  ATMOSPHERE  OF  THE  TROPICAL  WORLD. 

Characteristics  of  tlie  Polar  and  Tropical  Worlds— Geograpliical  and  Climatic  Limits  of  the 
Zones— Distribution  of  Land  and  Water— Climatic  Importance  of  the  Ocean— Currents  of 
the  Ocean— The  Gulf  Stream— Influence  of  the  Gulf  Stream  upon  the  Climate  of  Europe— 
Tlie  Sargasso  Sea— Columbus  and  the  Gulf  Stream— The  Pacific  and  Indian  Currents- 
Heat  and  Force— Relative  Positions  of  Hot  and  Cold  Currents— Currents  of  the  Air— The 
Trade  Winds— Atmospheric  Currents  and  Climate— The  Calm  Belt  near  tlie  Equator- 
Rainfall  of  Different  Regions— Rainy  and  Dry  Seasons  within  the  Tropics— The  Monsoons 
—Winds  as  Regulators  of  Rains— Annual  Rainfall— Whirlwinds— Their  Rotary  Motion- 
Tropical  Islands— Volcanic  Islands— Coralline  Islands— Atolls  and  Reefs— Influence  of  the 
Ocean  upon  Life  in  the  Tropical  Islands. 

FROM  a  wide  survey  of  the  Polar  World,  we  now  turn  to  the  tropical  regions, 
where  nature  assumes  aspects  of  an  entirely  different  character.  In  the  Polar 
World  there  is  a  constant  struggle  between  all  sorts  of  life  and  cold.  As  we  approach 
the  poles,  cold  gains  more  and  more  the  mastery ;  life  nearly  ceases  upon  tlie  land. 


472  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

and  exists  mainly  in  the  waters  which  sweep  around  the  icebound  shores.  In  the 
Tropical  World,  of  which  we  are  now  to  speak,  the  intense  rays  of  the  vertical  sun 
call  into  being  an  exuberance  of  animal  and  vegetable  life  unknown  to  other  regions. 

Here,  in  the  outset,  it  is  well  to  define,  as  nearly  as  may  be  done,  the  geographical 
limits  of  the  zones  or  belts  of  the  earth,  and  especially  of  that  with  which  we  are  now 
most  immediately  concerned,  which  we  designate  as  Tropical,  as  distinguished  from  the 
Temperate  Zones  which  lie  upon  each  side  of  it,  and  the  Polar,  which  lie  on  each  side 
still  farther  beyond,  to  the  north  and  the  south. 

As  used  by  geographers,  the  Tropical  Zone  includes  that  belt  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face extending  23i-o  on  each  side  of  the  equator,  bounded  on  the  north  by  an 
imaginary  line  called  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  on  the  south  by  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 
These  mark  the  points  from  which  the  sun  appears  to  make  a  turn  (Greek  r^urj;, 
trope,  whence  the  name)  toward  the  equator,  from  its  utmost  declination  toward  the 
north  and  south.  It  is  only  between  these  points  that  the  sun  ever  appears  directly 
overhead ;  north  of  these  it  is  always  seen  to  the  south,  and  south  of  them  to  the 
north.  This  forms  the  Torrid  Zone,  or  belt  of  extreme  heat.  But  as  the  prevailing 
forms  of  vegetable  and  animal  life  which  characterize  this  zone  extend  considerably 
further  in  both  directions,  we  shall  use  the  word  Tropical  in  a  somewhat  wider  sense, 
and  by  tlie  Tropical  World  shall  designate  all  that  part  of  the  earth's  surface  between 
the  equator  and  the  thirtieth  parallel  of  latitude  on  each  side,  forming  a  single  belt  of 
60°  in  width.  Perhaps  the  best  single  characteristic  of  this  zone  is,  that  within  it 
alone  the  various  species  of  the  palm  tree  have  their  home. 

The  Polar  World,  as  we  have  used  the  phrase,  designates  the  zones  at  the  north  and 
south  where  the  cold  is  so  excessive  as  to  prevent  the  growth  of  grains  and  esculent 
plants  suited  to  the  use  of  man.  The  parallels  of  60°,  north  and  south,  are  the 
approximate  boundaries  of  these  zones,  although  the  actual  limit  is  sometimes  above 
and  sometimes  below  this.  Thus  in  Europe  and  on  the  western  coast  of  America,  the 
polar  limit  is  as  high  as  65°;  while  on  the  eastern  coast  of  America,  as  in  Labrador, 
it  sinks  as  low  as  50°. 

The  Temperate  Zones  comprise  the  surface  of  the  globe  between  the  parallels  of  30° 
and  60°  north  and  south  latitude. 

These  great  climatic  divisions  shade  into  each  other ;  but  it  may  be  said  in  general 
terms  that  each  occupies  a  space  of  60°  of  latitude,  as  follows : 

The  Polar  Zones,  90°  to  60°  north  and  south. 

The  Temperate  Zones,  60°  to  30°  north  and  south. 

The  Tropical  Zones  from  the  equator  to  30°  north  and  south. 

The  whole  of  P^urope,  more  than  nine-tenths  of  Asia,  a  narrow  strip  of  Africa,  and 
all  of  North  America  except  Mexico,  and  a  small  portion  of  Texas  and  Florida,  lie 
north  of  the  tropical  limit.  Patagonia,  the  bare  southern  extremity  of  Africa,  half  of 
Australia,  and  the  almost  unknown  land  around  the  southern  pole,  with  a  few  islands, 
are  all  the  land  south  of  the  tropics.  The  Tropical  World  comprises  Mexico,  Central 
America,  nearly  the  whole  of  South  America  and  Africa,  and  nearly  all  the  great 
islands  of  the  globe,  including  the  West  India  Islands,  Polynesia,  the  islands  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  and  half  of  Australia. 

The  ocean  covers  three-fourths  of  the  surface  of  the  globe.  Of  the  land,  three- 
quarters  is  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  one-quarter  in  the  southern.     The  Arctic 


PROPORTIONS   OF   LAND   AND   WATKll.  473 

and  North  Temperate  Zones  are  not  very  unequally  divided  between  land  and  water. 
The  ocean  covers  four-fifths  of  the  Tropical  Zone,  and  rolls  in  an  almost  unbroken  mass 
over  the  southern  temperate  and  Antarctic  regions.  This  great  preponderance  of 
water  over  land  between  the  tropics  is  one  of  the  most  important  facts  in  physical 
geography.  Were  the  proportions  reversed,  sterility  would  be  the  rule  all  over  the 
globe,  for  without  water  there  can  be  no  vegetable  or  animal  life.  All  the  water  that 
wells  up  in  fountains,  or  flows  in  brooks  and  rivers,  comes  from  the  ocean,  whence  it 
is  raised  by  evaporation  and  borne  along  the  viewless  channels  of  the  air  to  be  pre- 
cipitated in  the  form  of  rain  and  snow,  sometimes  thousands  of  miles  from  the  spot 
where  it  commenced  its  aerial  journey.  It  is  computed  that  nearly  200,000  cubic 
miles  of  water  are  annually  raised  from  the  ocean  in  the  form  of  vapor.  Three- 
quarters  of  this  is  raised  within  the  tropics,  and  a  great  part  falls  beyond  them.  If 
the  extent  of  the  tropical  ocean  were  diminished  by  half,  there  is  hardly  a  part  of  the 
Temperate  Zone  which  would  not  be  parched  by  perpetual  drought,  and  hardly  a  river 
whose  bed  would  not  become  a  dry  ravine.  The  hidden  springs  of  the  Amazon, 
Mississippi,  and  the  Danube  lie  in  the  Pacific.  The  water  which  fills  the  great 
lakes  of  North  America,  and  thundering  down  the  cataract  of  Niagara  finds  its  way 
through  the  St.  Lawrence  River  into  the  ocean  almost  on  the  verge  of  the  polar 
world,  only  a  few  weeks  before,  perhaps,  laved  the  coral  reefs  of  the  tropical  seas. 

Moreover,  if  any  considerable  part  of  the  tropical  ocean  were  converted  into  land, 
the  heat  of  the  Torrid  Zone  would  become  so  greatly  enhanced  that  no  animal  life,  such 
as  now  exists,  could  endure  it ;  and  as  the  vegetation  of  a  climate  is  adapted  to  the 
prevailing  temperature,  the  trees  and  jjlants  which  now  flourish  would  become  extinct. 
Water  in  being  converted  into  a  gaseous  form  by  the  process  of  evaporation  absorbs 
heat  from  surrounding  objects,  or,  as  we  say,  produces  cold.  Thus  the  burning  rays 
of  a  vertical  sun  pouring  down  upon  the  ocean  in  a  measure  quench  themselves.  The 
same  rays  which  falling  upon  the  ocean  never  raise  the  water  beyond  a  grateful 
temperature,  falling  upon  the  land  produce  an  intolerable  heat.  To  step  on  a  sum- 
mer's day  from  the  cool  water  upon  the  sandy  beach  is  like  treading  upon  a  plate  of 
heated  metal. 

The  conformation  of  the  land  within  the  tropics  likewise  goes  far  to  counterbalance 
or  mitigate  the  excessive  heat  of  a  vertical  sun.  The  most  casual  glance  over  a  map 
shows  that  the  land  here  is  mostly  insular,  laved  on  all  sides  by  the  surrounding 
waters,  or  stretches  in  a  narrow  length  between  two  oceans,  thus  multiplying  the 
surface  over  which  the  sea  is  enabled  to  exert  its  cooling  influence. 

The  great  extent  of  the  tropical  seas  is  also  the  primary  cause  of  those  mighty  ocean 
currents  which  sweep  from  the  equatorial  to  the  polar  regions.  Cool  as  is  the  water  of 
the  tropics  when  compared  with  the  land,  it  is  yet  warm  when  compared  with  the  other 
parts  of  the  ocean.  The  water  thus  heated  becomes  specifically  lighter  than  that 
of  colder  regions,  is  lifted  up,  and,  in  obedience  to  the  law  of  gravitation,  runs  off  in 
both  directions  toward  the  poles.  There  having  become  cooled,  the  salt  waters  are 
heavier  than  the  comparatively  fresh  ones  of  the  polar  regions,  and,  sinking  beneath 
them,  return  in  an  under  current  to  their  starting-place. 

This  great  equatorial  current,  or  rather  series  of  currents,  is  the  marvel  of  physical 
geography.  Let  us  follow  that  of  the  Atlantic  in  its  long  career.  Starting  on  the 
line  of  the  equator,  it  flows  north-westward  along  the  coast  of  South  America,  enters  the 


474  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  from  which  it  derives  the  name  of  the  Gulf 
Stream.  It  passes  out  through  the  Straits  of  Bemini,  between  Florida  and  Cuba,  a 
great  river  32  miles  wide,  2,200  feet  deep,  flowing  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour. 
Its  volume  is  a  thousand  times  greater  than  that  of  the  Amazon  or  the  Mississippi,  and 
its  banks  of  cold  water  are  more  clearly  defined  than  are  those  of  either  of  these  rivers 
at  flood.  So  clear  is  the  line  of  demarkation  between  the  warm  water  of  the  river 
and  its  cool  liquid  banks,  that  a  ship  sailing  along  may  be  half  in  one  and  half  in  the 
other ;  and  a  bucket  of  water  dipped  from  one  side  will  be  twenty  degrees  cooler  than 
one  from  the  other.  Skirting  the  coast  at  a  distance  of  about  100  miles,  its  width  is 
increased  and  its  velocity  diminished.  Striking  the  projecting  banks  of  Newfound- 
land, its  course  is  deflected  almost  due  east,  until  it  arrives  at  mid-ocean.  Here  it 
spreads  out  like  a  fan,  skirting  the  shores  of  Spain,  France  and  Great  Britain.  It 
then  divides,  one  branch  sweeping  around  the  west  coast  of  Iceland,  the  other 
approaching  the  shores  of  Norway,  and  its  temporary  influence  is  perceptible  in  the 
ameliorated  climate  of  Spitzbergen. 

It  is  owing  to  this  great  ocean  river  that  the  temperature  of  the  western  shores  of 
Europe  is  so  much  higher  than  that  of  the  eastern  shore  of  America  in  the  same  lati- 
tudes. Maury  estimates  that  the  amount  of  heat  which  the  Gulf  Stream  diffuses  over 
the  northern  Atlantic  in  a  winter's  day  is  sufficient  to  raise  the  whole  atmosphere 
which  covers  France  and  Great  Britain  from  the  freezing  point  to  summer  heat.  The 
olives  of  Spain,  the  vines  of  France,  the  wheat-fields  of  England,  and  the  green 
expanse  of  the  Emerald  Isle,  are  the  gifts  of  the  tropical  seas,  dispensed  through  the 
Gulf  Stream. 

Near  the  Azores  another  branch  of  the  Gulf  Stream  encounters  the  return  flow 
from  the  Arctic  Ocean,  bends  around,  and  skirting  the  coast  of  Africa,  returns  to  its 
starting-place  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  leaving  in  its  great  bend  near  the  Azores  an 
expanse  of  almost  motionless  waters  larger  than  the  whole  of  France.  This  is  known 
as  the  Sargasso  Sea,  from  the  surface  being  covered  with  a  seaweed  called  the  Sar- 
gassum  natans.  So  thick  is  the  covering  of  weeds  that  at  a  little  distance  it  seems 
solid  enough  to  walk  upon.  Another  curious  species  of  seaweed,  the  Macrocrystis 
pyrifera,  is  found  in  this  grassy  sea.  The  stem,  not  thicker  than  a  man's  finger,  is 
from  1,000  to  1,500  feet  long,  branching  upward  in  filaments  like  pack-thread.  Most 
of  these  weeds  probably  grow  on  the  spot ;  but  many  are  borne  along  by  the  Gulf 
Stream,  for  everything  that  floats  from  other  parts  of  the  Atlantic  tend  to  its  eastern 
side.  The  discovery  of  the  bodies  of  strange  animals  and  unknown  trees  and  plants 
flung  ashore  at  the  Azores  suggested  to  Columbus  the  idea  that  there  was  land  lying 
beyond  the  western  ocean ;  so  that  to  the  Gulf  Stream  we  are  indebted  for  the  dis- 
covery of  the  New  World.  Bottles  have  been  thrown  overboard  at  various  points  in 
the  Gulf  Stream,  containing  the  date  and  position  of  the  ship.  Many  of  these  have 
been  picked  up.  From  these  it  appears  that  the  stream  takes  eight  months  to  flow 
from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  shores  of  Europe,  and  the  broader  and  slower  current 
takes  a  year  to  travel  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay  back  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  Gulf  Stream,  though  the  best  known,  and  in  many  respects  the  most  remark- 
able of  the  great  equatorial  currents,  is  by  no  means  the  largest.  The  great  current 
of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans  may  be  regarded  as  one  mighty  stream  flowing  from 
east  to  west.     It  crosses  the  Pacific  in  a  sheet  nearly  3,500  miles  broad,  spreading 


OCEANIC   AND   ATMOSPHERIC    CURRENTS.  173 

over  almost  half  of  the  distance  from  pole  to  pole.  Another  great  current  originates 
in  the  Indian  Ocean,  flows  into  the  China  Sea  through  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  thence 
into  the  North  Pacific  between  the  coast  of  Asia  and  the  Philippine  Islands;  thence 
crosses  the  ocean  to  the  north-westward,  modifying  the  climate  of  Oregon  and  Alaska. 

All  the  heated  water  thus  poured  from  the  tropical  ocean,  and  all  raised  from  it  by 
evaporation  and  transported  through  aerial  channels  to  feed  the  rivers  of  the  temperate 
and  polar  regions,  must  find  its  way  back  by  counter  currents.  Heat,  according  to  the 
dictum  of  modern  science,  may  be  reduced  to  force.  The  force  of  the  sun's  rays 
poured  upon  the  tropical  oceans  is  sufficient  to  raise  thousands  of  yards  into  the  air 
five  hundred  cubic  miles  of  water  every  day,  and  to  put  and  keep  in  motion  the 
mighty  currents  which  sweep  back  and  forth  from  the  equator  to  the  poles.  The 
study  of  the  course,  direction,  and  elevation  of  these  currents  has  as  yet  only  begun. 
We  know  that  sometimes,  as  on  the  eastern  coast  of  America,  the  currents  of  warm 
and  cold  water  run  side  by  side  in  opposite  directions ;  sometimes  a  warm  current  is 
on  the  surface,  and  sometimes  below  it.  In  the  Gulf  Stream  the  warm  current  is 
above,  the  cold  below ;  while  on  the  coast  of  Japan  a  cold  current  from  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk  runs  on  the  surface,  giving  rise  to  a  fishery  not  inferior  in  magnitude  to  that 
caused  on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland  by  the  cold  current  from  Baffin's  Bay.  Enough, 
however,  is  now  known  of  oceanic  currents  to  warrant  the  assumption  that  they  are 
mainly  governed  by  the  great  law  of  gravitation.  The  lighter  water  flows  upon  the 
surface,  the  heavier  flows  underneath.  But  the  specific  gravity  of  ocean  water  depends 
upon  two  things,  the  temperature  and  the  amount  of  salts  contained.  The  heated 
water  from  the  tropics  is  rendered  lighter  than  that  which  surrounds  it  of  the  same 
saltness,  and  so  floats  on  the  surface ;  but  the  cold  currents  from  the  poles  are  less 
saline,  and  consequently  lighter  than  the  tropical  waters  of  the  same  temperature. 
When  these  two  opposing  currents  meet  there  is  a  struggle ;  but  at  length  the  one 
which  is  really  specifically  heavier  sinks,  while  the  lighter  rises.  So  facile  is  the 
movement  of  fluids  among  each  other,  that  a  difference  in  gravity  which  we  can  hardly 
detect  with  our  nicest  instruments  may  be  abundantly  sufficient  to  decide  which  of  two 
opposing  currents  shall  run  above  and  which  below. 

The  air  has  currents  as  well  as  the  ocean,  and  these  have  much  to  do  in  modifying 
the  climate  of  the  Tropical  World.  Rarified  by  the  intense  heat  of  a  vertical  sun,  the 
air  within  the  tropics  rises  in  perpendicular  columns  high  above  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  thence  flows  off"  toward  the  poles ;  while,  to  fill  up  the  void,  cold  air  cur- 
rents come  rushing  in  from  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions ;  but  the  rotation  of  the 
earth  gradually  diverts  the  direction  of  these  cold  currents,  and  changes  them  into  the 
trade  winds  which  regularly  blow  over  the  greater  part  of  the  tropical  ocean  from  east 
to  west,  and  materially  contribute  to  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  navigator  whom 
they  waft  over  the  equatorial  waters. 

These  atmospheric  currents  in  another  way  still  more  powerfully  influence  the 
climate  and  productions  of  the  Tropical  World  ;  for  upon  them,  in  conjunction  with 
the  character  and  direction  of  the  great  mountain  ranges,  depends  the  supply  of  water 
upon  the  surface  of  the  globe,  and  thus  determine  the  fertility  or  barrenness  of  the 
soil.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule  that  wherever  within  the  tropics  there  is  an 
abundant  supply  of  moisture,  vegetation  grows  in  rank  luxuriance ;  and  wherever  this 
is  wantino;,  the  land  is  a  desert ;  and  wherever,  as  in  the  llanos  of  Southern  America, 


476  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

there  is  a  reo-ular  alternation  of  long  periods  of  rain  and  drought,  there  is  at  different 
seasons  a  wonderful  interchange  between  apparent  desolation  and  a  profusion  of  vege- 
table and  animal  life.  The  aspects  of  these  regions  will  be  more  fully  described 
hereafter. 

The  great  mountain  ranges  run  mainly  north  and  south.  The  great  atmospheric 
currents  at  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  tropical  regions  blow  mainly  from  east  to  west. 
The  moisture  in  these  winds  is  condensed  when  they  strike  the  cold  mountains,  and 
descends  in  the  form  of  rain  or  snow.  Hence,  in  general,  the  eastern  sides  of  tropical 
mountains  are  better  watered  than  the  western  slopes. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  trade  winds  as  extending  over  the  whole  breadth  of  the 
Tropical  World.  But  to  this  there  is  a  notable  exception.  Near  the  equator,  but  a 
little  to  the  north  of  it,  the  two  currents  from  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions  meet 
and  neutralize  each  other,  producing  a  belt  of  calms,  which  sailors  call  the  "  Dol- 
drums," of  about  six  degrees  in  breadth.  Here  it  rains  almost  every  day  during  the 
year,  for  the  ascending  currents  of  heated  air  loaded  with  moisture  become  suddenly 
cooled  in  the  higher  regions,  and  are  forced  to  give  up  the  water  which  they  have 
lifted  from  the  ocean.  Towards  noon  dense  clouds  form  in  the  sky,  and  dissolve  in 
torrents  of  rain.  Towards  evening  the  vapors  disperse,  and  the  sun  sets  in  a  cloudless 
horizon.  The  quantity  of  rain  which  here  falls  during  the  year  is  enormous.  In  the 
United  States  the  annual  rainfall  is  from  25  to  70  inches;  in  Europe  from  15  to  104; 
in  the  Atlantic  doldrums  it  reaches  225.  So  copious  is  the  rainfall  at  times  that  fresh 
water  has  been  dipped  up  from  the  surface  of  the  tropical  seas. 

Proceeding  north  or  south  from  the  belt  of  calms,  we  come  to  a  region  characterized 
by  two  rainy  and  two  dry  seasons.  The  rainy  seasons  take  place ^  while  the  sun  is 
passing  the  zenith,  and  more  or  less  neutralizing  the  influence  of  the  trade  winds.  In 
Jamaica,  for  example,  the  first  rainy  season  begins  in  April,  the  second  in  October; 
the  first  dry  season  in  June,  the  second  in  December.  Towards  the  verge  of  tlie 
tropics  follow  the  zones  characterized  by  a  single  rainy  and  a  single  dry  season ;  the 
rains  lasting  from  the  vernal  to  the  autumnal  equinox. 

The  two  rainy  seasons  which  characterize  the  middle  zone  between  each  tropic  and 
the  equator  have  a  tendency  to  merge  into  one  rainy  season  of  six  months'  duration  on 
advancing  toward  the  tropics,  and  into  a  perpetual  rainy  season  on  approaching  the 
equator.  As  the  sun  goes  north  or  south  he  opens  the  flood-gates  of  the  heavens,  and 
closes  them  behind  him  as  he  passes  to  the  other  hemisphere ;  while  he  keeps  them 
continually  open  where  he  is  always  vertical.  But  this  general  state  of  things,  which 
would  be  the  normal  condition  of  the  tropical  regions  if  their  surface  was  an  unbroken 
sheet  of  water,  and  no  disturbing  forces  existed,  is  liable  to  great  modifications. 
Thus  in  the  monsoon  region,  extending  from  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa  to  the  northern 
part  of  Australia,  and  from  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  to  the  Himalayas  and  China,  it  is 
not  the  sun  directly,  but  the  winds  that  regulate  the  periodical  rains.  Thus  in  India 
and  the  Malayan  peninsula  the  western  coasts  are  watered  during  the  south-west  mon- 
soon, which  prevails  from  April  to  October ;  and  the  eastern  coasts  during  the  north- 
east monsoon,  from  October  to  April.  For  example,  the  south-west  wind  condenses 
its  vapor  on  the  western  side  of  the  Ghauts,  the  north-east  on  the  eastern,  so  that 
violent  rains  fall  daily  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  while  it  is  the  reverse  on  that  of 
Malabar,  and  vice  versa.     In  the  southern  hemisphere  the  rainy  season  corresponds  with 


RAINS   AND   HURRICANES.  477 

the  north-wostorn  monsoon,  the  dry  season  with  the  south-eastern.  In  South  Africa 
and  Australia  winter  is  the  rainy  season.  In  South  America,  in  the  same  latitudes, 
summer  is  the  rainy  season  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Cordilleras,  and  winter  on  the 
western  side. 

At  sea,  it  rains  almost  daily  within  the  calm  belt,  rarely  within  that  of  the  trade 
winds.  On  the  land  within  the  tropics  the  rainfall  is  in  many  regions  enormous. 
The  average  annual  fall  in  the  most  favored  parts  of  the  temperate  zone  is  about  40 
inches;  in  the  tropics  it  exceeds  100.  In  some  portions  it  is  vastly  greater.  On  the 
western  Ghauts  the  mean  annual  quantity  is  300  inches.  On  the  Himalayas,  Mr. 
Yule  measured  264  inches  in  the  single  month  of  August,  of  which  150  inches  fell  in 
five  successive  days.  Hooker  and  Thomson  measured  here  500  inches  in  seven 
months;  and  during  a  terrific  shower  30  inches  fell  in  four  hours,  and  Castlenau 
measured  the  same  quantity  during  a  single  storm  on  the  Amazon. 

Tornados  and  hurricanes  rage  in  the  Tropical  World  with  a  frequency,  extent  and 
violence  unknown  in  other  climates.  They  sometimes  move  with  a  direct  velocity  of 
45  miles  an  hour ;  but  the  violence  and  destructiveness  of  a  whirlwind  depend  less 
upon  the  velocity  with  which  the  whole  storm  moves  than  upon  the  speed  with  which 
the  wind  whirls  around  and  in  upon  the  center.  The  great  Bahama  hurricane  of  1866 
moved  forward  at  the  rate  of  30  miles  an  hour ;  but  the  velocity  of  its  whirling  motion 
was  from  80  to  100,  and  for  short  intervals  from  100  to  120  miles  an  hour.  The 
diameter  of  the  great  storms  of  the  tropical  Atlantic  is  often  from  600  to  1,000  miles ; 
those  of  the  Indian  Ocean  1,000  to  1,500.  These,  however,  move  but  slowly.  The 
smaller  storms  are  usually  more  rapid  than  the  larger  ones. 

The  revolving  motion  accounts  for  the  sudden  and  violent  changes  observed  during 
hurricanes.  In  consequence  of  this  rotation,  the  wind  blows  in  opposite  directions  on 
each  side  of  the  axis  of  the  storm ;  the  violence  increases  from  the  circumference 
inward ;  but  at  the  center  the  air  is  in  repose.  Hence,  when  the  body  of  the  storm 
passes  over  a  place,  the  wind  begins  to  blow  moderately,  and  increases  to  a  hurricane 
as  the  center  of  the  whirlwind  approaches ;  then  in  a  moment  a  dead  calm  succeeds, 
suddenly  followed  by  a  renewal  of  the  storm  in  all  its  violence,  but  now  blowing  in  a 
direction  opposite  to  that  which  it  had  before.  From  this  rotary  motion  it  follows  that 
the  direction  of  the  wind  at  any  moment  is  no  indication  of  the  direction  which  the 
body  of  the  storm  is  pursuing.  The  progressive  motion  may  continue  for  days  in  one 
direction,  while  the  wind  accomplishes  many  gyrations  from  every  point  of  the  compass. 
During  a  part  of  the  course  of  a  storm  the  wind  blows  in  just  the  opposite  direction 
from  that  which  the  hurricane  is  taking,  just  as  when  a  carriage-wheel,  and  every 
point  of  its  circumference,  is  really  moving  forward,  during  a  part  of  each  revolution 
any  point  in  the  circumference  is  at  the  same  time  moving  back  with  a  still  greater 
velocity. 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  insular  character  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
Tropical  World.  Nine-tenths  of  the  islands  which  dot  the  ocean  lie  within  the  tropics. 
These  islands  are  divided  int«  two  great  classes.  The  one  class  is  of  volcanic  origin, 
upheaved  from  the  depths  of  the  ocean ;  or,  rather,  they  are  peaks  of  lofty  mountains 
whose  sides  and  base  lie  deep  in  the  water.  There  are  two  opposite  theories  to 
account  for  the  existence  and  present  appearance  of  these  islands.  According  to  one 
theory,  a  continent  once  occupied  a  large  part  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  within  the  tropics, 


478  THE   TROriCAL   WORLD. 

a  great  portion  of  which  has  sunk  beneath  the  waters,  and  these  islands  are  but  the 
peaks  and  table-lands  of  that  lost  continent.  The  other  theory  is  that  these  islands 
have  been  for  unknown  ages,  and  now  are,  slowly  being  lifted  up  from  the  depths 
below.  Both  theories  rest  upon  so  wide  an  induction  of  facts  that  both  must  be 
accepted  as  true ;  or  rather  as  parts  of  the  one  great  truth,  that  the  crust  of  the  earth 
which  we  are  wont  to  consider  so  firm  and  stable  is  now,  as  it  always  has  been,  rising 
and  falling,  as  truly  as  the  surface  of  the  water  rises  and  falls  by  the  attraction  of  the 
sun  and  moon ;  only  that  these  periodic  changes  are  measured  by  ages  instead  of  by 
hours.  Who  shall  say  that  in  the  higher  knowledge  which  we  shall  gain  during  the 
awes  of  the  future  we  may  not  attain  to  the  understanding  that  the  rise  and  sinking  of  con- 
tinents is  like  that  of  the  tides  governed  by  law,  and  that  we  may  not  be  able  to  express 
in  figures,  which  will  then  be  quite  finite  to  us,  though  now  seeming  infinite,  the 
years  that  have  elapsed  since  when  "  in  the  beginning  heaven  and  earth  rose  out  of 
chaos  ?" 

Volcanic  islands  are  found  in  all  oceans.  Iceland  has  its  Heckla,  Sicily  its  Etna, 
Hawaii  its  Mauna  Kea  and  Mauua  Loa,  Niphon  its  Fusiyama.  From  Sumatra,  Java, 
and  Sumbawa,  Ternate  and  Tidore,  Borneo,  Celebes,  and  Gilolo,  close  by  the  equator, 
thence  northward  and  north-westward  to  the  Kurile  Islands,  hard  by  the  frozen  coast 
of  Kamchatka,  is  one  great  belt  of  volcanic  islands,  spreading  out  like  a  fan  through 
Polynesia.  But  in  the  tropical  seas,  and  there  alone,  are  coralline  islands,  built  up, 
grain  by  grain,  by  minute  living  beings. 

The  simplest  form  of  these  coral  islands  is  a  ring  enclosing  a  portion  of  the  ocean. 
Sometimes  this  ring  is  barely  two  miles  in  diameter ;  sometimes  it  reaches  a  hundred 
miles,  rising  only  a  half-score  of  feet  above  the  level  of  the  water," and  owing  to  the 
convexity  of  the  surface  of  the  ocean  invisible  from  the  deck  of  a  ship  at  a  distance  of 
a  mile  or  two,  unless  they  happen  to  be  covered  with  tall  palms  or  pandanus.  The 
roar  of  the  surf  dashing  upon  their  windward  side  is  often  heard  long  before  the  island 
itself  comes  into  view.  On  the  outer  side  this  ring,  or  atoll,  slopes  gradually  for  a 
hundred  yards  or  more,  to  a  depth  of  twenty-five  fathoms,  and  then  plunges  sheer 
down  into  the  waters  with  a  descent  more  rapid  than  the  cone  of  any  volcano.  At  a 
distance  of  five  hundred  yards  no  bottom  has  been  reached  with  a  sounding  line  of  a 
mile  and  a  half  in  length.  All  below  the  surface  of  the  water  to  the  depth  of  100 
feet  is  alive,  all  above  and  below  this  section  dead,  for  the  coral  insect  can  live  only 
within  this  range. 

These  atolls  assume  every  form  and  condition.  Sometimes  they  are  solitary  specks 
in  the  waste  of  waters.  Oftener  they  occur  in  groups.  The  Caroline  Archipelago 
has  sixty  groups  extending  over  a  space  of  a  thousand  square  miles.  Sometimes  a 
group  of  atolls  becomes  partially  joined  into  one,  the  irregular  ring  encircling  an 
island-studded  lagoon,  with  openings  through  which  a  ship  may  enter.  Sometimes 
these  coral  formations  take  the  form  of  long  reefs  bordering  an  extensive  coast.  Such 
a  reef  runs  parallel  to  the  coast  of  Malabar  for  nearly  five  hundred  miles.  It  consists 
of  a  series  of  atolls  arranged  in  a  double  row,  separated  by  a  sea  whose  depths  no  line 
has  sounded  ;  yet  from  outer  to  inner  edge  of  the  double  row  is  a  space  of  but  fifty 
miles.  Such  a  broken  coral  reef  often  girdles  a  volcanic  island.  Tahiti,  the  largest 
of  the  Society  group,  is  a  fine  example  of  this  kind.  The  island  rises  in  mountains 
7,000  feet  high,  with  only  a  narrow  plain  along  the  shore.     The  lagoon  which  encom 


TROPICAL   ISLANDS.  ^79 

passes  it  like  a  great  moat  is  thirty  fathoms  deep,  and  is  shut  out  from  the  ocean  by  a 
coral  band  at  a  distance  of  from  half  j^  mile  to  three  miles. 

But  there  are  coral  reefs  of  far  greater  magnitude.  The  grandest  is  that  extending 
along  the  north-east  coast  of  Australia.  Rising  from  an  unfathomed  ocean,  it  extends 
for  a  thousand  miles  along  the  coast,  with  a  breadth  of  from  two  hundred  yards  to  a 
mile,  and  at  an  average  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty  miles,  though  sometimes  doul)le 
that  space.  This  long,  narrow  lagoon  is  never  less  than  ten  fathoms  deep,  and  often 
six  tiniee  as  much,  so  that  the  "  Great  Eastern,"  the  hugest  vessel  that  ever  floated,  if 
it  once  passed  through  one  of  the  openings  in  the  reef,  might  sail  as  though  in  a  tran- 
quil harbor  for  a  thousand  miles  in  sight  of  land  on  either  side,  without  it.s  keel  for  an 
instant  reaching  half  way  to  the  bottom. 

The  direct  influence  of  the  ocean  upon  the  islands  of  the  Tropical  World  is  great  in 
every  respect.  It  gives  an  almost  temperate  climate  to  low  lands  lying  under  the 
equator,  and  thus  modifies  their  fauna  and  flora,  in  accordance  with  known  laws  of 
nature.  But  the  ocean  and  air  in  their  currents  also  determine  the  vegetable,  animal, 
and  human  life  of  the  islands  of  the  Tropical  World  in  an  accidental  manner. 

Time  was  when  the  volcanic  islands  of  the  tropics  were  masses  of  naked  rock,  the 
coralline  islands  patches  of  barren  sand.  The  elements  disintegrated  the  surface  of 
the  rock  and  ground  the  coral  into  soil.  Some  day  a  fruit,  perhaps  a  cocoa  or  bread- 
fruit, drifted  along  by  currents,  touched  the  island,  or  a  bird  swept  far  out  to  sea 
having  in  its  crop  an  undigested  seed,  rested  its  weary  wing  upon  solid  land.  The 
chance-planted  fruit  or  seed  took  root,  and  grew,  and  produced  its  kind,  and  in  time 
the  waste  island  was  clothed  with  verdure.  Other  birds  found  a  home  in  the  new 
forests,  built  their  nests,  and  raised  their  young,  so  that  the  islands  became  populous 
with  the  winged  tribes.  Animals,  of  course,  could  only  rarely  cross  the  waste  of 
waters.  Hence  the  comparative  paucity  of  this  form  of  life  in  islands  remote  from  the 
main  land  Swine  were  almost  the  only  quadrupeds  which  the  early  European  navi- 
gators found  in  Polynesia ;  and  they  were  doubtless  brought  there  by  human  means. 
Mankind  reached  the  islands  in  a  like  accidental  manner.  Perhaps  a  canoe  from  the 
Malayan  shores  drifted  upon  the  Fiji  Islands,  and  its  rowers  became  the  progenitors  of 
the  black  cannibals ;  or  a  junk  from  China  or  Japan  was  cast  away  upon  Tahiti  or 
Hawaii.  These  wanderers,  cut  off  from  intercourse  with  the  rest  of  the  world, 
developed  their  barbarism  or  semi-civilization  in  their  own  way,  under  the  influence 
of  altered  conditions,  climate  and  productions.  The  story  of  the  "  Bounty,"  and  the 
first  settlement  of  Pitcairn's  Island,  too  well  known  to  require  more  than  a  passing 
allusion,  shows  that  such  a  canoe  or  junk  voyage  is  altogether  possible,  and  how  widely 
in  the  course  of  a  single  generation  a  group  of  isolated  individuals  deviate  from  their 
original  stock. 


480  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 


CHAPTER  II. 

TABLE  LANDS  AND  PLATEAUS  OF  THE  TROPICAL  WORLD. 

Influence  of  Elevation  upon  Climate. —  The  Puna  of  Peru:  Squier's  Description  of  the  Puna — 
The  Soroche  or  Veta — View  from  La  Portada — Effects  of  the  Soroche — The  Sarumpe 
— The  Veruga  Water — Efiects  of  the  Veta  on  Animals — Vegetation  of  the  Puna — The 
Llama — The  Huanacu — The  Alpaca — The  Vicuna — Hunting  the  Vicuna — The  Hunts  of 
the  Ancient  Incas — Enemies  of  the  Vicuna — Other  Native  Animals — The  Ox,  Horse,  Mule 
and  Sheep — Waterfowl — Warm  Valleys — Rapid  Change  of  Climate  According  to  Eleva- 
tion.— Lake  Titicaca:  The  Sacred  Island  of  Titicaca — Manco  Capac,  the  First  Inca — His 
Journey  from  Lake  Titicaca  to  Cuzco — Fact  and  Myth  respecting  Manco  Capac — Extent 
of  the  Inca  Empire — Inca  Civilization  originated  in  the  Puna,  near  Lake  Titicaca — The 
Sacred  Rock  on  the  Island — Ruins  and  Relics  on  the  Island — The  Hacienda  on  the  Island 
—The  Eve  of  St.  John— Tiie  Bath  of  the  Incas— Other  Sacred  Islands— Ruins  at  Tihu- 
anico — Some  more  ancient  than  the  Incas — Immense  Monolithic  Gateways  and  Hewn 
Stones — Inca  Civilization — The  Great  Military  Roads — System  of  Posts  and  Post-Stations. — 
The  Valley  of  Quito:  Approach  to  the  Valley  from  the  Pacific  Coast — A  Tropical  Region — 
Chmbing  the  Cordillera — Scenes  by  the  Way — Quito — Climate  of  the  Valley — Astronomical 
Site — Trees,  Fruits,  Vegetables,  and  Flowers — Animals — Birds — Insects,  Reptiles,  and 
Fish — The  Population  of  the  Valley — Lidians — Half-Breeds — Whites — Courtesy  of  the 
People — A  Polite  Message — Scenery  of  the  Valley — Volcanoes— Imbabura — Destruction 
of  Otovalo — Cayamba — Guamani — Antisana — Sincholagua — Cotopaxi — The  Inca's  Head — 
Tunguragua — Altar  — Sangai — Its  Perpetual  Eruption — Chimborazo — Caraguarizo — lUinza 
— Corazon — Pichincha — Its  immense  Crater — Descent  into  the  Crater — Eruptions  of 
Pichincha. — The  Table-Land  of  Bogota :  Voyage  up  the  Magdalena — Ascent  to  the  Plateau 
— ^Bogoti  and  the  "Bogotanos — Traveling  at  Bogota. — Table-Land  of  Mexico :  Its  Extent — 
The  Tierra  Calienta— The  Tierra  Templada— The  Tierra  Fria— The  Valley  of  Anahuac— 
The  Volcanoes  of  Orizaba,  Popocatapetl,  Iztacihuatl,  and  Toluca. — The  Sikkim  Slope: 
Approach  and  Ascent — Dorjiling — The  Sikkim  Peaks — Altitude  of  Ivinchin-junga — Flight 
of  the  Condor. 

'TT'T'ITHIN  the  geographical  limits  of  the  Tropical  World  is  found  every  variety 
VV  of  climate  upon  the  globe.  There  are  great  mountain  ranges  which  even  at 
the  equator  rise  above  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow.  Their  summits,  untrodden  by 
man  and  unvisited  by  any  other  form  of  animal  life,  must  be  more  desolate  than  the 
extremest  polar  regions  to  which  explorers  have  been  able  to  penetrate.  Of  living 
creatures  the  strong-winged  condor  only  has  reached  so  high.  Then,  below  these, 
yet  rising  far  into  the  air,  are  broad  plateaus  whose  desolate  character  reminds  one  of 
the  tundras  of  Siberia  and  the  wastes  stretching  across  the  American  continent  from 
Hudson's  Bay  to  Behring's  Straits. 

One  of  the  most  notable  of  these  lofty  tropical  plateaus  is  that  extending  between 
the  parallel  mountain  chains  of  the  Cordilleras  in  South  America.  It  is  known  as  the 
Puna  or  Altos  of  Peru.     In  the  popular  language  of  the  region  a  part  of  it  is  called 


THE   PUNA   OF  PERU. 


481 


the  Despohlado,  or  "  Uninhabited."  It  extends  through  a  great  part  of  the  length 
of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  at  a  hight  of  from  ten  to  fourteen  thousand  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  "It  is,"  says  Squier,  "that  cold  and  rugged  region  which  forms  the 
broad  summit  of  the  Cordillera.     It  has  the  aspect  of  an  irregular  plain,  and  is  diver- 


THK    PUNA    OK    PliRU. 


sified  with  mountain  ridges  and  snowy  volcanic  peaks,  imposing  in  their  proportions, 
notwithstanding  that  they  rise  from  a  level  of  14,000  feet  above  the  sea."  Squior,  in 
a  few  graphic  sentences,  describes  the  varying  aspects  of  nature  as  one  climbs  up  the 
ascent  of  the  Puna:  "  Paela  is  a  poor  but  picturesque  little  village,  with  a  small,  white 
church  gleaming  out  against  the  dull  brown  of  the  bare  mountain  side.  It  is  9,700 
feet  above  the  sea.  There  were  some  scant  fields  of  maize  and  lucern  around  it,  and 
the  lower  slopes  of  the  mountains  were  thinly  sprinkled  with  stems  of  the  columnar 
cactus"  Still  ascending,  "our  mules  began  to  pant  under  the  influence  of  the 
soroche  or  rarification  of  the  air,  but  which  the  drivers  insisted  was  from  the  veta,  or 
influence  due  to  the  vetas  or  veins  of  metal  in  the  earth.  At  La  Portada,  12. GOO  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  1,000  feet  higher  than  the  Hospice  of  the.  Grand  St, 
Bernard,  I  witnes-^ed  a  scene  more  wild  and  desolate  than  T  have  beheld  in  crossing 
the  Alps  by  the  routes  of  the  Simplon,  the  Grand  St.  Bernard,  or  the  St.  Gothard. 
There  is  neither  tree  nor  shrub  ;  the  frosty  soil  cherishes  no  grass,  and  the  very  lichens 
find  scant  hold  on  the  bare  rocks.  The  aguardiente,  or  native  rum,  which  I  had  pur- 
chased for  making  a  fire  for  preparing  my  coffee,  refused  to  burn,  and  extinguished 
the  lighted  match  thrust  into  it,  as  if  it  were  water.  I  was  obliged  to  abstract  some 
31 


482  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

refined  alcohol  from  my  photographic  stores  to  supply  its  place."  At  the  pass  of 
Guaylillos,  14,750  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  "one  of  our  companions  fell  from 
his  saddle  under  the  effects  of  the  soroche.  On  lifting  him  from  the  ground  we  found 
him  nearly  senseless,  with  blood  trickling  from  his  mouth,  ears,  nostrils,  and  the 
corners  of  his  eyes.  Copious  vomitings  followed,  and  we  administered  the  usual 
restoratives  with  good  effect.  In  doing  this  I  drew  off  my  gloves,  and  was  surprised 
to  find  my  hands  swollen  and  covered  with  blood,  which  appeared  as  if  it  had  oozed 
from  a  thousand  minute  punctures." 

Other  travelers  give  similar  accounts  of  the  climate  of  the  Puna  Cold  winds 
from  the  icy  Cordilleras,  whose  summits  often  rise  8,000  feet  above  the  plateau,  sweep 
over  their  surface,  and  during  eight  months  of  the  year  they  are  daily  visited  by  fear- 
ful storms.  In  a  few  hours  the  change  of  the  temperature  often  amounts  to  forty  or 
fifty  degrees,  and  the  sudden  fall  is  rendered  still  more  disagreeable  to  the  traveler  by 
the  biting  winds  which  irritate  the  hands  and  face.  The  lips  suffer  especially,  break- 
ing out  into  deep  rents  which  heal  with  difficulty.  The  eyes  also  suffer  intensely. 
The  rapid  changes  from  a  cloudy  sky  to  the  brilliancy  of  a  snow-field,  glistening  in 
the  sun,  produces  an  affection  which  the  natives  call  the  sarumpe.  So  intolerable  is 
the  burning  and  stinging  that  even  the  stoical  Indian,  when  attacked,  will  fling  him- 
self on  the  ground  uttering  cries  of  anguish  and  despair.  Chronic  ophthalmia,  sup- 
puration of  the  eyelids,  and  total  blindness,  are  frequent  consequences  of  the  sarumpe, 
against  which  the  traveler  over  the  highlands  endeavors  to  guard  himself  by  wearing 
green  spectacles  or  a  dark  veil. 

The  first  symptoms  of  the  vela  or  soroche  usually  appear  at  an  elevation  of  some 
12,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  They  frequently  manifest  themselves  in  those 
who  ride,  but  are  greatly  aggravated  when  the  traveler  ascends  on  foot.  The  giddiness 
and  nausea  are  accompanied  with  an  insupportable  sense  of  lassitude,  difficulty  of 
breathing,  and  violent  palpitation  of  the  heart,  followed  by  spitting  of  blood  and  a 
bloody  diarrhoea.  This  last  affliction  is,  however,  to  a  considerable  extent  occasioned 
by  the  noxious  character  of  the  water.  "  All  the  water  of  the  Despoblado,"  says 
Squier,  "  even  that  which  does  not  display  any  evidence  of  foreign  or  mineral  sub- 
stances in  solution,  is  more  or  less  purgative,  and  often  productive  of  very  bad  effects. 
In  many  parts  the  thirsty  traveler  discovers  springs  as  bright  and  limpid  as  those  of 
our  New  England  hills ;  yet  when  he  dismounts  to  drink,  his  muleteer  will  rush  for- 
ward in  affright,  with  the  warning  cry,  '  Beware,  es  agua  de  Veruga!''  The  Veruga 
water  is  said  to  produce  a  terrible  disease  called  by  the  same  name,  which  manifests 
itself  outwardly  in  both  men  and  animals  in  great  bleeding  boils  and  carbuncles, 
which  occasion  much  distress,  and  often  result  in  death." 

The  veta  shows  itself  also  in  animals  unaccustomed  to  mountain  traveling.  They 
proceed  more  and  more  slowly,  frequently  stop,  trembling  all  over,  and  fall  to  the 
ground.  If  not  allowed  to  rest  they  inevitably  die.  The  natives  are  accustomed  to 
slit  the  nostrils  of  their  mules  and  horses  in  order  to  allow  a  greater  influx  of  air. 
Mules  and  asses  are  less  affected  by  the  veta  than  horses ;  but  it  is  fatal  to  cats,  who 
are  unable  to  live  at  the  hight  of  more  than  13,000  feet. 

Another  consequence  of  the  diminished  pressure  of  the  air  is  that  water  boils  at  so 
low  a  temperature  that  meat,  vegetables  and  eggs  can  not  be  boiled  sufficiently  to  be 
edible,  and  whoever  wishes  a  warm  meal  in  the  Puna  must  have  it  baked  or  roasted. 


THE   LLAMA,    ALPACA,  AND   VICUNA.  483 

Agriculture  is  of  course  confined  within  the  narrowest  limits.  In  some  parts  barley 
will  grow;  but  it  never  ripens,  and  is  cut  green  for  forage.  The  only  cultivated  veo-e- 
table  is  the  mata,  the  tuberous  roots  of  which  resemble  the  potato,  and  form  a  great 
part  of  the  food  of  the  inhabitants.  It  grows  best  at  an  elevation  of  more  than  12,000 
feet.  Vegetation  is  scanty.  Here  and  there  is  a  solitary  dwarfed  quinua,  or  wild 
olive,  or  patch  covered  with  reddish-brown  ratania  shrubs,  which,  with  the  droppino's 
of  the  llamas  and  vicunas,  constitute  the  sole  fuel  of  the  region.  The  whole  land- 
scape presents  a  scene  of  bare  rock,  or  of  steppe-like  expanses  covered  with  dun 
meagre  herbage.  The  profusion  of  flowers  which  appear  in  many  Alpine  regions  is 
here  utterly  wanting. 

The  animal  kingdom  is  more  amply  represented  on  this  bleak  table-land.  But  its 
native  members  are  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  camelida  family,  of  which  there  arc 
four  well-marked  species, — the  llama,  the  alpaca,  the  vicuna,  and  the  huanacu, — who 
find  nourishment  in  the  grassy  patches.  Before  the  advent  of  the  Europeans  these 
llamas  constituted  the  only  beasts  of  burden,  and  even  now  they  are  largely  employed 
for  that  purpose.  To  the  ancient  Peruvians  they  were  what  the  camel  is  to  the  Arabs. 
Their  flesh  and  milk  served  as  food,  their  skins  for  a  mantle,  and  from  their  wool  a 
coarse  cloth  was  manufactured ;  and  they  formed  the  only  means  except  human  labor 
of  transporting  burdens  from  one  place  to  another.  Even  now,  when  to  a  great  extent 
superseded  by  the  stronger  horse  and  mule,  there  are  regions  where  they  are  indis- 
pensable. The  silver  mines  are  often  approached  only  by  precipices  so  abrupt  that 
even  the  hoof  of  the  sure-footed  mule  would  find  no  foot-hold.  The  ordinary  load  of  a 
llama  is  a  hundred  pounds ;  but  as  they  never  feed  after  sunset,  they  must  be  allowed 
to  graze  on  the  way,  so  that  they  can  travel  only  ten  or  fifteen  miles  a  day.  The 
llama  is  the  only  animal  ever  domesticated  by  the  aborigines  of  America. 

The  llama  is  about  the  size  of  the  deer,  but  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  camel, 
having  the  same  formation  of  toes  and  stomach,  and  the  same  callosities  upon  the 
breast  and  knees,  but  the  unsightly  hump  is  wanting.  The  microscope  reveals  that 
the  resemblance  extends  even  to  the  globules  of  the  blood,  which  are  elliptical  in  the 
camelides  and  some  species  of  deer,  but  circular  in  all  other  quadrupeds. 

The  huanacu  was  long  supposed  to  be  only  the  wild  variety  of  the  llama ;  but 
naturalists  now  point  out  specific  differences.  The  huanacu  is  larger  ;■  its  wool  is 
shorter  and  coarser ;  it  presents  no  variety  of  color.  They  are  very  shy,  and  live  in 
small  troops  of  from  five  to  seven.  When  caught  young  they  may  be  tamed,  hut 
still  show  traces  of  their  wild  nature,  and  can  hardly  ever  be  trained  to  carry  burdens. 

The  alpaca  is  smaller  than  the  llama,  and  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  sheep  ;  but 
its  neck  is  longer,  and  it  has  a  more  elegantly  formed  head.  Its  wool  is  long,  fine, 
of  a  silky  lustre,  varying  in  color  from  almost  white  to  black.  The  wool  is  especially 
valuable  since  it  can  be  woven  with  common  wool,  silk,  or  cotton,  and  within  a  few 
years  has  become  an  article  of  considerable  commercial  value.  Attempts,  none  of 
which  have  as  yet  proved  successful,  have  been  made  to  introduce  the  alpaca  into 
other  countries.  They  are  kept  in  large  herds  grazing  all  the  year  round  upon  the 
bleak  table-lands,  and  are  only  driven  to  the  pens  to  be  shorn. 

The  vicuna  is  of  a  more  graceful  shape  than  the  llama ;  its  wool  is  shorter  and 
more  curly,  and  of  such  extreme  fineness  as  to  be  very  valuable.  It  inhabits  the 
most  secluded  valleys,  and  during  the  rainy  season  climbs  far  up  the  sides  of  the  Cor- 


484  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

dillcras,  but  never  ventures  upon  the  bare  summits,  for  its  hoofs  are  tender.  The  cry 
of  the  vicuna  is  a  shrill  whistle,  so  loud  that  it  may  be  heard  at  a  long  distance.  Like 
the  camel  and  llama,  it  has  the  habit  of  spitefully  ejecting  a  mass  of  saliva  and  half- 
dio-ested  food  in  the  face  of  those  who  come  within  reach.  In  the  case  of  the  vicuna 
this  is  peculiarly  offensive,  has  a  disgusting  smell,  and  stains  the  skin  of  a  dark  green 
color,  which  can  be  effaced  only  with  difficulty. 

The  annual  hunt  of  the  vicuna,  which  takes  place  in  April  or  May,  is  the  great 
event  in  life  of  the  Indians  of  the  Puna.  They  collect  in  bands  from  all  the  villages, 
bearing  bundles  of  poles  and  ropes,  and  set  out  for  the  lofty  summits  whither  the 
animals  have  retired.  With  the  poles  and  ropes  a  circular  enclosure,  called  a  chacu, 
is  formed,  often  several  hundred  paces  wide.  The  hunters  form  a  ring,  sometimes 
miles  in  circumference,  and  gradually  drive  the  animals  into  the  chacu.  The  vicuiias 
are  shy  and  do  not  venture  to  leap  over  the  cords,  and  are  easily  dispatched  by  the 
hunters.  If,  however,  a  huanacu  happens  to  be  driven  into  the  enclosure,  he  bounds 
over  the  cord,  and  is  followed  by  the  herd  of  vicunas  in  a  mass,  just  as  a  flock  of 
sheep  will  follow  a  leader.  The  flesh  of  the  vicuna  is  rank  and  unsavory.  Squier 
says  that  it  is  just  preferable  as  an  alternative  to  starvation.  But  when  it  has  been 
dried  and  pounded,  and  disguised  by  an  abundance  of  the  hot  red  pepper,  its  taste  is 
not  altogether  unpleasant  to  one  who  has  learned  to  like  that  fiery  condiment. 

The  number  caught  in  one  of  these  hunts  is  often  considerable.  At  one  in  which 
Von  Tschudi  took  part  there  were  122  killed,  and  the  produce  of  their  skins  was 
appropriated  to  building  a  new  altar  in  the  village  church.  In  the  times  of  the  Incas 
the  vicuna  chase  in  the  Puna  was  conducted  upon  a  far  more  magnificent  scale. 
Every  year  a  great  hunt  was  held.  Twenty-five  or  thirty  thousand  of  the  Indians 
were  assembled,  who  drove  all  the  animals  within  a  circuit  of  many  leagues  into  an 
enormous  enclosure.  As  the  circle  narrowed,  the  lines  of  the  hunters  were  doubled 
and  trebled.  All  the  pernicious  animals  were  killed,  but  only  a  limited  number  of 
the  deer,  huanacus,  and  vicunas,  for  those  wise  rulers  were  too  provident  to  take  the 
lives  of  these  creatures  merely  for  sport.  The  battue,  apart  from  the  destruction 
of  noxious  animals,  was  rather  a  royal  spectacle  than  a  hunt. 

Excepting  man,  the  vicuna  has  few  enemies  capable  of  penetrating  its  lofty  strong- 
holds. A  sneaking  puma  now  and  then  creeps  up  from  the  regions  below  ;  or  a  condor 
swoops  down  from  above  and  pounces  upon  the  young.  But  the  numbers  of  the 
vicunas  has  undergone  no  diminution  from  age  to  age.  Now,  however,  that  their  wool 
has  become  an  article  of  commerce,  we  may  anticipate  their  gradual  extermination ; 
for,  unlike  the  alpacas,  they  are  incapable  of  domestication,  and  man  the  arch-destroyer 
wages  fatal  war  upon  all  animals  which  he  can  not  domesticate.  Their  only  alternative 
is  death  or  subjection. 

Several  animals  of  the  deer  tribe  are  also  indigenous  to  the  Puna.  Among  these  is 
the  stag-like  tarush,  whose  horns  consist  of  but  two  branches.  The  half-wild  Puna 
dogs  are  especially  annoying  to  the  traveler,  for  they  have  a  peculiar  antipathy  to  the 
white  race ;  and  it  is  often  dangerous  for  a  European  to  approach  an  Indian  hut 
guarded  by  these  spiteful  creatures,  who,  like  the  bull-dog,  do  not  hesitate  to  attack 
enemies  far  stronger  than  themselves.  The  bisacha,  allied  to  the  chinchilla,  which  it 
resembles  in  the  quality  of  its  fur,  is  often  seen  perched  in  front  of  its  burrow,  to 
which  it  retreats  on  the  approach  of  danger. 


THE    SACRED   LAKE   TITICACA.  485 

To  the  aboriginal  animals  of  the  Puna  have  been  added,  since  the  Spanish  conquest, 
the  ox,  the  horse,  the  mule,  and  the  sheep.  These  do  not  inhabit  the  bleak  Despo- 
blado,  though  the  horse  and  the  mule,  under  the  guidance  of  man,  traverse  as  beasts 
of  burden  its  bleakest  wastes  and  most  rugged  passes.  The  herds  of  oxen  and  sheep 
are,  during  the  wet  season,  driven  far  up  into  the  Altos,  often  to  the  hight  of  1.3,000 
feet;  but  when  the  cold  frosty  nights  of  the  dry  season  arrive,  they  are  driven  <Io.7a 
to  the  valleys  which  furrow  the  table-land.  Here  there  are  haciendas,  or  estates,  tbj 
owners  of  which  possess  60,000  sheep  and  500  cows.  These  herds  seldom  see  the 
face  of  man,  and  have  relapsed  into  a  half  savage  state,  rendering  traveling  dan"-erous 
in  many  parts  of  the  Puna.  Von  Tschudi,  whose  journeyings  in  this  region  are  more 
extensive  than  those  of  any  other  European,  was  more  than  once  compelled  to  save  his 
life  from  the  attacks  of  a  wild  bull  by  a  well-aimed  shot  from  his  rifle. 

The  frequent  showers  and  snow-falls  of  the  Puna  give  rise  to  numerous  swamps  and 
lagoons  which  afford  nourishment  to  an  abundance  of  birds.  There  is  the  huacha 
goose,  with  a  snow-white  body  and  dark  green  wings  shining  with  metallic  lustre ;  the 
licli,  a  species  of  plover ;  the  long-legged  ibis  and  flamingo ;  and  the  gigantic  coot, 
which,  unable  to  fly  in  the  air,  dives  in  the  cold  waters,  and  builds  its  nest  on  the 
bare  stones  which  rise  above  the  surface. 

^  The  frosts  of  winter  and  a  perpetual  spring  are  nowhere  found  in  closer  proximity 
than  in  these  Peruvian  highlands ;  for  deep  valleys  furrow  the  windy  Puna,  and  when 
the  traveler,  benumbed  by  the  cold  blasts  of  the  mountain  plains,  descends  into  these 
sheltered  gorges,  he  finds  himself  transported  almost  at  once  from  the  rigors  of  a  polar 
climate  to  a  terrestrial  paradise.  They  are  so  high  that  the  rays  of  the  tropical  sun 
are  not  felt ;  and  protected  by  their  abrupt  rocky  walls  from  the  keen  blasts  of  the 
mountains,  these  pleasant  valleys  enjoy  all  the  advantages  of  a  mild  and  genial  sky. 
Rich  corn-fields  and  green  lucerne  meadows  would  almost  persuade  the  European 
traveler  that  he  had  been  by  magic  transported  to  his  own  home,  were  it  not  that  the 
sight  of  agaves  and  cactuses  upon  the  rocky  sides  by  day,  and  new  constellations  by 
night,  remind  him  that  he  is  in  another  hemisphere.  There  are  regions  here  where 
the  traveler  may  in  the  morning  leave  the  snow-covered  Puna  hut  in  which  he  has 
shivered  over  night,  and  before  sunset  pluck  pine-apples  and  bananas  on  the  cultivated 
margin  of  a  tropical  forest,  and  repose  under  the  feathery  leaves  of  gigantic  palms. 

But  in  this  vast  highland  region  there  is  nothing  which  possesses  so  deep  a  human 
interest  as  Lake  Titicaca,  for  in  it  is  embosomed  the  sacred  island,  to  which  the  Incas 
traced  their  origin,  and  which  to  this  day  is  to  their  descendants  all  that  Jerusalem 
and  Mecca  are  to  Hebrews,  Christians,  and  Mohammedans.  The  lake  lies  at  an 
elevation  of  12,864  feet  above  the  sea,  less  than  3,000  feet  lower  than  the  summit  of 
Mont  Blanc,  and  higher  than  any  point  in  Europe  except  the  ten  loftiest  peaks  of  the 
Alps.  It  is  120  miles  long  and  50  or  60  wide.  It  never  freezes  over,  though  ice 
forms  near  its  shores.  It  exercises  a  very  important  influence  on  the  climate  of  the 
cold  and  desolate  region  in  which  it  is  situated,  for  during  the  winter  months  the  tem- 
perature of  the  waters  is  ten  or  twelve  degrees  above  that  of  the  atmosphere.  "Wherever 
the  shores  are  low  they  afford  pasturage  for  herds  of  cattle ;  and  multitudes  of  water- 
fowl find  shelter  among  the  reeds  and  rushes.  On  the  little  islands  barley,  peas  and 
maize  ripen,  although  they  are  not  prolific. 

The  largest  of  the  islands  is  the  sacred  Island  of  Titicaca,  bold,  bare,  and  rocky. 


i««  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

six  miles  long  and  three  or  four  wide.  Here,  according  to  tradition,  Manco  Capac, 
and  Mama  Oella,  at  once  his  sister  and  wife,  both  children  of  the  sun  and  commissioned 
by  that  luminary,  started  on  their  errand  to  civilize  the  barbarous  tribes  that  occupied 
the  country.  Manco  Capac  was  directed  to  travel  northward  until  he  reached  a  spot 
where  his  golden  staff  should  sink  into  the  ground  of  its  own  accord;  and  there  he 
was  to  fix  the  seat  of  his  empire.  He  traveled  slowly  along  the  western  shore  of  the 
lake,  through  the  broad  bleak  Puna  lands,  crossing  the  water-shed  which  separates  the 
streams  which  find  their  outlet  through  the  La  Plata  from  those  which  form  the  mighty 
Amazon,  whose  mouths  lie  2,500  miles  apart  in  a  straight  line.  Striking  the  river 
Vilcanota,  an  affluent  of  the  Ucayali,  one  of  the  main  branches  of  the  Amazon,  he 
descended  its  valley,  until,  after  a  journey  of  three  hundred  miles,  his  golden  staff 
sank  into  the  ground  upon  the  spot  where  the  city  of  Cuzco  now  stands.  Here  he 
fixed  his  seat,  and  here  arose  the  City  of  the  Sun,  the  capital  of  the  Inca  empire,  which 
in  time  spread  over  a  length  of  37°  of  latitude,  and  in  breadth  from  the  eastern  base 
of  the  Andes  westward  to  where  the  Pacific  beats  against  the  deeply  planted  feet  of 
the  Cordillera. 

So  runs  the  legend ;  but  there  is  much  mythical  matter  incorporated  into  the  tra- 
ditions respecting  Manco  Capac.  We  find  this  counterpart  in  the  Fohi  of  the  Chinese, 
the  Buddha  of  the  Hindus,  the  Osiris  of  Egypt,  the  Odin  of  Scandinavia,  the  Jatza- 
coal  of  Mexico,  the  Votan  of  Central  America.  Still  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  he 
is  a  real  historical  character,  to  whom,  however,  have  been  attributed  many  of  the 
achievements  of  those  who  preceded  him,  and  perhaps  of  some  who  followed  him. 
The  time  when  he  lived  is  altogether  uncertain.  Some,  studying  the  quippus  or 
knotted  cords,  which  are  the  only  records  of  ancient  Peruvian  history,  place  his  advent 
back  to  within  five  centuries  after  the  deluge.  But  the  best  authorities  give  the  date 
approximately  at  about  four  centuries  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  under  Pizarro, 
or  about  1000  A.  D.,  the  period  when  all  Christendom  was  hurling  itself  in  the 
crusades  upon  the  Holy  Land. 

The  rule  of  Manco  Capac  was  at  first  limited  to  the  region  close  by  Cuzco  ;  but 
under  his  successors  the  Inca  dominion,  by  alliances  and  conquests,  spread  far  and 
wide.  The  greatest  of  the  Inca  raonarchs  was  Huayna  Capac,  who  in  1475  led  his 
forces  as  far  northward  as  Quito,  a  distance  of  1,200  miles  from  Cuzco.  He  made 
Quito  his  residence.  At  his  death  the  empire  was  divided  between  his  two  sons. 
Huascar,  who  reigned  at  Cuzco,  and  Atahuallpa  at  Quito.  Civil  war  ensued,  Huascar 
was  defeated  and  slain,  and  Atahuallpa  remained  sole  Inca.  During  the  war  Pizarro, 
coasting  down  from  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  landed  at  Tumbez,  conquered  Atahuallpa, 
and  overthrew  the  Inca  civilization. 

This  civilization,  in  some  respects  one  of  the  most  remarkable  which  the  world  has 
ever  seen,  had  its  origin  in  the  lofty  table-land  of  the  Puna,  which  we  are  now  con- 
sidering ;  and  far  and  wide  as  the  reign  of  the  Incas  subsequently  extended,  they  and 
their  subjects  always  retained  their  reverence  for  the  little  rocky  islet  in  Lake  Titicaca, 
where  it  had  its  origin.  At  the  northern  end  of  the  island  is  a  frayed  and  water-worn 
mass  of  red  sandstone,  about  225  feet  long  and  25  feet  high.  This  is  the  sacred  rock 
of  Manco  Capac,  the  most  holy  spot  in  all  Peru.  Upon  it,  as  was  believed,  no  bird 
would  alight,  no  animal  venture,  and  upon  which  no  human  being  not  of  the  royal 
blood  dared  set  his  foot.     From  this  rock  the  sun  first  rose  to  dispel  the  primal  vapors 


THE   SACRED   ISLAND   OF   TITICACA.  487 

and  illuminate  the  world.  It  was,  so  says  the  legend,  plated  all  over  with  gold  and 
silver  and,  except  upon  the  most  solemn  occasions,  covered  with  a  vail  of  cloth  of 
costly  materials  and  gorgeous  color.  The  gold  and  silver  plating  and  the  gorgeous 
coverino-  have  long  ago  disappeared,  and  what  is  now  seen  is  a  bare  rock,  on  the  crest 
of  the  island,  which  rises  2,000  feet  above  the  waters  of  the  lake.  Yet  even  now, 
when  the  Indian  guides  come  within  sight  of  it,  they  raise  their  hats,  bow  reverently, 
mutterino-  words  of  mystic  import,  which  they  themselves,  most  likely,  only  partly 
comprehend.  In  front  of  the  rock  is  a  level  artificial  terrace  372  feet  long  and  125 
feet  broad,  supported  by  a  low  stone  wall.  According  to  tradition,  the  soil  which 
once  covered  this  terrace  was  conveyed  upon  the  backs  of  men  from  the  distant  valleys 
of  the  Amazon,  so  that  it  might  nourish  a  vegetation  denied  by  the  hard  ungrateful 
soil  of  the  island. 

Everywhere  on  the  holy  island  are  the  ruins  of  Inca  structures,  and  the  sites  of  the 
most  sacred  spots  are  still  shown.  Here  is  the  sheltered  bay  where  the  Incas  landed 
when  they  came  to  visit  the  spot  consecrated  to  the  sun.  Half  way  up  the  ascent  are 
the  "foot-prints"  of  the  great  Inca  Tupanqui,  riiarking  the  spot  where  he  stood 
when,  catching  his  first  view  of  the  hallowed  rock,  he  removed  the  imperial  covering 
from  his  head  in  token  of  adoration  of  the  divinity  whose  shrine  rose  before  him. 
These  so-called  foot-prints  look  not  unlike  the  impressions  of  a  gigantic  foot,  thirty-six 
inches  long  and  of  corresponding  breadth.  They  are  formed  in  outline  by  hard 
ferruo-inous  veins  around  which  the  softer  rock  has  been  worn  away,  leaving  them  in 
relief. 

The  sacred  island  of  the  Incas  is  now  the  property  of  a  resident  of  Puna,  a  city  on 
the  shore  of  the  lake  containing  7,000  inhabitants.  It  is  the  loftiest  spot  on  the  globe 
which  is  the  site  of  any  considerable  town.  It  stands  12,870  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  mining  town  of  Potosi  is  indeed  500  feet  higher,  and  there  are  among 
the  Andes  post-stations  and  farms  much  higher.  The  station  of  Rumihuasi,  in  the 
Puna,  the  loftiest  permanently  inhabited  spot  in  the  New  World,  is  15,542  feet  high — 
only  242  feet  below  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc  ;  and  the  gold  mine  of  Thok  Jalung  in 
Thibet  is  18,330  feet  above  the  sea.  The  proprietor  of  the  sacred  island  has  a 
hacienda  close  by  the  "  Bath  of  the  Incas."  "  It  consists,"  says  Squier,  "  of  three 
small  buildings,  occupying  as  many  sides  of  a  court.  One  is  a  kitchen  and  dormitory, 
another  a  kind  of  gianary  or  storehouse,  and  in  the  third  is  an  apartment  reserved  for 
the  proprietor  when  he  visits  the  island.  The  room  is  neatly  whitewashed,  the  floor 
matted,  and  there  are  two  real  chairs  from  Connecticut,  and  a  table  that  may  be 
touched  without  falling  in  pieces.  The  night  was  bitterly  cold,"  continues  Squier, 
"  and  we  had  no  covering  except  our  saddle-cloths,  having  declined  some  sheep-skins 
which  the  alcalde  would  have  taken  from  the  poor  people  of  the  establishment.  A 
sheepskin,  or  the  skin  of  a  vicuna,  spread  on  the  mud  floor  of  his  hut,  is  the  only  bed 
of  the  Indian  from  one  year's  end  to  the  other.  It  is  always  filthy,  and  frequently 
full  of  vermin.  Before  going  to  bed  we  went  out  into  the  frosty,  starry  night,  and 
were  surprised  to  see  fires  blazing  on  the  topmost  peaks  of  the  island,  on  the  crest  of 
Coati,  and  on  the  headland  of  Copobanca.  Others,  many  of  them  hardly  discernible 
in  the  distance,  were  also  burning  on  the  peninsula  of  Tiquina,  and  on  the  bluff" 
Bolivian  shores  of  the  lake,  their  red  light  shimmering  like  golden  lances  over  the 
water.     Our  first  impression  was  that  some  mysterious  signalling  was  going  on,  con- 


488 


THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 


nected  perhaps  with  our  visit.  We  ascertained,  however,  that  this  was  the  Eve  of  St. 
John,  which  is  celebrated  in  this  way  throughout  the  Sierra.  On  that  night  fires 
blaze  on  the  hill-tops  in  all  the  inhabited  districts  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  from  the  desert 
of  Atacama  to  the  Equator."  Thus  have  the  rites  of  Christianity  superseded  the  old 
worship  of  the  lucas. 


The  Fountain  of  the  Incas  is  situated  in  a  sheltered  nook,  surrounded  with  terraces 
upon  which  grow  patches  of  maize  with  ears  not  longer  than  one's  finger.  The  bath 
itself  is  a  pool  forty  feet  long,  ten  wide,  and  five  deep,  built  of  worked  stones.  Into 
this  pour  four  jets  of  water,  as  large  as  a  man's  arm,  from  openings  cut  in  the  stones 
behind.  "  The  water  comes  through  subterranean  passages  from  sources  now  un- 
known, and  never  diminishes  in  volume.  It  flows  to-day  as  freely  as  when  the  Incas 
resorted  here  and  cut  the  steep  hill-sides  into  terraces,  bringing  the  earth  all  the  way 
from  the  Valley  of  Yucay,  or  '  Vale  of  Imperial  Delights,'  four  hundred  miles 
distant.  Over  the  walls  droop  the  tendrils  of  vines ;  and  what  with  the  odors  and 
the  tinkle  and  patter  of  the  water,  one  might  imagine  himself  in  the  court  of  the 
Alhambra." 

Besides  the  sacred  island  of  Titicaca,  there  are  eight  smaller  ones  in  the  lake.  Soto 
was  the  Isle  of  Penitence,  where  the  Incas  were  wont  to  resort  for  fasting  and  humilia- 
tion. Coati  was  sacred  to  the  moon,  the  wife  and  sister  of  the  sun,  and  on  it  is  the 
palace  of  the  Virgins  of  the  Sun,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  best  preserved 
remains  of  aboriginal  architecture  on  the  continent  of  America. 

At  Tihuanico,  on  the  border  of  the  lake,  are  immense  ruins  which  clearly  antedate 
the  time  of  the  Incas.  They  were  ruins  when  the  Spaniards  made  their  appearance, 
and  the  natives  could  give  no  account  of  them.     They  supposed  that  they  were  built 


THE   VALLEY   OF   QUITO.  489 

by  divine  architects  in  a  single  nigbt.  Cioza  de  Leon,  one  of  tbe  companions  of 
Pizarro,  writes  of  them  :  "  Wliat  most  surprised  me  was  that  the  enormous  gateways 
were  formed  on  other  great  masses  of  stone,  some  of  which  were  thirty  feet  long,  fifteen 
wide,  and  sis  thick,  I  can  not  conceive  with  what  tools  or  instruments  these  stones 
were  hewn  out,  for  they  must  have  been  vastly  larger  than  we  now  see  them.  It  is 
supposed  that  some  of  these  structures  were  built  long  before  the  dominion  of  the 
Incas ;  and  I  have  heard  the  Indians  affirm  that  these  sovereigns  constructed  their 
great  building  at  Cuzco  after  the  plans  of  the  walls  of  Tihuanico."  The  most  remark- 
able thing  in  these  ruins  are  the  great  doorways  of  a  single  block  of  stone.  The 
largest  of  these  is  ten  feet  high  and  thirteen  broad,  the  opening  cut  through  it  beinw 
six  feet  four  inches  high,  and  three  feet  two  inches  wide.  The  whole  neio-hborhood  is 
strewn  with  immense  blocks  of  stone  elaborately  wrought,  equallino-  if  not  surpassing 
in  size  any  known  to  exist  in  Egypt,  India,  or  any  other  part  of  the  world.  Some  of 
these  are  thirty  feet  long,  eighteen  broad,  and  six  thick. 

All  these  gigantic  remains  of  a  past  civilization  are  found  in  the  lofty  table-land  of 
the  Puna.  When  these  come  to  be  fully  described  and  illustrated,  it  will  be  seen 
that  here,  in  a  climate  so  cold  that  hardly  a  vegetable  will  grow  which  man  can  use  for 
food,  were  planted  the  seeds  of  a  civilization  as  remarkable  as  any  which  ever  existed. 
More  wonderful,  perhaps,  than  the.se  great  architectural  works  were  the  great  military 
roads  constructed  by  the  Incas.  One  reached  from  Cuzco  down  to  the  ocean.  The 
other  stretched  from  the  capital,  along  the  very  crest  of  the  Cordilleras,  and  down 
their  ravines,  to  Quito,  1,200  miles  distant.  The  length  of  these  great  roads,  including 
branches,  was  not  less  than  3,000  miles.  IModern  travelers  compare  them  with  the 
best  in  the  world.  They  were  from  18  to  25  feet  broad,  paved  with  immense  blocks 
of  stone,  sometimes  covered  with  asphaltum.  In  ascending  steep  mountains,  broad 
steps  were  cut  in  the  rock ;  ravines  were  filled  with  heavy  embankments  flanked  with 
parapets,  and,  wherever  the  climate  permitted,  lined  with  shade  trees  and  shrubs,  with 
houses  at  regular  distances  for  the  accommodation  of  travelers,  and  especially  serving 
as  post  stations.  For  there  was  a  regular  postal  service  by  which  the  Incas. could  send 
messages  from  one  extremity  of  their  dominions  to  the  other.  This  service  was  per- 
formed by  runners ;  for,  as  has  been  said,  the  Peruvians  had  no  beasts  of  burden 
stronger  or  swifter  than  the  llama.  These  messengers  were  trained  to  great  speed. 
On  approaching  a  station  they  gave  a  loud  shout  to  warn  the  next  courier  of  their 
approach,  so  that  he  might  be  ready  to  take  the  message  or  parcel  without  delay.  In 
this  manner  it  is  said  that  dispatches  were  sent  at  the  rate  of  150  miles  a  day,  a  speed 
unequaled  until  within  our  own  times,  when  the  railway  and  the  telegraph  have 
brought  the  ends  of  the  world  almost  together. 

Lying  lower  than  the  desolate  Puna,  but  more  than  twice  as  high  as  the  loftiest 
summits  of  Great  Britain,  and  higher  by  half  than  the  topmost  peaks  in  North 
America  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  a  series  of  valleys  and  table  lands  which 
form  a  marked  feature  in  the  Tropical  World.  The  principal  of  these,  going  northward 
from  the  equator,  are  those  of  Quito  in  Equador,  Bogota  in  Columbia,  and  Mexico. 

The  valley  of  Quito,  with  a  breadth  of  thirty  miles,  is  two  hundred  miles  in  length 
from  north  to  south,  the  equator  running  upon  its  northern  border.  It  is  in  reality  a 
great  table-land  occupying  the  summit  of  the  Cordilleras,  only  overtopped  and  sur- 


490 


THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 


■t:rT?i 


rounded  by  a  series  of  peaks  the  most  picturesque,  and,  after  the  highest  peaks  of  the 

Himalayas,  among  the  loftiest  on  the  globe.     The  valley  is  10,000  feet  above  the  level 

,^^^  ^_^'  '      \.v^  of  the  sea,  which,  by  the  rule  of 

^.,ff-^-'   ^^^- ^       ,>'     ,^  allowing  300  feet  in  elevation  to 

be  equivalent  to  a  degree  of  lati- 
tude,  would  give  a  climate  ap- 
proximating to  that  of  Florida 
and  Georgia;  but  this  is  much 
inodified  by  other  circumstances, 
especially  by  the  snow-clad  peaks 
which  surround  it,  and  by  the 
more  abundant  rainfall. 

This  lofty  valley  is  approach- 
able by  the  great  Inca  road  of 
which  we  have  spoken,  leading 
across  the  crest  of  the  Cordilleras. 
But  for  generations  probably  no 
man  has  ever  thus  reached  it. 
Some  day  it  will  be  visited  from 
the  east  by  steaming  up  the 
Amazon  to  the  foot  of  the  Andes, 
and  ascending  the  mountains.  At 
present  it  is  approached  from 
Guayaquil  on  the  Pacific.  We 
will  accompany  Mr.  Orton,*  an 
American  traveler,  who  in  1867- 
8,  at  the  head  of  a  scientific  expe- 
dition, made  the  journey  thither; 
and  thence,  descending  the  Ama- 
zon, crossed  the  entire  continent 
almost  on  the  line  of  the  equator. 
Landing  at  Guayaquil,  the  seaport 
of  Ecuador,  we  embark  on  a 
little  steamer  which  carries  us 
seventy  miles  up  the  turbid  river 
Guayas.  The  Eucadorian  govern- 
ment, however,  does  not  patronize 
the  steamer,  but  sends  the  mails 
up  the  river  in  a  canoe.  The  river  runs  first  through  an  almost  impenetrable  jungle; 
then  come  vast  plantations  of  cocoa  and  coffee  ;  then  follow  groves  of  oranges,  lemons, 
plantains  and  mango.  Leaving  the  boat,  we  hire  mules  with  which  to  make  the  ascent 
of  the  Andean  Cordilleras-f     We  plunge  at  once  by  a  narrow  path  into  a  dense  forest. 

*The  Andes  and  the  Amazon,  by  James  Orton,  Professor  in  Vassar  College,  Pougli- 
keepsie,  N.  Y. 

t  Cordillera,  literally  a  long  ridge,  is  usually  applied  to  a  longitudinal  subdivision  of  the 
Andes,  as  the  east  and  west  Cordilleras,  enclosing  the  valley  of  Quito.  A  Sierra  is  a  jagged 
spur  of  the  mountains. 


THi    ANDES 


ASCENDING   THE   ANDES  491 

Superb  bananas,  with  glossy  leaves  eight  feet  long,  slender  bamboos,  and  l(jfty  pal  mis 
overarch  the  way.  Soon  we  begin  to  climb  the  mountain  sides.  The  path— the 
present  royal  road  to  Quito— grows  steeper,  running  sometimes  through  a  gully  so 
narrow  that  the  traveler  must  throw  up  his  legs  to  save  them  from  being  cruslied. 
Before  night  we  have  reached  an  altitude  where  the  air  is  sensibly  cold.  We  stop 
near  a  rude  hut;  but  there  is  room  for  only  a  part  of  us  within ;  the  others  sleep  out- 
side on  the  ground,  upon  beds  which  we  have  brought  with  us.  But  we  have  reached 
a  comparatively  passable  road. 

As  the  sun  goes  down  we  have  a  view  which  amply  repays  us  for  our  weary  travel. 
We  are  on  the  summit  of  a  sierra  8,000  feet  high.  Still  above  us  is  a  wild  chaos  of 
mountains,  their  sides  broken  into  ravines.  Looking  westward,  the  mountains  tumble 
down  to  verdurous  hills,  which  in  the  distance  melt  into  plains,  dipping  into  the  great 
Pacific.  Upward  rise  the  lofty  peaks,  over  all  of  which  towers  Chimborazo,  its  pure 
white  dome  piercing  the  unclouded  azure.  The  road  now  slopes  gently  down  the  side 
of  the  Sierra,  climbs  again  still  higher,  and  brings  us  at  evening  to  the  sleepy  little 
town  of  Guaranda.  The  people  seem  to  have  nothing  to  do  but  to  eat  potato  soup, 
and  keep  themselves  warm  by  wrapping  themselves  in  their  ponchos  and  basking  in 
the  sun.  The  place  is  of  note  in  one  respect,  for  it  is  the  capital  of  the  region  which 
produces  the  chinchona,  whence  comes  quinine.  The  trees  grow  at  elevations  of  from 
2,000  to  9,000  feet,  the  richest  species  occupying  moist  situations  in  the  highest  alti- 
tudes. Close  by  we  are  shown  the  spot  where  Church  painted  one  of  the  views  for 
his  magnificent  composition,  "  The  Heart  of  the  Andes." 

Still  ascending,  we  find  ourselves  in  a  wilderness  of  crags  and  treeless  mountains, 
clothed  with  long,  coarse  grass.  The  summit  of  the  pass,  known  as  the  arenal,  is  a 
sandy  plain  of  a  league  in  length,  at  an  elevation  of  more  than  14,000  feet.  In  the 
afternoon  it  is  swept  by  cold  winds,  and  often  by  violent  snow-storms.  It  is  said  that 
some  of  the  Spanish  soldiers  were  frozen  to  death  here.  Then  again  we  begin  to 
descend  along  a  gray,  barren  waste.  Not  a  tree  or  a  human  habitation  is  in  sight. 
Icy  rivulets  and  mule-trains  are  the  only  moving  objects.  We  pass  the  night  in  a 
dirty,  mud  hovel,  the  halting-place  for  all  the  caravans  between  the  capital  and  its  sea- 
port. For  food  we  have  the  invariable  potato  soup,  to  which  have  been  added  cheese 
and  eggs.  It  is  well  that  the  potatoes  are  small,  for  water  boils  at  this  altitude  before 
it  is  fairly  hot.  Descending  in  all  6,000  feet  from  the  summit  of  the  pass,  we  come 
to  Ambato,  a  town  of  15,000  inhabitants,  beautifully  situated  in  a  deep  ravine.  It 
has  also  an  inn — the  first  since  leaving  Guayaquil.  Once  more  upward,  through  vast 
deposits  of  rocks  and  pumicedust,  thrown  out  by  the  volcano  of  Cotopaxi,  and  we 
gain  the  last  summit  which  we  are  to  surmount.  Fifteen  hundred  feet  below  us,  and 
seemingly  at  our  very  feet,  lies  Quito,  nestled  in  its  lovely  valley,  sentinelled  on  each 
side  by  the  lofty  peaks  of  Pichincha  and  Antisana,  while  behind  us  tower  Chimborazo 
and  Tunguragua.  Pichincha,  the  lowest  of  these  four  peaks,  is  7,000  feet  above  the 
plain;  Chimborazo,  the  highest,  is  12,000;  and  it  is  almost  10,000  feet  more  before 
the  level  of  the  sea  is  reached. 

The  climate  of  the  valley  of  Quito  is  the  most  absolutely  perfect  of  any  on  earth. 
The  thermometer  never  rises  above  70°  or  sinks  below  45°;  its  mean  is  GO'^,  the 
temperature  of  a  mild  spring  day  in  New  York.  There  is  no  cold  winter  and  no  hot 
summer ;   it  is  always  spring  and  autumn ;   but  each   day  furnishes  a  change  ju.st 


492  THE   TROPICAL   AVORLD. 

sufficient  to  give  a  pleasing  variety.  The  coldest  hour  is  at  sunrise  ;  the  warmest  two 
or  three  hours  after  noon.  Nobody  talks  about  the  weather,  for  it  is  always  pleasant ; 
conversation  begins  with  a  blessing,  and  ends  with  a  benediction.  In  healthfulness  it 
is  unequaled.  Consumption  is  unknown.  One  will  hear  more  coughing  during  a 
Sunday  service  in  a  New  England  church  than  in  all  Quito  for  a  six-month.  The 
intermittent  fevers  so  prevalent  on  the  coast  are  rare.  Asthma,  induced  measurably 
by  the  rarity  of  the  atmosphere,  and  typhoid  fevers,  are  the  prevalent  diseases.  In 
Quito,  with  40,000  inhabitants,  there  are  but  three  drug-stores.  Still,  owing  to 
indolence,  filth,  and  bad  diet,  comparatively  few  natives  attain  old  age.  With  proper 
habits  of  living,  there  is  probably  no  spot  on  earth  where  the  death-rate  would  be  so 
low.  The  atmosphere  is  of  unsurpassed  transparency.  Humboldt,  with  the  naked 
eye,  saw  the  poncho  of  a  horseman  at  a  distance  of  eight  miles.  The  sky  is  of  a  deep 
blue,  and  the  stars  shine  with  great  brilliancy ;  the  dark  openings  between  them  have 
been  compared  by  Humboldt  to  "  tubes  through  which  we  look  into  the  remotest 
depths  of  space."  An  adequate  observatory  at  Quito  would,  perhaps,  make  more 
additions  to  astronomical  science  than  anywhere  else  on  the  globe ;  for,  in  addition  to 
the  constant  purity  of  the  atmosphere,  it  is  situated  on  the  very  line  of  the  equator, 
so  that  the  constellations  of  both  hemispheres  are  visible.  Low  in  the  north  the 
"  pointers"  of  the  Great  Bear  are  visible,  while  low  in  the  south  the  Southern  Cross 
can  be  discernedi 

Contrary  to  what  one  would  expect,  the  valley  of  Quito  is  almost  destitute  of  trees. 
There  is  not  such  a  thing  as  a  forest  from  one  end  to  the  other ;  the  trees  stand  singly 
or  in  small  clumps.  The  aliso,  a  species  of  birch,  is  the  most  common  tree;  the 
walnut  is  the  best  timber ;  oaks  and  pines  are  not  found.  The  variety  of  fruits  is 
good.  There  are  alligator-pears,  guavas,  granadillas,  oranges,  lemons,  plums  and 
quinces.  Peaches  and  pears  are  found,  but  of  poor  flavor.  The  favorite  fruit  is  the 
chirimoya,  which  grows  on  a  tree  fifteen  feet  high ;  the  ripe  fruit  sometimes  weighing 
sixteen  pounds.  Markham  calls  it  "  a  spiritualized  strawberry."  Our  common  garden 
vegetables,  such  as  onions,  beets,  carrots,  turnips,  cabbages,  and  tomatoes,  flourish. 
The  potato  is  indigenous  here,  but  is  inferior  to  ours,  which  have  improved  by  trans- 
planting. The  Spaniards  carried  the  potato  to  Spain  from  Quito,  three-quarters  of  a 
century  before  Raleigh  introduced  it  into  England  from  Virginia.  Flowers  are 
numerous  and  in  great  variety. 

Animal  life  presents  few  species  and  few  individuals  in  each.  There  is  strictly  no 
beast  of  prey,  no  large  native  quadruped,  and  few  of  the  smaller  tribes.  The  orni- 
thology of  the  valley  is  limited ;  it  is  only  when  we  descend  into  the  valley  of  the 
Amazon  that  we  find  the  feathered  tribes  in  their  glory.  The  condor  and  the  hum- 
ming-bird, the  extremes  in  size  of  the  feathered  tribes,  are  the  most  noticeable  among 
the  mountains.  Butterflies  abound  of  all  colors  from  emerald  green  to  snowy  white 
Mosquitoes  and  flies  hardly  exist ;  but  fleas  and  other  "  small  deer  "  find  congenial 
pasturage  in  the  filthy  garments  and  unkempt  hair  of  the  Indians.  Serpents  are  so 
unfrequent,  that  in  three  months  the  members  of  the  American  expedition  saw  only  a 
single  snake ;  and  there  are  not  frogs  enough  in  the  valley  to  furnish  a  respectable 
chorus  of  breh-he-hex-koax.  There  is  in  all  the  valley  only  a  single  species  of  fish, 
small  and  of  a  black  color.  Multitudes  of  these  have  been  thrown  up  during  volcanic 
eruptions  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth. 


THE   VOLCANOES   OF   ECUADOR.  493 

Of  the  population  of  the  entire  valley  Indians  constitute  a  great  majority.  Though 
reduced  to  absolute  serfdom,  and  sunk  deep  in  degradation,  they  still  retain  a  memory 
of  the  days  of  Incarial  greatness.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  inhabitants  of 
the  mountains.  Mr.  Orton  noticed  that  some  of  those  who  descended  to  the  plain  wore 
a  black  poncho  underneath  their  bright-colored  one,  and  was  told  that  they  were  in 
mourning  for  the  last  Inca.  In  Quito  itself  there  are  about  8,000  of  Spanish  descent; 
perhaps  10,000  of  pure  Indian  blood;  the  remaining  22,000  being  Cholos,  the  off- 
spring of  whites  and  Indians,  the  Indian  blood  largely  predominating.  These  almost 
exclusively  carry  on  what  of  industry  exists.  They  are  the  artisans,  tradesmen,  and 
soldiers.  The  whites  constitute  the  governing  class.  They  have  fair  natural  capacity, 
but  lack  education,  industry,  and  energy.  They  are,  however,  courteous  and  refined 
in  manners  and  deportment.  Their  courtesy,  even  in  the  most  common  intercourse,  is 
carried  to  a  point  which  we  can  hardly  appreciate.  Mr.  Hassaurek,  the  late  American 
minister  to  Ecuador,  gives  the  following  as  a  specimen  of  a  message  sent  by  one  fair 
Quitonian  to  another  :  "  Go,"  she  says  to  her  servant,  "  to  the  Senorita  So-and-So, 
and  tell  her  that  she  is  my  heart  and  the  dear  little  friend  of  my  soul ;  tell  her  that 
I  am  dying  for  not  having  seen  her,  and  ask  her  why  she  does  not  come  to  see  me ; 
tell  her  that  I  have  been  waiting  for  her  more  than  a  week,  and  that  I  send  her  my 
best  respects  and  considerations ;  and  ask  her  how  she  is,  and  how  her  husband  is,  and 
how  her  children  are,  and  whether  they  are  all  well  in  the  family.  And  tell  her  that 
she  is  my  little  love,  and  ask  her  whether  she  will  be  kind  enough  to  send  me  that 
pattern  which  she  promised  me  the  other  day." 

Before  bidding  adieu  to  the  lofty  tropical  valley,  let  us  take  one  glance  at  the  grand 
scenery  which  environs  it.  There  are  fifty-one  volcanic  peaks  in  the  Andean  chain, 
twenty  of  which  girdle  the  valley  of  Quito,  three  being  active,  five  dormant,  and 
twelve  extinct.  Looking  toward  the  eastern  Cordillera,  the  first  mountain  to  the  north 
is  Imbabura,  18,000  feet  high.  At  its  foot  stood  the  city  of  Otovalo,  destroyed  in  the 
great  earthquake  of  August,  1868 ;  here  alone  out  of  10,000  inhabitants  6,000  per- 
ished. The  first  shock,  which  came  without  hardly  a  premonitory  sign,  lasted  but  one 
minute ;  at  the  end  of  that  minute  not  a  house  or  a  wall  a  yard  high  remained  stand- 
ing. Next,  exactly  on  the  equator,  comes  square-topped  Cayamba,  10,500  feet  high, 
and  in  full  view  from  the  plaza  of  Quito.  Ten  miles  south  is  the  bare  Guamani 
range,  over  which,  at  a  hight  of  15,000  feet,  the  traveler  must  pass  before  he  begins 
to  descend  into  the  valley  of  the  Amazon.  Its  culminating  peak,  Sara-Urcu,  threw 
out  ashes  as  late  as  1856.  Then  comes  Antisana,  19,000  feet  high,  clothed  in  snow 
for  3,000  feet.  It  is  now  dormant ;  but  the  lava  streams  down  its  side  show  how 
tremendous  was  its  former  activity.  One  of  these  streams  is  ten  miles  long  and  five 
hundred  feet  deep.  Its  last  eruption  occurred  in  1590  ;  but  smoke  issued  from  it  in 
1802.  Next  comes  ragged  Sincholagua,  16,500  feet  high;  and  then  Cotopaxi,  "  the 
shining,"  more  than  2,000  feet  higher,  the  loftiest  of  active  volcanoes,  though  its  great 
eruptions  occur  only  at  intervals  of  a  century  *  but  deep  rumblings,  and  a  constant 
cloud  of  smoke  issuing  from  its  crater,  down  which  no  man  has  looked,  show  that  it  is 
only  sleeping.  Its  last  great  eruption  occurred  in  1803.  Far  down  its  south  side 
lies  a  huge  porphyritic  rock,  called  the  Inca's  Head,  which  tradition  avers  to  have 
once  been  the  summit  of  the  volcano,  torn  off  and  hurled  down  on  the  very  day  when 
Atahuallpa  was  murdered   by  Pizarro.      Sixty  miles  further  south   rises  the  pcrfort 


494  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

cone  of  Tunguragua,  16,500  feet  high.  A  cataract  on  it  springs  from  the  very  edge 
of  the  perpetual  snow,  coming  down  1,500  feet  in  three  leaps.  Its  last  eruption, 
which  lasted  seven  years,  began  in  1773.  Close  by,  17,500  feet  high,  rises  Altar, 
called  by  the  Indians  Capac-Urcu,  "  The  Chief."  They  say  that  it  once  overtopped 
Chimborazo ;  but  that,  after  an  eruption  which  lasted  eight  years,  the  lofty  walls  of  its 
crater  fell  in.  Twenty  miles  further  is  Sangai,  17,000  feet  high,  the  most  active 
volcano  on  the  globe.  Without  a  moment's  intermission  it  has  for  three  hundred 
years  poured  forth  a  stream  of  fire,  water,  mud,  and  ashes.  Its  ashes  are  almost 
always  falling  at  Guayaquil,  a  hundred  miles  distant;  and  its  explosions,  generally 
occurring  every  hour  or  two,  are  often  heard  in  that  city.  It  sometimes  rouses  itself 
to  unwonted  activity.  In  1849  Wisse  counted  2G7  explosions  in  an  hour, — more 
than  two  in  every  three  seconds. 

We  have  thus  far  followed  the  eastern  Cordillera  southward.  We  now  turn  to  the 
western  range,  which  runs  parallel  to  it,  at  a  distance  of  from  thirty  to  sixty  miles, 
and  go  northward  back  to  Quito.  First  and  foremost,  but  not  "  sole  monarch  of  the 
vale,"  comes  Chimborazo,  "the  Snowy  Mountain,"  21,470  feet  high.  Ages  ago  its 
now  silent  summit  glowed  with  volcanic  fires.  Its  sides  are  seamed  with  huge  rents 
and  dark  chasms,  in  some  of  which  Vesuvius  could  be  hidden  away  out  of  sight. 
Next,  and  separated  from  it  only  by  a  narrow  valley,  is  Caraguarizo,  19,000  feet  high, 
called  by  the  Indians  "  the  wife  of  Chimborazo."  A  century  and  three-quarters  ago 
the  top  of  this  mountain  fell  in,  and  torrents  of  mud  containing  multitudes  of  the  little 
fishes  of  which  we  have  spoken  poured  out.  Journeying  onward,  passing  peaks 
scarcely  lower  than  these,  some  of  them  extinct  volcanoes,  such  as  lUinza,  17,000  feet 
high,  and  heart-shaped  Corazon,  we  reach  Pichincha,  "the  Boiling  Mountain,"  16,000 
feet  high,  whose  smoking  crater  lies  only  five  miles  distant  from  Quito.  It  is  the  only 
Eucadorean  volcano  which  has  not  a  cone-shaped  crater.  Such  an  one  it  doubtless 
once  had  ;  but  some  convulsion  of  nature  far  beyond  the  reach  of  history  or  tradition, 
has  hollowed  out  from  its  now  flattened  summit  an  enormous  funnel-shaped  basin 
2,500  feet  deep,  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  diameter  at  the  top,  and  1,500  feet  at  the 
bottom.  It  is  the  deepest  crater  on  the  globe.  That  of  Kileaua  is  but  600  feet  deep, 
Orizaba  500,  Etna  300,  Hecla  100. 

The  brink  of  the  crater  of  Pichincha  was  first  reached  by  the  French  Academicians 
in  1742.  Sixty  years  later  Humboldt  reached  the  edge,  but  pronounced  its  bottom 
"  inaccessible  on  account  of  its  great  depth  and  precipitous  descent."  The  crater  was 
first  entered  in  1844  by  Morena,  now  President  of  Ecuador,  and  Wisse,  a  French 
engineer.  Mr.  Orton  and  his  associates,  after  one  unsuccessful  attempt,  succeeded  in 
accomplishing  the  perilous  descent  in  October,  1867.  Scrambling  down  the  steep 
sides,  sometimes  of  rocks  covered  with  snow,  sometimes  a  mass  of  loose,  treacherous 
sand;  now  leaping  a  chasm,  now  letting  themselves  down  from  clifi*  to  cliff,  threatened 
by  huge  rocks  which  perpetually  loosed  themselves  and  went  bounding  past  them,  in 
two  and  a  half  hours  they  reached  the  bottom  of  the  crater.  It  was  found  to  consist 
of  a  deeply  furrowed  plain,  strewn  with  ragged  rocks,  with  here  and  there  a  patch  of 
vegetation,  and  half  a  dozen  species  of  flowers.  In  the  center  was  an  irregular  heap 
of  stones  200  feet  high,  and  800  in  diameter.  In  its  top  and  sides  were  seventy 
vents,  sending  forth  steam,  smoke,  and  sulphurous  gas.  The  central  vent,  or  chim- 
ney, gives  forth  a  noise  like  that  of  a  bubbling  cauldron. 


THE   TABLE   LAND   OF   BOGOTA.  495 

There  have  been  five  eruptions  of  Pichincha  since  the  Spanish  conquest,  the  last 
being  in  1660.  That  of  1566  covered  Quito  three  feet  deep  with  ashes  and  stones, 
while  boiling  water  and  bitumen  poured  forth  in  torrents.  In  1867  the  column  of 
smoke  did  not  rise  above  the  crest  of  the  crater;  but  on  the  19th  of  March,  1868, 
violent  rumblings  were  heard  in  Quito,  followed  three  days  afterward  by  great  columns 
of  vapor.  Since  the  great  earthquake  of  August,  1868,  the  mountain  has  continued 
to  send  forth  columns  of  smoke,  and  so  much  fine  sand  that  it  was  not  possible  to  reach 
the  crater.  It  may  be  that  the  volcano  is  preparing  to  rouse  itself  from  its  slumber 
of  two  centuries.  The  Quitonians,  however,  congratulate  themselves  that  the  edge  of 
the  crater  is  considerably  lower  on  the  side  facing  the  city ;  so  that  should  an  erup- 
tion occur,  the  volcano  will  pour  its  fiery  contents  away  from  them  into  the  wilds 
of  the  Esmeralda. 

We  leave  the  valley  of  Quito,  whose  mighty  surrounding  volcanoes  present  one  of 
the  most  striking  aspects  of  nature  within  the  Tropical  World. 

The  next  great  table-land  is  that  of  Bogota.  Its  elevation  is  8,700  feet  above  the 
sea, — 1,300  feet  less  than  that  of  Quito;  but  although  barely  five  degrees  from  the 
equator,  the  climate  is  much  colder.  To  reach  the  table-land,  we  ascend  the  great 
river  Magdalena  for  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  through  a  low  country  covered  with 
tropical  vegetation;  then,  leaving  the  stream,  we  set  our  faces  toward  the  mountain 
range  upon  whose  summit  lies  the  table-land,  fifty  miles  away,  between  us  and  it  inter- 
vening several  sharp  ridges,  which  might  easily  be  skirted.  But  the  road,  with  a 
thorough  contempt  for  all  engineering  devices,  runs  straight  over  them.  In  the  course 
of  a  single  day  we  twice  ascend  a  mountain*  3,000  feet  high,  only  to  descend  as  far  on 
the  opposite  side,  giving  us  in  the  space  of  twenty  miles  an  unnecessary  ascent  of  a 
mile,  and  an  equal  descent.  At  length  we  come  to  the  outer  rim  of  the  great  plain 
of  Bogota,  rising  sheer  up  like  a  wall  before  us  ;  up  this  the  path  winds  by  sharp 
turns  and  zigzags  like  a  circular  staircase.  Pile  the  Catskills  upon  the  summit  of 
Mount  Washington,  and  then  level  off  upon  the  summit  a  marshy  plateau  half  as  large 
as  the  State  of  Connecticut,  and  heap  around  it  mountains  some  thousands  of  feet 
higher,  and  we  have  the  great  plain  of  Bogota,  which  the  inhabitants  believe  to  be  the 
most  delightful  spot  on  earth. 

The  temperature  of  the  plain  is  so  low  that  it  produces  only  a  little  wheat,  grass, 
barley,  and  a  few  esculent  roots.  The  greater  part  of  it  is  owned  in  vast  estates  by  a 
few  rich  land-holders,  who  have  the  reputation  of  being  excessively  stupid.  The 
people  of  the  city  call  them  Orejones,  "Big-Ears."  The  markets  of  Bogota  are  sup- 
plied mainly  from  the  warm  country  below.  An  Indian  and  his  wife  will  toil  up  the 
steep  path  bearing  enormous  loads  of  fish  or  plantains,  trudge  across  the  weary  breadth 
of  the  marshy  plain,  occupying  three  days  in  the  journey,  and  think  themselves  lucky 
if  they  find  a  purchaser  for  their  load.  Sometimes  these  patient  bearers  will  be  seen 
descending  the  mountains  which  tower  above  the  city,  loaded  with  plantains,  oranges, 
and  other  tropical  productions.  These  could  not  have  grown  upon  the  mountains,  but 
have  been  brought  over  their  summits  from  the  warmer  regions  lying  far  down  on  the 
opposite  slopes.  Bogottinos  sometimes  descend  to  the  plains  to  thaw  out.  The 
favorite  place  for  pleasurable  resort  is  the  village  of  Fusagasuga,  which  lies  far  down 
ou  the  slope.     To  reach  it  one  must  urst  climb  up  a  thousand  feet  higher  than  the 


496  THE   TROPICAL   WOULD. 

plain,  and  then  descend  three  times  as  far.  There  are  two  modes  of  traveling  :  mule- 
back  and  man-back.  It  requires  some  preparation  for  such  a  pleasure-trip.  As  it  is 
always  cold  and  usually  rainy,  the  traveler  has  his  face  well  bundled  up  to  protect  it. 
His  hat  has  a  covering  of  oiled  silk  ;  his  poncho,  or  cloak,  which  must  serve  also  as  a 
blanket  by  night,  is  fastened  to  his  saddle-bow,  when  not  upon  his  shoulders ;  and  a 
pair  of  leather  overalls  is  drawn  over  his  lower  garments.  Behind  him  comes  a  mule 
driven  by  a  peon,  bearing  a  huge  bundle  resembling  an  enormous  feather  bed.  This 
is  called  a  vaca,  "  cow,"  but  no  cow's  hide  would  be  sufficient  to  hold  it.  Besides 
the  usual  baggage  of  a  traveler,  it  contains  a  mattress,  which  the  pleasure-seeker  must 
carry  with  him  or  do  without.  Women  usually,  and  men  not  unfrequently,  travel  by 
slUa.  A  rude  bamboo  chair  is  fastened  to  the  back  of  a  man  by  two  belts — one 
crossing  over  the  chest  and  another  passing  over  the  forehead.  The  rider,  seated  with 
his  back  to  his  bearer,  is  completely  helpless.  A  story  is  told,  and  the  scene  of  it 
pointed  out  near  Bogota,  where  a  Spaniard  wearing  huge  spurs  mounted  his  sillero, 
whom  he  goaded  as  though  he  were  a  mule.  The  sillero,  by  a  sudden  jerk,  pitched 
his  rider  sheer  down  a  precipice,  then  took  to  the  woods  and  was  never  caught. 

The  plateau  of  Bogota  is,  upon  the  whole,  a  most  uninteresting  region.  It  is  most 
noteworthy  on  account  ot  its  showing  how  elevation  and  local  circumstances  affect  the 
climate  of  the  tropical  regions.  Lying  just  north  of  the  equator,  in  a  latitude  indeed 
in  which,  rather  than  under  the  equator,  the  hottest  regions  of  the  earth  are  found,  it 
reminds  one  not  a  little  of  the  interior  of  Kamchatka  and  Alaska,  which  almost  touch 
the  Arctic  Circle. 

If  the  table-land  of  Quito  is  the  most  lovely,  that  of  Mexico  is  by  extent  and  variety 
the  most  remarkable  of  the  lofty  tropical  plateaus.  Commencing  at  the  Isthmus  of 
Tehuantepec,  in  latitude  16°,  it  stretches  with  varied  breadth  to  the  limits  of  the 
Tropical  Zone.  With  the  exception  of  a  narrow  strip  along  the  shores  of  the  oceans,  it 
occupies  in  Mexico  the  whole  breadth  of  the  continent.  It  rises  almost  by  steps  into 
broad,  well-defined  terraces  sloping  upwards,  each  presenting  the  climate  and  productions' 
of  different  portions  of  the  Temperate  Zone.  Its  highest  level  is  traversed  by  moun- 
tain ranges,  sometimes  rising  into  lofty  peaks  ;  but  its  general  surface  is  almost  as  level 
as  the  ocean.  A  road  from  the  city  of  Mexico  northward  for  more  than  a  thousand 
miles  would  run  over  a  dead  level,  hardly  varying  from  an  altitude  of  7,500  feet. 

There  is  not  upon  the  globe  a  great  region  which  nature  has  more  assiduously 
striven  to  render  a  fit  habitation  for  civilized  man  than  the  greater  part  of  Mexico. 
There  is  no  one  in  which  man  has  so  persistently  set  himself  at  work  to  counteract  the 
designs  of  nature. 

Let  us,  starting  from  Vera  Cruz,  make  the  journey  to  and  across  these  table-lands. 
The  Gulf  bordered  by  a  broad  zone  of  lowlands,  called  the  tierra  calienta,  or  "  hot 
lands,"  whicli  has  the  normal  hot  climate  of  the  tropics.  Parched  and  sandy  plains 
dotted  with  mimosas  and  prickly  plants  alternate  with  savannas  overshadowed  by 
groves  of  palms,  and  glowing  with  the  exuberant  splendor  of  equinoctial  vegetation. 
The  branches  of  the  stately  forest  trees  are  festooned  with  vines  and  creepers,  whose 
flowers  present  the  most  brilliant  hues  ;  while  the  thick  undergrowth  of  priukly  aloes, 
matted  with  the  wild  rose  and  honeysuckle,  often  forms  an  impenetrable  thicket.  In 
this   wilderness   of  sweet-scented   buds    and   flowers   flutter   clouds   of  butterflies  of 


SIKKDI   PLAIN   AND   PEAKS.  497 

resplendent  hues,  and  birds  of  gorgeous  plumage.  Many  of  these  birds  have  notes 
of  exquisite  melody.  But  the  malaria  engendered  by  the  decomposition  of  the  rank 
vegetation  and  the  dank  soil  renders  the  region  one  of  the  most  insalubrious  upon  the 
globe,  and  almost  uninhabitable  by  man  from  the  vernal  to  the  autumnal  equinox. 
Here  is  the  birthplace  of  the  dreaded  vomito,  or  yellow  fever. 

Passing  this  fatal  belt,  after  twenty  leagues  the  traveler  finds  himself  ascending 
into  a  purer  atmosphere.  The  vegetation  changes  at  every  league.  One  by  one  the 
vanilla,  the  indigo  plant,  the  sugar  cane,  and  the  plantain  disappear ;  until  at  the 
hight  of  4,000  feet  the  unchanging  green  of  the  rich  foliage  of  the  liquidamber  indi- 
cates that  the  traveler  has  reached  the  elevation  where  the  clouds  and  mists  settle  in 
their  passage  from  the  Gulf,  and  maintain  a  perpetual  moisture. 

Here  are  the  confines  of  the  tierra  templada,  or  temperate  region,  where  the  ever- 
green oaks  remind  him  of  the  forests  of  Central  Europe.  The  features  of  the  scenery 
become  imposing.  The  ascending  road  sweeps  along  the  base  of  mighty  mountains, 
now  snow-clad,  but  bearing  traces  of  former  volcanic  fires.  The  flanks  of  the  moun- 
tains are  rent  with  huge  barancas  or  ravines,  down  whose  steep  sides  he  can  look  for 
more  than  a  thousand  feet.  Cactuses,  euphorbia,  draccena,  and  a  multitude  of  other 
plants  cling  to  the  rocky  walls ;  while  at  the  bottom  of  the  gorge,  to  which  he  mio'ht 
apparently  almost  leap,  stand  huge  laurels  and  fig-trees.  Upward  still,  he  passes 
fields  waving  with  yellow  wheat  and  broad-leaved  maize,  with  plantations  of  the  agave, 
from  which  the  Mexicans  prepare,  as  they  did  in  the  days  of  the  Montezumas,  their 
national  beverage  oi  pulque. 

At  an  elevation  of  8,000  feet,  the  forests  of  sombre  pine  announce  that  the  tierra 
fria,  or  "  cold  region,"  the  last  of  the  three  great  terraces,  has  been  reached.  Here 
in  the  valley  of  Anahuac,  yet  at  an  elevation  of  7,500  feet,  rests  the  city  of  Mexico, 
the  famous  capital  of  the  Montezumas,  with  its  shallow  lakes,  and  surrounded  by 
elliptical  plains,  enclosed  by  frowning  ridges  of  basaltic  and  porphyrite  rocks.  On 
the  south-eastern  side  rises  the  snow-crowned  cone  of  Orizaba,  whose  ever  blazing 
summit,  shining  like  a  star  through  the  darkness  of  night,  gained  for  it  its  Aztec  name 
of  Citlaltepetl,  "the  Mountain  of  the  Star;"  farther  west  rise  Popocatepetl,  Tztaci- 
huatl,  and  Toluca,  altogether  forming  a  magnificent  volcanic  circuit,  only  equaled  by 
that  which  girdles  the  valley  of  Quito.  If  the  traveler  *chooses  to  climb  the  sides  of 
these  volcanoes,  in  a  few  days'  journey  he  will  have  passed  through  every  variety 
of  climate  and  every  zone  of  production,  from  the  fiercest  tropical  heat  to  the  confines 
of  perpetual  winter ;  from  the  towering  palm  to  the  lichen  which  hardly  lifts  its  head 
above  the  sterile  rock. 

Sikkim,  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Himalayas,  may  be  considered  a  vast  sloping 
plain,  rising  in  a  gradual  ascent  from  the  foot  of  the  chain  to  the  base  of  the  peaks,  the 
highest  on  the  globe.  From  the  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  is  a  level  plain  of  a 
hundred  miles  in  breadth  to  the  foot  of  the  Himelayas.  Thence  the  land  rises  gently 
7,000  feet  in  eighty  miles.  Here  is  the  British  sanitarium  of  Dorjiling,  where  the 
European  debilitated  by  the  burning  climate  of  the  lowlands  may  breathe  air  as  cool 
and  refreshing  as  those  of  his  native  land.  Eighty  miles  further  brings  him  9,000 
feet  higher  to  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow.  Then  arise  more  steeply,  12,000  feet 
higher,  the  lofty  summits,  rather  than  peaks,  of  the  Himalayas,  looking  down  upon 
82 


498  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

the  magnificently  wooded  region  below.  The  highest  of  these  Sikkira  peaks  is  Kin- 
chin-junga— the  third,  but  until  recently  believed  to  be  the  first,  in  hight  upon  the 
globe.  It  falls  but  a  hundred  feet  below  the  Dipsang  or  Karkakorura  peak,  and 
about  eight  hundred  below  Gaurisanker,  which  the  British  have  re-named  Mount 
Everest.  Kinchin-junga  rises  to  the  altitude  of  28,172  feet.  Not  only  is  its  summit 
untrodden  by  man  or  beast,  but  nothing  that  breathes  has  ever  mounted  so  high  into 
the  air.  The  condor,  who  in  his  flight  looks  down  upon  the  dome  of  Chimborazo, 
never  mounts  to  within  thousands  of  feet  of  the  hight  of  Kinchin-junga.* 

*  Humboldt's  statement  that  the  condor  flies  higher  than  Chimborazo  (21,420  feet)  has  been 
questioned.  But  Orton  has  seen  numbers  of  them  hovering  at  least  a  thousand  feet  above 
Pichincha  (16,000  feet),  and  does  not  doubt  that  they  fly  much  higher.  Miiller,  in  his  ascentof 
Orizaba,  saw  falcons  flying  fully  18,000  feet  high ;  and  it  is  affirmed  that  wild  geese  fly  over  the 
peak  of  Kunchan-ghow  (22,000  feet).  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  condor  attains  an  eleva- 
tion greater  than  any  other  bird,  and  that  no  other  creature  ever  voluntarily  ascends  so  high. 


SAVANNAS  AND   DESERTS. 


CHAPTER  III. 

SAVANNAS  AND  DESERTS  OF  THE  TROPICAL  WORLD. 

Water  and  Life — Characteristics  of  the  Savannas. — TTie  Llanos:  The  Dry  Season— Effects 
upon  Vegetable  Life — Effects  upon  Animal  Life— Approach  of  the  Rainy  Season — Revival 
of  Vegetable  and  Animal  Life— Vast  Migrations  of  Animals.— JWe  Pampas:  Horses  and 
Cattle  in  the  New  World— Effects  of  their  Introduction  upon  the  Character  of  the  Popu- 
lation—The Mauritia  P^lm- Living  in  the  Tree-tops. — The  Grand  Chaco — Its  Indian 
Inhabitants — The  Guachos — The  Lasso  and  Bolas. — The  Plains  of  Southern  Africa:  Thorny 
Bushes— Excessive  Droughts — A  Great  Hunting  Ground — Species  of  Game — Vegetation — 
Watery  Tubers — Esculent  Gourds — Possibility  of  Wells — Water-Pits  in  the  Kalahari — 
Mode  of  Pumping  Up  .the  Water — Livingstone's  Theory  of  Water-Making  Ants — More 
Probable  Explanation — Inhabitants  of  Southern  Africa. — The  Lake  Rerjion  of  Equatorial 
Africa:  Little  Known — Explorations  of  Livingstone  and  Burton — Speke's  Journey — His 
Notices  of  the  Country — Moderate  and  Equable  Temperature — The  Inhabitants — Charac- 
teristics of  a  Real  Desert. — The  Atacama  of  Peru:  Its  Arid  Character — The  Mule  the  Ship 
of  this  Desert. — The  Australian  Desert :  Its  Utter  Desolation. — Sturt's  Exploration — 
Leichardt — Lost  Rivers. — TJie  Sahara :  Extent  and  General  Characteristics — The  Capital 
of  Fezzan — Perilous  Adventure  of  Barth — Plains  and  Hills — Oases — Luxuriant  Vegetation 
of  the  Oases — Contrasts  of  Light  and  Shade — The  Khamsin  or  Simoom — Animals  and 
Reptiles — The  Ostrich  and  its  Chase — Fluctuations  of  Animal  and  Vegetable  Life  accord- 
ing to  the  Seasons. 

ri^HE  presence  or  absence  of  water  in  the  Tropical  World  exerts  an  influence  upon 
-L  all  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life  not  less  important  than  the  temperature. 
Wherever  water  is  absolutely  wanting  the  country  is  given  over  to  barrenness. 
Wherever  water  is  perpetual  and  abundant,  the  soil  is  clothed  with  lofty  forests  and  a 
profusion  of  lush  vegetation.  Midway  between  these  extremes  are  vast  tracts  dry  at 
one  season  and  wet  at  another.  These  regions,  which  we  may  call  savannas,  embrace 
the  pampas  of  the  Argentine  Republic  and  the  llanos  of  Venezuela  and  New  Granada, 
and  a  considerable  portion  of  Southern  Africa.  They  are  in  general  to  be  character- 
ized as  vast  plains,  never  of  more  than  moderate  elevation,  covered  with  grass  and 
shrubs ;  but,  except  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  destitute  of  extensive  forests,  the  trees 
standing  singly  or  in  small  clumps. 

There  can  be  no  more  striking  contrast  than  that  presented  at  different  seasons  of 
the  year  by  the  great  llanos  of  Venezuela.  When  the  rainy  season  is  over  and  the 
sun  for  weeks  blazes  in  an  unclouded  sky,  pouring  his  vertical  rays  upon  the  thirsty 
plains,  the  calcined  grass-plains  present  the  aspect  of  an  interminable,  monotonous 
waste.  Like  the  ocean  they  stretch  out  till  in  tlie  distance  hazy  and  quivering  with 
heat,  their  boundary  blends  upon  the  horizon  with  the  sky  in  an  indistinct  line.  The 
water  pools  which  nourished  the  scattered  clumps  of  the  Mauritia  palm  disajipear  one 
by  one.     The  tall,  dry  reeds  which  indicate  the  spot  which  had  been  a  swamj),  bear 


500  THE   TROPICAL   AVORLD. 

high  up  their  stalks  the  encrusted  mud  which  marks  the  hight  of  ooze  and  slime  of 
the  rainy  season.  The  grass  has  long  since  withered,  and  stands  a  mass  of  dry  stems, 
ready  at  the  touch  of  fire  to  break  out  into  a  conflagration  which  outstrips  the  speed 
of  the  swiftest  horse. 

Animal  life  seems  to  have  become  extinct.  The  deer,  the  aguti,  and  the  peccary, 
taught  by  instinct,  have  migrated  to  less  arid  regions,  followed  by  their  natural  ene- 
mies the  Indian,  the  puma,  and  the  jaguar.  The  vast  herds  of  wild  horses  and  cattle 
which  roamed  over  the  savanna  perish  in  countless  numbers,  or  rush  about  bellowing, 
and  neighing,  and  snuffing  the  thirsty  air,  seeking  to  scent  out  the  neighborhood  of 
some  pool  where  a  little  moisture  has  survived  the  general  drought.  Buried  for  down 
in  the  stiff  clay  of  the  dried-up  pools,  the  alligator  and  huge  water  snake  lie  torpid  in 
a  long  summer  sleep,  as  the  bear  slumbers  through  the  dreary  Arctic  winter. 

At  length,  when  all  nature  seems  to  have  expired  or  to  be  expiring  for  want  of 
water,  welcome  signs  announce  the  approach  of  the  rainy  season.  The  blue,  cloudless 
sky  begins  to  assume  a  leaden  hue  ;  the  atmosphere  becomes  obscured  by  condensing 
vapors ;  the  stars  which  shone  with  a  mild  planetary  lustre  now  twinkle  faintly  even 
in  the  zenith,  while  the  bright  Southern  Cross,  low  down  in  the  horizon,  is  hardly  dis- 
cernible, and  the  phosphoric  gleam  of  the  Magellanic  clouds  expires.  Banks  of  vapor 
rise  in  mountainous  forms  on  the  horizon,  increasing  in  density,  and  mounting  higher 
and  higher,  until  at  length  they  burst  into  rains  which  pour  down  in  torrents.  Scarcely 
have  the  showers  had  time  to  moisten  the  thirsty  land,  when  a  change  comes  over  the 
face  of  nature.  The  dull,  tawny  surface  of  the  savanna  is  transformed  as  if  by  magic  into 
an  expanse  of  vivid  green,  enameled  with  flowers  of  every  hue.  The  mimosas  ex- 
pand their  delicate  foliage,  and  the  Mauritia  palm,  "  the  tree  of  life,"  puts  forth  its 
feathery  fronds. 

Animal  life  awakens  from  its  long  torpor.  On  the  borders  of  the  swamps  the 
moistened  clay  heaves,  and  slowly  bursts  asunder,  and  from  the  tomb  in  which  he  lay 
embedded,  rises  the  form  of  some  huge  alligator  or  water-snake.  The  newly  formed 
pools  swarm  with  water-fowl.  The  herds  of  horses  and  oxen  rejoice  in  the  thick 
grasses,  under  whose  covert  not  unfrequently  crouches  the  jaguar  waiting  for  his  prey. 
On  the  very  same  spot  where  a  few  weeks  before  the  horse  anxiously  snuffed  the  air, 
half-mad  with  thirst,  he  is  now  obliged  to  lead  an  almost  amphibious  life.  The  mares 
retreat  with  their  foals  to  the  higher  banks,  which  rise  like  islands  from  a  lagoon,  and 
swim  about  in  quest  of  the  grasses  which  lift  their  heads  above  the  waters.  Not  un- 
frequently they  become  the  prey  of  alligators  that  strike  them  down  with  their  scaly 
tails,  and  seize  them  with  their  enormous  jaws.  "This  sight,"  says  Humboldt, 
"  involuntarily  reminds  the  reflecting  observer  of  the  great  pliability  with  which  na- 
ture has  endowed  several  species  of  plants  and  animals.  Along  with  the  fruits  of 
Ceres,  the  horse  and  the  ox  have  followed  man  over  the  whole  earth  from  the  Ganges 
to  the  Plata,  and  from  the  coast  of  Africa  to  the  mountain  plain  of  Antisana,  over- 
looking the  Valley  of  Quito.  Here,  the  northern  birch-tree,  and  there  the  tropical 
date-palm,  protects  the  tired  ox  from  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  same  species  of  animal 
which  in  eastern  Europe  contends  with  bears  and  wolves,  is  attacked  in  another  zone 
by  the  tiger  and  the  crocodile." 

It  is  scarcely  three  centuries  since  the  horse  and  the  ox  were  first  introduced  into 
America  by  the  Spaniards.     The  latter  has  flourished  to  such  a  degree  that  it  is  not 


ANIMAL   LIFE    ON   HIE   PAMPAS. 


501 


improbable  that  in  the  pampas  and  lianas  of  South  America  there  are  more  cattle  than 
in  all  the  rest  of  the  globe.  Strain,  who  rode  across  tlie  pampas,  was  told  that  in  a 
single  year  ten  millions  of  hides  were  exported  from  Buenos  Ayres.  Knowing  that 
the  census  of  1840  gave  but  fifteen  millions  in  the  United  States,  this  statement  seemed 
incredible.  But  when  day  after  day  he  saw  from  every  slight  swell  herd  after  herd, 
blackening  the  whole  expanse,  until  they  became  mere  specks  in  the  distance,  and  re- 


CATTLE-IICNTING    ON    THE    PAMPAS. 

i  fleeted  that  the  millions  upon  millions  which  he  saw  were  but  fractions  of  those  spread 
for  hundreds  of  thousands  of  square  miles,  he  could  give  credit  to  the  statement. 
The  annual  slaughter  of  millions  seems  to  have  no  sensible  effect  in  diminishing  the 
numbers  of  the  survivors.  These  herds  belong  mainly  to  wealthy  estancieros.  The 
extent  of  some  of  these  estancias  and  the  number  of  the  herds  is  almost  incredible.  The 
estate  of  San  Jose,  belonging  to  Urquiza,  late  President  of  the  Argentine  Confedera- 
tion, covered  an  area  of  several  hundred  square  miles,  and  upon  it  he  had  2,000  horses, 
40,000  head  of  cattle,  and  70,000  sheep,  and  this  is  but  one  out  of  his  many  estates.* 

*  Pasc's  La  Plata,  52,  59. 


502  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

The  introduction  of  the  horse  and  the  ox  has  wrought  an  entire  change  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  Indians  of  the  great  plains  of  North  and  South  America.  When  the 
Spaniards  first  visited  the  llanos  and  pampas  they  found  them  almost  destitute  of 
inhabitants,  for  the  Indians  were  wholly  unacquainted  with  agriculture.  They  could 
exist  only  in  the  spots  where  grew  the  Mauritia  palm.  This  tree  grows  to  the  hight 
of  a  hundred  feet,  its  slender  trunk  surmounted  by  a  magnificent  tuft  of  great  fan- 
shaped  fronds,  under  which  grow  in  large  clusters  scaly  fruit,  resembling  pine  cones. 
Like  the  banana  they  differ  in  taste  according  to  the  stage  of  ripeness  ;  and  the  trunk 
aflfords  a  nutritious  pith  like  sago,  which  when  dried  forms  a  large  part  of  the  food  of 
the  natives.  Fro.m  its  sap  they  prepared  an  intoxicating  drink;  its  leaves  covered 
their  huts;  from  the  fibres  of  the  petiole  they  manufactured  threads  and  cordage, 
and  the  sheaths  at  their  base  served  for  sandals.  The  Mauritia  grew  abundantly  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  ;  and  among  its  branches  the  Guaranas  dwelt  like  monkeys, 
high  above  the  reach  of  the  great  inundations.  They  built  platforms,  floored  with  its 
leaves,  from  trunk  to  trunk,  a  patch  of  moist  clay  serving  for  a  fire-place.  The  early 
voyagers  were  by  night  astonished  at  the  light  of  their  fires,  gleaming  like  beacons 
up  among  the  dark  foliage. 

The  Grand  Chaco,  lying  along  the  Paraguay  and  Parana  rivers,  is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  of  the  pampa  regions.  It  covers  an  area  of  200,000  square  miles,  nearly 
equal  to  France,  and  is  nominally  partitioned  among  the  neighboring  governments ; 
but  is  really  in  the  possession  of  hordes  of  Indians,  who  acknowledge  no  allegiance 
except  to  their  own  caqiques.  Neither  time  nor  intercourse  with  the  whites  has  miti- 
gated their  deep  feeling  of  hostility  against  the  whites  for  the  wrongs  inflicted  upon 
their  race.  The  horse,  the  gift  of  the  Spaniards,  has  put  them  upon  an  equality  with 
their  enemies,  and  given  them  the  means  of  making  continual  predatory  inroads. 
When  pursued  by  a  military  force  they  scatter  and  are  lost  in  the  depths  of  the  forest. 
They  are  admirable  horsemen,  using  neither  saddle  or  bridle,  but  control  their  animals 
by  a  rude  rein  of  raw-hide  passing  around  the  lower  jaw,  and  secured  by  a  thong  of 
the  same  material. 

The  guachos,  or  herdsmen,  inhabiting  the  pampas  are  of  Spanish  descent,  but  have 
relapsed  into  an  almost  savage  state.  The  wild  life  of  a  guacho  begins  from  infancy. 
As  soon  as  he  can  walk  he  has  a  little  lasso  made  of  twine,  with  which  he  amuses 
himself  in  catching  the  chickens  and  dogs.  By  the  time  he  is  four  years  old  he  is  put 
upon  horseback,  which  he  soon  learns  to  consider  the  only  place  for  a  man,  thinking 
it  degrading  to  walk  for  any  considerable  distance.  He  early  acquires  skill  in  the  use 
of  the  lasso  and  bolas.  With  the  former  he  will  capture  the  wildest  bull  or  stallion, 
throwing  from  horseback  the  noose  with  unerring  aim  over  the  horns,  or  around  a  leg 
of  the  animal.  He  is  equally  dextrous  in  the  use  of  the  bolas.  This  consists  of  three 
balls,  about  three  inches  in  diameter,  joined  together  in  a  common  center  by  thongs  a 
yard  long.  Holding  one  ball  in  his  hand,  the  guacho  whirls  the  other  around  his 
head,  and  then  flings  the  whole  at  his  victim.  The  instant  one  thong  strikes  the  leg 
of  an  animal,  all  wind  themselves  around,  each  by  its  own  independent  motion,  and 
the  more  the  victim  struggles  the  more  inextricably  does  he  become  entangled. 

The  so-called  deserts  of  Southern  Africa,  including  the  great  Kalahari,  are  savannas 
rather  than  deserts.     This   region  has  of  late  years  been  thoroughly  described  by 


THE    GREAT   KALAHARI. 


503 


travelers,  most  of  them  allured  thither  in  pursuit  of  game.     It  may  be  considered  as 
bounded  by  the  parallels  of  20o  and  30°  south  of  the  equator,  and  from  IJo  to  30© 


of  longitude,  covering  an  area  of  1,000  miles  by  700.     The  great  Kalahari  occupies 
us  center.     The  physical  aspects  of  so  vast  a  region  of  course  vary.     Taking  its  outside 


504  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

rim,  it  may  in  general  be  described  as  a  series  of  broad  plains  intercepted  by  rugged 
mountains  of  no  great  higbt.  These  plains  daring  the  wet  season  abo.und  with  juicy 
herbage,  which  disappears,  fairly  burned  off,  in  the  dry  season,  leaving  the  ground 
parched  and  dusty.  Sometimes  there  are  immense  tracts  overgrown  with  low,  thorny 
bushes,  standing  so  closely  together  that  the  traveler  must  chop  his  way  through  them 
step  by  step.  The  most  common  of  these  bushes  is  called  by  the  colonists  the  "  wait- 
a-bit,"  for  its  short  hook-like  thorns  present  a  standing  invitation  to  the  passer  to  wait 
a  bit  at  every  foot  of  his  advance,  Andersson  mentions  once  coming  upon  a  consider- 
able forest  of  thornless  trees.  "I  do  not  think,"  he  says,  "  that  I  was  ever  so  sur- 
prised in  my  life.  I  hesitated  to  trust  my  senses.  Even  the  dull  faces  of  my  native 
attendants  seemed  for  a  few  seconds  to  relax  from  their  usual  heavy,  unintelligent 
cast,  and  to  express  joy  at  the  novel  scene."  The  brief  wet  season,  when  the  rain 
falls  in  torrents,  is  succeeded  by  months  of  absolute  drought,  when  water  is  found  only 
at  long  intervals  in  solitary  fountains  and  stagnant  pools.  Tlie  books  of  travelers  in 
this  region  present  a  continual  record  of  sufferings  endured  by  man  and  beast  from 
lack  of  water. 

But  uninviting  as  this  region  otherwise  is,  it  is  the  paradise  of  the  sportsman.  In 
other  regions  of  the  globe  he  is  limited  to  a  few  species  of  the  larger  game.  On  our 
western  prairies  he  is  confined  to  bison ;  in  India  he  must  satisfy  himself  with  tigers 
and  wild  hogs;  in  Ceylon  he  may  bag  tuskless  elephants  and  bufFalos;  in  Siberia  he 
has  only  bears  and  wolves.  But  Southern  Africa  is  a  vast  zoological  garden.  Giraffes 
raise  their  long  necks  above  the  stunted  acacia  trees,  stooping  to  crop  their  topmost 
twigs.  Gigantic  boars,  and  their  still  bigger  cousins  the  unwieldy  hippopotami  and 
rhinoceroses,  abound.  Leopards  and  hyenas  find  abundant  prey  in  numerous  species 
of  antelopes,  and  in  turn  afford  rich  sport  to  the  hunter.  Lions  are  everywhere,  from 
the  sneaking  brute  who  crawls  stealthily  upon  his  ignoble  prey,  to  the  ferocious  "  man- 
eater,"  in  whom  the  taste  of  human  flesh  has  awakened  a  new  faculty  which  induces 
him  to  despise  all  meaner  food,  and  to  leap  boldly  into  the  camp  of  the  hunter  in 
search  of  a  human  victim.  Elephants  wander  about  singly,  or  in  pairs  and  groups,  or 
troop  in  vast  herds  to  the  lonely  pools  where  they  can  quench  their  thirst.  "They 
walk  about  as  thick  as  cattle,"  said  a  native  to  Andersson,  who  had  occasion  to  verify 
the  statement;  and  Barth  once  counted  two  hundred  elephants  in  a  single  herd  on  the 
banks  of  Lake  Tschad.  Besides  these,  there  are  ostriches,  zebras,  quaggas,  and  an 
almost  innumerable  variety  of  the  deer  tribe,  such  as  oryxes,  koodoos,  inyalas,  gnus, 
elands,  springbocks,  gemsbocks,  hartebeests,  leches,  pallahs,  and  others  whose  very 
names  have  as  yet  found  no  place  in  books  of  natural  history. 

Such  a  superfluity  of  animal  life  presupposes  no  inconsiderable  amount  of  vegetation 
even  in  these  arid  regions;  for  all  animals  directly  or  indirectly  subsist  upon  vegetable 
food.  The  lion  devours  the  deer;  but  he  could  find  no  deer  to  devour  unless  the 
deer  could  find  grass  and  leaves  to  eat.  Nature  has  also  gifted  these  animals  with  an 
instinct  which  leads  them  to  wander  far  and  wide  for  food,  and  to  divine  where  it  is 
likely  to  be  found.  In  so  wide  a  pasture-ground  all  parts  will  not  be  parched  at 
once ;  and  beasts  of  prey  follow  in  the  tracks  of  their  victims.  Moreover,  there  are 
species  of  plants  peculiar  to  these  regions  which  go  far  to  modify  the  apparent  sterility, 
and  store  up  food  and  even  water  beneath  what  appears  to  be  dry  sand.  Such  a  plant 
is  the  leroshiia,  whose  low  stalk  is  hardly  larger  than  a  crow's  quill ;  but  it  sends  its 


WATER-PLANTS   AND   WATER.  505 

roots  deep  down  into  the  soil,  which,  at  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  two,  expand  into  a  tuber 
of  the  size  of  a  small  melon,  which  is  a  mass  of  watery  cellular  tissue,  like  a  young 
turnip.  The  mokuri,  a  low  creeper,  e-xpands  under  ground  into  a  cluster  of  tubers, 
some  of  them  as  large  as  a  man's  head.  The  clusters  spread  out  in  a  circle  of  a  yard 
in  diameter.  When  a  native  suspects  the  existence  of  such  a  cluster,  he  pounds  with 
stones  around  until  a  hollow  sound  tells  him  that  he  has  found  the  spot.  Many  of  the 
animals  have  sharp  hoofs,  and  instinct  points  out  to  them  the  sites  of  these  watery 
tubers,  to  reach  which  they  dig  away  the  sand,  as  the  reindeer  digs  the  snow  which 
conceals  the  moss  which  is  his  food.  The  kengwe,  a  kind  of  gourd,  a  favorite  with 
man  and  beast,  sometimes  covers  immense  tracts.  Macabe  once  crossed  the  desert,  in 
a  favorable  season,  and  found  them  so  numerous  that  his  cattle  lived  on  them  for  three 
weeks,  during  which  they  had  no  water,  and  when  this  was  reached  they  seemed  quite 
indifferent  to  it.  Another  gourd,  the  naras,  covers  many  of  the  low  sand-hills.  Its 
fruit,  the  size  of  a  turnip,  is  on  the  outside  of  a  greenish  yellow,  within  of  a  deep 
orange,  and  for  three  months  in  the  year  constitutes  the  chief  food  of  man  and  beast  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Walfisch  Bay.  Its  seeds,  something  like  an  almond  in  looks  and 
taste,  are  carefully  gathered,  dried,  and  preserved  for  food  when  the  fruits  have 
disappeared. 

Judging  from  the  geological  character  of  this  African  semi-desert,  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  water  might  be  found  by  deep  boring  almost  everywhere ;  for  as  the  rain- 
fall is  great  during  the  wet  season,  and  as  hardly  any  of  it  finds  an  outlet  through 
rivers,  much  of  it  must  sink  into  the  sandy  soil  until  it  is  arrested  by  beds  of  clay  or 
underlying  rock,  and  by  digging  down  to  these  the  water  would  be  reached.  Wherever 
and  whenever  water  here  exists,  there  is  fertility ;  and  it  may  be  that  the  time  will 
come  when  these  now  arid  plains  will  be  honey-combed  with  artesian  wells,  and  thereby 
transformed  into  a  garden.  When  that  time  comes,  farewell  to  elephants  and  lions,  to 
deer  and  antelopes.  Wells,  or  rather  pits,  of  slight  depth,  but  which  contain  water 
throughout  the  year,  except  when  two  years  of  drought  happen  together,  are  not  un- 
frequently  found  in  the  Kalahari.  These  pits  are  hidden  with  the  utmost  care.  Some- 
times the  natives  fill  them  up  with  loose  sand,  and  build  a  fire  over  the  spot;  the 
ashes  would  naturally  be  taken  as  an  indication  that  here  at  least  no  water  was  to  be 
found  beneath  the  surface.  They  are  careful  to  establish  their  huts  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  their  hidden  mine  of  liquid  treasure.  When  they  wish  for  water,  the 
women  set  out  from  the  village,  carrying  their  water  vessels,  which  consist  of  ostrich- 
shells,  with  a  little  hole  in  the  end.  A  reed  of  nearly  a  yard  in  length,  with  a  bunch 
of  grass  fastened  to  the  end,  is  sunk  down  through  the  sand,  which  is  then  rammed 
closely  around.  By  sucking  through  the  reed  a  vacuum  is  made  in  the  sponge-like 
bunch  of  grass ;  into  this  the  water  flows  and  passes  through  the  reed  into  the  mouth, 
whence  it  is  squirted  into  the  shells.  This  natural  pump  is  really  very  efficacious  for 
the  shallow  depth  at  which  it  is  used. 

Livingstone  relates  another  circumstance  which  seems  conclusive  as  to  the  fact  that 
water  exists  in  the  Kalahari,  at  no  very  great  distance  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
During  two  successive  seasons  of  extreme  drought,  in  neither  of  which  the  rainfall 
exceeded  five  inches,  and  every  thing  was  parched,  and  the  ground  so  hot  that  beetles 
placed  upon  the  surface  died  in  a  few  seconds,  as  though  they  had  been  placed  on  a 
heated  plate  of  iron,  a  certain  species  of  ants,  who  form  long  and  deep  galleries,  were 


506  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

*  always  as  active  and  raerry  as  ever  ;  and  upon  opening  their  chambers  the  walls  were 
invariably  moist.  la  reply  to  the  question,  whence  these  insects  derived  their  water, 
Livingstone  suggests  that  they  have  the  power  by  vital  force  of  combining  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  with  the  hydrogen  of  their  food,  and  so  making  water.  He  instances,  in 
support  of  this  theory,  other  insects  which  he  found  in  Angola,  where  a  colony  of  in- 
sects on  the  branch  of  a  tree  would  distill  several  pints  of  water  in  a  single  night ; 
and  he  satisfied  himself,  by  cutting  off  the  branch,  and  so  stopping  the  flow  of  sap,  that 
this  water  was  not  derived  from  the  juices  of  the  tree.  But  in  this  case  the  atmosphere 
was  surcharged  with  moisture ;  while  in  the  Kalahari  it  was  so  dry  that  the  best 
hygrometrie  tests  at  his  disposal  failed  to  detect  moisture  in  the  air.  A  needle  exposed 
for  months  in  the  open  air  did  not  rust ;  there  was  no  dew  on  the  ground,  and  a  mix- 
ture of  sulphuric  acid  and  water  parted  with  all  its  water  to  the  air,  instead  of  imbib- 
ing more  from  it,  as  it  usually  does.  We  know  of  no  facts  to  confirm  Livingstone's 
theory  of  this  insect  manufacture  of  water.  Our  theory  is  that  the  ants  went  down 
far  enough  to  find  water  in  the  soil.  Paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  the  extraordinary 
heat — 132°  to  134°  at  a  depth  of  three  inches — and  the  absolute  dryness  of  the  air, 
would  diminish  the  distance  before  moisture  was  reached  ;  for  the  surface  would  soon 
be  baked  so  as  to  be  as  hard  as  sandstone,  thus  precluding  evaporation  from  any  con- 
siderable depth,  by  forming  a  solid  crust  through  which  no  water  could  escape.  He 
dug  wells  deep  into  the  bed  of  the  dried-up  river  near  by,  but  found  no  water.  We 
imagine  that  if  he  had  followed  Solomon's  injunction  to  "  go  to  the  ant  and  be  wise," 
and  dug  down  close  by  one  of  their  habitations,  he  would  have  come  to  moist  sand 
at  no  great  depth;  and  this  moisture  would,  by  natural  laws,  have  flowed  into  his 
well. 

The  human  inhabitants  of  this  wide  African  semi-desert  are  of  very  varied  character. 
A  large  portion  of  them,  Caffres,  Bechuanas,  and  the  like,  belong  to  the  lowest  grade 
of  humanity,  perhaps  a  little  above  the  aborigines  of  Australia,  and  some  tribes  in 
Borneo,  which,  could  we  admit  of  any  connecting  link  between  men  and  monkeys,  we 
would  designate  as  semi-human.  There  are  other  tribes,  such  as  the  Balakahari,  which 
rise  far  higher  in  the  scale  of  being  ;  and  are,  we  judge,  quite  susceptible  of  civiliza- 
tion. They  have  garden  patches  which  they  cultivate  with  great  care,  and  rear  small 
herds  of  goats,  although  they  are  often  in  the  dry  season  obliged  to  dip  up  for  them 
water  absolutely  in  spoonfuls.  They  are  also  keen  traders  in  their  small  way,  barter- 
ing the  skins  of  animals  for  spears,  knives,  tobacco,  and  dogs.  These  tribes  merge 
almost  imperceptibly  into  the  Makalaka  and  Mak^lolo,  whom  Livingstone  found  in 
the  more  favorable  region  to  the  North,  around  Lake  Ngami. 

There  is  also  in  Africa  another  vast  region  which  belongs  apparently  to  the  savannas 
rather  than  to  what  we  consider  the  proper  tropical  regions.  For  want  of  a  better 
term  we  may  designate  it  as  the  "  Lake  Region,"  for  in  it  lie  great  lakes,  inferior  only 
to  those  of  North  America,  whose  very  existence  was  until  within  a  few  years  unknown 
to  the  civilized  world.  Geographically  it  is  purely  equatorial,  for  it  lies  within  five 
degrees  of  the  equator  on  either  side  ;  and  its  elevation  is  not  such  as  of  itself  suffi- 
cient to  greatly  modify  its  climate ;  but  other  circumstances  give  it  an  aspect  wholly 
unexpected.  In  general  it  may  be  described  as  a  plateau  of  3,000  to  4,000  feet 
above  the  ocean,  with  little  outcropping  hills  of  granite,  and  many  fertilizing  springs 


THE   LAKE   REGION   OF   AFRICA.  507 

in  the  valleys.  This  region  has  been,  if  we  may  use  the  term,  only  pricked  into  by 
travelers.  Burton  just  touched  upon  its  borders,  Livingstone,  in  his  second  expe- 
dition, did  the  same,  and  it  is  here  that  he  has  been  for  five  years  lost  to  the  civilized 
world,  save  for  vague  and  sometimes  contradictory  accounts  that  have  reached  us.  If 
the  most  recent  reports  are  to  be  trusted,  there  is  good  reason  to  hope  that  he  will  yet 
return,  and  then  we  shall  learn  something  of  this  as  yet  almost  unknown  region.  As 
yet  Speke  and  Banning  are  the  only  ones  who  have  brought  back  any  thing  like  an 
account  of  this  vast  region,  and  their  journey  of  1,500  miles,  although  it  occupied 
nearly  thirty  months,  from  Zanzibar  on  the  Indian  Ocean  to  Khartoum,  where  the  two 
main  branches  of  the  Nile  unite,  at  a  distance  of  1,500  miles  from  the  great  river  of 
Egypt,  was  almost  on  a  single  line.  Speke  died  in  the  belief  that  he  had  solved  the 
mystery  of  the  Nile,  by  the  discovery  of  the  origin  of  its  main  branch  in  Lake  Victoria 
N'yanza,  hardly  a  mile  from  the  equator ;  but  the  subsequent  explorations  of  Baker 
render  it  almost  certain  that  Speke  discovered  only  one,  and  that  by  no  means  the 
largest  of  the  sources  of  the  river,  which,  as  far  as  we  know,  is  the  sole  outlet  of  the 
waters  of  a  region  larger  than  that  drained  by  St.  Lawrence. 

From  all  that  we  now  know,  this  great  region  is  one  admirably  adapted  for  the  abode 
of  civilized  man.  Here  and  there  in  Speke's  Journal  occur  passages  like  the  following  : 
"  The  hill-sides  and  tops  are  well  covered  with  bush  and  small  trees,  among  which  the 
bamboo  is  most  conspicuous,  while  the  bottoms,  having  a  soil  still  richer  and  deeper, 
produce  fine  large  fig-trees  of  exceeding  beauty,  the  huge  calabash,  and  a  variety  of 
other  trees."  Again  :  "  Our  day's  march  has  been  novel  and  very  amusing.  The 
hilly  country  surrounding  us  brought  back  to  recollection  many  happy  days  which  I 
had  once  spent  with  the  Tartars  in  the  Thibetan  Valley  of  the  Indus ;  only  this  was 
more  picturesque ;  for  though  both  countries  are  wild  and  thinly  inhabited,  this  was 
greened  over  with  grass,  and  dotted  here  and  there  on  the  higher  slopes  with  thick 
bushes  of  acacias,  the  haunts  of  the  rhinoceros,  both  white  and  black  ;  while  in  the 
flat  of  the  valleys  herds  of  hartebeest  and  fine  cattle  roamed  about  like  the  kiyang 
and  tame  yak  of  Thibet."  Again  :  "  We  descended  into  the  close  valley  of  the 
Uthenga,  bound  in  by  steep  hills  hanging  over  us  more  than  a  thousand  feet  high, 
as  prettily  clothed  as  the  mountains  of  Scotland ;  while  in  the  valley  there  were 
not  only  magnificent  trees  of  extraordinary  hight,  but  also  a  surprising  amount  of 
the  richest  cultivation,  among  which  the  banana  may  be  said  to  prevail."  At  Kara- 
gue,  on  Lake  N'yanza,  5,100  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean,  Speke  kept  a 
record  of  the  thermometer  for  six  months,  from  November  to  April.  The  lowest 
point  was  65°,  in  April,  the  highest  70°,  in  November,  for  the  mean  temperature 
of  a  day.  The  highest  absolute  point  at  any  hour  of  the  day  was  85°.  As,  strictly 
speaking,  there  is  no  summer  and  winter  at  the  equator,  one  six  months  of  the  year 
will  be  the  same  as  the  other ;  the  mean  temperature  of  the  whole  year  is  put  down 
at  68°. 

Here  and  there  Speke  came  upon  an  isolated  tribe  living  in  almost  pastoral  quiet- 
ness ;  but  they  were  under  perpetual  apprehensions  of  attacks  from  their  fierce  neigh- 
bors ;  for,  as  a  general  rule,  the  life  of  these  tribes  is  one  of  perpetual  war.  The 
main  object  of  predatory  inroads  is  to  procure  slaves.  These  slaves  are  bartered  from 
tribe  to  tribe,  the  survivors  ultimately  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Portuguese  slave- 
traders  on  the  coast. 


508  THE   TROPICAL   WOULD. 

From  the  savannas  and  semi-deserts  of  the  Tropical  World,  we  now  turn  to  the 
great  deserts  themselves,  which  constitute  a  striking  feature  in  that  portion  of  the 
globe  which  is  now  under  review.  A  desert,  in  the  strict  sense  in  which  we  use  the 
term,  is  an  extensive  region  wherein  there  is  no  regular  rainfall,  and  in  which,  more- 
over, there  exists  no  other  means  of  irrigation.  It  is  a  land  doomed  to  irremediable 
sterility ;  for,  as  we  have  again  and  again  pointed  out,  water  is  the  great  requisite  to 
life.  We  have  taken  Southern  Africa,  and  even  the  Kalahari,  out  of  the  category  of 
deserts,  because  during  a  part  of  the  year  rain  falls  there,  and  therefore  vegetable  life, 
and  by  consequence,  animal  life,  may  exist,  and  often  does  exist  in  great  profusion. 
The  Valley  of  the  Nile,  including  all  Egypt,  is  rainless,  and  would  be  a  desert,  were  it 
not  that  the  lower  course  of  the  river,  supplied  from  rainy  regions,  overflows  its  banks, 
and  for  the  rest  of  the  year  it  is  irrigated  by  waters  raised  by  human  labor  from  the 
aboundinfy  river.  Egypt  is  the  "  gift  of  the  Nile,"  and  is  redeemed  from  barrenness 
by  being,  as  described  by  the  great  Hebrew  lawgiver,  a  land  "watered  by  the  foot." 

In  America  the  only  great  tropical  desert  is  that  of  Atacama,  the  "  sand-coast  of 
Peru."  It  is  a  long,  narrow  strip  of  land  lying  between  the  parallels  of  3°  and  21° 
south  latitude,  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Cor- 
dilleras. Its  length  is  1,600  miles,  its  breadth  from  15  to  60  miles.  It  is  traversed 
by  spurs  from  the  mighty  mountain  range,  which  sometimes  sink  into  the  level  of  the 
plain,  and  sometimes  jut  out  in  steep  promontories  into  the  ocean.  Here  and  there, 
at  wide  intervals,  a  brook  fed  from  the  snowy  Andes,  makes  a  brief  course  across  the 
narrow  plain,  forming  a  narrow  strip  of  verdure  only  sufficient  to  break  the  general 
monotony.  The  few  inhabitants  carefully  husband  the  last  drop  of  water  from  these 
scanty  streams  to  irrigate  their  arid  fields.  Here  the  mule  takes  the  place  of  the  Afri- 
can camel  as  the  "  ship  of  the  desert."  The  horse  can  not  support  thirst  for  more 
than  forty-eight  hours  without  becoming  so  weak  as  to  be  scarcely  able  to  carry  its 
rider ;  yet  if  urged  by  his  master  he  will  stagger  on  until  he  falls  dead  in  his  tracks. 
The  mule,  more  obstinate,  as  we  say,  but  in  fact  more  wise,  when  he  feels  himself 
verging  upon  the  limits  of  endurance,  stops  short,  and  no  urgency  of  whip  or  spur 
will  force  him  to  move,  until  he  has  rested.  Yet  notwithstanding  the  great  power  of 
endurance  of  the  mules,  many  of  them  succumb  to  the  fatigue  of  the  journey,  and  the 
roads  across  the  Atacama  are  marked  by  their  skulls  and  bones,  as  the  caravan  routes 
across  Sahara  are  whitened  by  the  skeletons  of  camels. 

Perhaps  the  most  absolute  desert  tract  on  the  faoe  of  the  globe  is  that  which  occu- 
pies the  interior  of  the  great  island,  or,  as  it  may  not  improperly  be  styled,  continent, 
of  Australia.  The  island  has  an  area  of  something  more  than  three  millions  of  square 
miles,  nearly  equal  in  extent  to  Europe.  For  a  great  part  of  its  circumference  it  is 
bounded  by  a  continuous  range  of  mountains  or  highlands,  nowhere  rising  to  a  great 
bight,  and  for  long  distances  consisting  of  plateaus  or  table-lands.  There  is,  however, 
a  continuous  range  of -water-shed,  which  is  never  broken  through,  and  which  never 
recedes  to  any  great  distance  from  the  coast.  The  habitable  portions  of  Australia  are 
limited  to  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  and  the  narrow  space  between  them  and  the 
coast,  in  all  not  exceeding  a  width  of  three  hundred  miles.  The  interior,  as  far  as  is 
known,  or  as  can  be  inferred  from  physical  geography,  is  an  immense  depressed  plain, 
more  hopelessly  barren  and  uninhabitable  than  the  great  desert  of  Sahara. 


THE   GREAT   AUSTRALIAN   DESERT.  509 

The  interior  of  this  desert  has  probably  never  been  traversed  by  the  foot  of  man  or 
beast;  and  only  three  or  four  exploring  expeditions  have  penetrated  far  into  its  depths, 
In  1844  Sturt  made  his  way  some  four  hundred  miles  beyond  the  habitable  ret^ions,' 
which  brought  him  near  the  geographical  center  of  the  island..  This  space  he  found 
to  be  occupied  by  an  immense  plain  covered  with  ridges  of  drifting  sand,  often  risinrr 
to  a  hight  of  eighty  or  a  hundred  feet,  and  stretching  away  in  either  direction  beyond 
the  range  of  vision.  Here  and  there  grew  a  few  solitary  tufts  of  grass,  nourished  by 
infrequent  showers.  Permanent  water  there  was  none,  and  the  sand  was  heated  to 
such  a  degree  that  a  match  dropped  upon  it  became  ignited  at  once.  The  thermometer 
on  one  occasion  rose  to  153°  in  the  coolest  place  to  be  found.  In  the  midst  of  this 
sterile  tract  was  a  desert  of  still  deeper  gloom,  which  was  traced  for  a  distance  of 
eighty  miles  in  one  direction,  and  thirty-five  in  another.  Its  surface  was  paved  by  a 
solid  bed  of  dark  iron-stone,  upon  which  the  horses'  hoofs  rung  as  upon  a  metallic 
floor,  without  making  the  slightest  indentation.  There  was  not  a  trace  of  water  or 
vegetation.  Leichardt,  a  German  naturalist,  succeeded  in  penetrating  from  the  settle- 
ments on  the  eastern  coast,  through  the  unexplored  interior  of  the  island,  to  its  northern 
side.  But  his  course  led  him  only  along  the  skirts  of  the  great  desert ;  yet  even  here 
he  was  more  than  once  saved  from  perishing  by  following  the  flight  of  a  bird  wino-ino- 
its  way  to  some  solitary  sink  or  water-hole.  In  1846  he  set  out  on  a  new  journey, 
intending  to  pass  from  the  east  through  the  desert  to  the  colony  on  the  western  shore. 
This  journey  was  expected  to  occupy  two  and  a  half  years.  Eighteen  months  after  he 
set  out,  a  letter  was  received  from  him  written  on  the  extreme  verge  of  habitation. 
After  that  he  disappeared,  and  it  was  not  until  years  after  that  it  was  discovered  that 
he  had  been  murdered  by  his  native  guides. 

When  it  was  ascertained  that  no  rivers  from  the  interior  reached  the  sea-coast,  while 
considerable  streams  poured  from  the  hills  towards  the  interior,  it  was  supposed  that 
there  must  be  a  great  central  lake.  Sturt  followed  the  Victoria,  the  most  consider- 
able of  these  rivers,  which  poured  a  considerable  current  into  the  interior;  but  the 
farther  he  followed  it  the  less  became  the  stream,  which  at  length  dwindled  into  a 
succession  of  water-holes,  and  was  finally  lost  among  the  barren  sands.  It  is  probable 
that  the  same  is  the  case  with  all  the  streams  running  into  the  interior ;  and  that  all 
their  water  is  exhausted  by  evaporation  long  before  the  center  of  the  island  is  reached. 

But  the  great  desert  of  the  Tropical  "World  is  the  African  Sahara,  occupying  the 
central  portion  of  the  northern  half  of  the  continent  from  the  latitude  17°  to  that  of 
29°,  although  in  many  parts  fruitful  districts  penetrate  its  bounds  like  peninsulas 
jutting  into  the  sea.  No  European  traveler  has  followed  its  southern  limits  from  east 
to  west;  and  of  its  interior  little  is  known,  except  along  the  caravan  routes  traced 
across  it  for  centuries.  One  scarcely  strikes  the  northern  border  of  the  Sahara  before 
he  finds  himself  in  a  region  beset  with  perils. 

The  first  portion,  after  leaving  Tripoli,  following  the  caravan  route,  known  as  the 
Hamada,  is  an  elevated  plateau,  six  days'  journey  wide,  barren  and  stony,  except 
here  and  there  where  there  is  a  patch  of  verdure  upon  which  the  patient  camel  browses 
with  delight.  Here  is  found  a  little  bird  galled  the  asfir,  which  lives  wholly  upon  the 
vermin  which  it  picks  from  the  feet  of  the  camels.  Then  comes  a  broad,  sandy,  tree- 
less plain,  crossed  by  shifting  sand-ridges  so  steep  that  the  traveler  is  often  obliged  to 


510  THE   TROPICAL  WORLD. 

flatten  them  down  in  order  to  enable  his  camels  to  proceed.  Upon  the  verge  of  this 
stands  Murzuk,  the  capital  of  Fezzan,  a  clay-built  town  in  a  sand-pit,  shut  in  on  all 
sides  by  barren  ridges.  Near  by,  in  an  occasional  favored  spot,  grow  a  few  pome- 
granates, figs,  and  peaches.  Onions  are  the  principal  vegetables,  and  the  only  milk 
to  be  obtained  is  a  little  furnished  by  goats.  Yet  the  traveler  into  the  desert  will  look 
back  to  it  almost  as  to  a  paradise. 

Barth  came  near  losing  his  life  almost  on  the  edge  of  the  desert.  Taking  with  him 
only  a  few  dry  biscuits  and  dates,  he  left  his  caravan  one  day  alone  to  ascend  a  steep 
hill,  the  summit  of  which  the  natives  supposed  to  be  inhabited  by  demons.  The 
mountain  seemed  to  recede  before  him  as  he  advanced ;  but  before  noon  he  gained  the 
summit.  The  fierce  desert  sun  glared  down,  and  the  broad,  sandy  waste  lay  spread 
out  before  him.  Looking  around,  he  could  discern  no  trace  of  the  caravan.  He  dared 
only  sip  a  few  drops  of  his  small  stock  of  water,  and  could  only  swallow  a  morsel  of 
his  dry  biscuit.  He  then  plunged  wildly  down  the  mountain  side  in  the  supposed 
direction  of  the  caravan.  Parched  with  intolerable  thirst,  he  swallowed  all  his  water 
at  a  draught ;  but  the  relief  was  only  momentary.  He  grew  bewildered,  and  lost  his 
course.  Again  and  again  he  fired  his  pistols,  listening  eagerly  for  an  answering  shot; 
but  the  stillness  of  the  desert  was  unbroken.  Day  began  to  decline,  and  he  threw 
himself  in  despair  upon  the  hot  sand.  Once  he  thought  he  caught  a  glimpse  of  the 
long  line  of  the  caravan,  but  it  was  only  an  illusion  of  the  imagination.  There  were  a 
few  trees  around,  but  he  had  not  strength  to  light  a  fire,  which  might  have  served  as 
a  signal  to  his  friends.  He  was  utterly  broken  down  and  exhausted.  Darkness  fell 
around,  and  then  he  saw  far  across  the  plain  the  light  of  a  fire.  It  must  mark  the 
encampment  of  his  comrades.  He  fired  his  pistols,  but  received  no  reply.  The  dis- 
tance was  too  great  for  the  sound  to  traverse.  Still  the  steady  fire  gleamed,  marking 
the  position  of  the  friends  whom  he  might  never  again  behold.  The  long,  sleepless 
night  wore  away,  and  the  sun  rose  hotter  and  hotter  in  the  east.  He  had  barely 
strength  to  move  so  as  to  keep  his  head  within  the  scanty  shade  of  the  leafless  tree 
under  which  he  lay.  The  torments  of  thirst  became  unendurable.  He  bit  his  arm, 
and  sucked  the  blood  which  flowed  from  the  wound.  Then  he  fell  into  a  delirious 
trance,  from  which  he  did  not  awake  till  the  sun  had  sunk  behind  the  hills.  As  he 
cast  a  despairing  look  through  the  gathering  gloom  over  the  pitiless  waste,  he  heard 
the  cry  of  a  camel.  No  music  ever  sounded  so  sweetly.  Raising  himself  a  little,  he 
saw,  not  far  oflf,  a  man  mounted  on  a  camel,  looking  eagerly  around.  It  was  one  of 
his  escort,  who  had  come  upon  his  tracks  in  the  sand,  and  was  following  upon  his 
trace.  Barth  cried  out  feebly  for  water.  The  man  heard  him,  and,  after  bathing  his 
head,  gave  him  a  draught.  So  swollen  was  his  throat  that  he  could  hardly  swallow. 
He  was  then  put  upon  the  camel  and  borne  to  the  caravan.  The  natives  scarcely 
believed  that  he  could  be  alive ;  for  they  say  that  no  man  can  live  in  the  desert  with- 
out water  for  more  than  twelve  hours.  Save  with  his  own  blood,  Barth  had  not 
moistened  his  parched  lips  for  eight-and-twenty  hours. 

Until  within  the  last  years,  the  Sahara  was  supposed  to  be  a  low  plain,  partly  situ- 
ated even  below  the  level  of  the  ocean ;  but  the  journeys  of  Barth,  Overweg,  and 
Vogel,  have  proved  it,  on  the  contrary,  to  be  a  high  table-land,  rising  LOGO  or  2,000 
feet  above  the  sea.  Nor  is  it  the  uniform  sand-plain  which  former  descriptions  led 
one  to  imagine ;  for  it  is  frequently  traversed  by  chains  of  hills,  as   desolate  and  wild 


THE   DESERT    OF    SAHARA.  511 

as  the  expanse  from  which  they  emerge.  But  the  plains  also  have  a  different  char- 
acter in  various  parts :  sometimes  over  a  vast  extent  of  country  the  ground  is  strewed 
with  hlocks  of  stone  or  small  boulders,  no  less  fatiguing  to  the  traveler  than  the  loose 
drift  sand,  which,  particularly  in  its  western  part  (most  likely  in  consequence  of  the 
prevailing  east  winds),  covers  the  dreary  waste  of  the  Sahara.  Often  also  the  plain 
is  rent  by  deep  chasms,  or  hollowed  into  vast  basins.  In  the  former,  particularly  on 
the  northern  limits  of  the  desert,  the  rain  descending  from  the  gulleys  of  the  Atlas, 
sometimes  forms  streams,  which  are  soon  swallowed  up  by  the  thirsty  sands,  or  dried 
by  the  burning  sunbeams. 

The  deeper  basins  of  the  Sahara  are  frequently  of  great  extent,  and  sometimes  con- 
tain valuable  deposits  of  salt.  Wherever  perennial  springs  rise  from  the  earth,  or 
wherever  it  has  been  possible  to  collect  water  in  artificial  wells,  green  oases,  often 
many  days'  journey  apart  from  each  other,  break  the  monotony  of  the  desert.  They 
might  be  compared  with  the  charming  islands  that  stud  the  vast  solitudes  of  the  South 
Sea ;  but  they  do  not  appear,  like  them,  as  elevations  over  surrounding  plains  of  sea, 
but  as  depressions,  where  animals  and  plants  find  a  sufficient  supply  of  water,  and  a 
protection,  not  less  necessary,  against  the  terrific  blasts  of  the  desert. 

A  wonderful  luxuriance  of  vegetation  characterizes  these  oases  of  the  wilderness. 
Under  and  between  the  date-palms,  that  are  planted  about  six  paces  apart,  grow  apricot 
and  peach  trees,  pomegranates  and  oranges,  the  henneh,  so  indispensable  to  oriental 
beauty ;  and  even  the  apple-tree,  the  pride  of  European  orchards.  The  vine  twines 
from  one  date-palm  to  another,  and  every  spot  susceptible  of  culture  bears  grain,  par- 
ticularly dourrah  or  barley,  and  also  clover  and  tobacco.  With  prudent  economy  the 
villages  are  built  on  the  borders  of  the  oases  on  the  unfruitful  soil,  so  that  not  a  foot 
of  ground  susceptible  of  culture  may  be  lost. 

The  vast  tracts  of  sterile  sand,  where  not  even  the  smallest  plants  take  root,  and 
which  might  be  called  the  "desert  of  the  desert,"  present  the  greatest  conceivable 
contrast  to  its  green  oases.  With  the  vegetable  world  the  animal  kingdom  likewise 
disappears,  and  for  days  the  traveler  pursues  his  journey  without  meeting  with  a  single 
quadruped,  bird,  or  insect.  Nowhere  are  the  transitions  of  light  and  shade  more  ab- 
rupt than  in  the  desert,  for  nowhere  is  the  atmosphere  more  thoroughly  free  of  all 
vapors.  The  sun  pours  a  dazzling  light  on  the  ground,  so  that  every  object  stands 
forth  with  wonderful  clearness,  while  all  that  remains  in  the  shade  is  sharply  defined, 
and  appears  like  a  dark  spot  in  the  surrounding  glare. 

The  stillness  of  these  wastes  is  sometimes  awfully  interrupted  by  the  loud  voice  of 
the  khamsin  or  simoom.  The  crystal  transparency  of  the  sky  is  veiled  with  a  hazy  dim- 
ness. The  wind  rises  and  blows  in  intermittent  gusts,  like  the  laborious  breathing  of 
a  feverish  patient.  Gradually  the  convulsions  of  the  storm  grow  more  violent  and 
frequent ;  and  although  the  sun  is  unable  to  pierce  the  thick  dust-clouds,  and  the 
shadow  of  the  traveler  is  scarcely  visible  on  the  ground,  yet  so  suffocating  is  the  heat, 
that  it  seems  to  him  as  if  the  fiercest  rays  of  the  sun  were  scorching  his  brain.  The  dun 
atmosphere  gradually  changes  to  a  leaden  blackness  ;  the  wind  becomes  constant ;  and 
even  the  camels  stretch  themselves  ,upon  the  ground  and  turn  their  backs  to  the  whirl- 
ing sand-storm.  At  night  the  darkness  is  complete  ;  no  light  or  fire  burns  in  the  tents, 
which  are  hardly  able  to  resist  the  gusts  of  the  simoom.  Silence  reigns  throughout 
the  whole  caravan,  yet  no  one  sleeps  ;  the  bark  of  the  jackal  or  the  howl  of  the  hyena 


512  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

alone  sounds  dismally  from  time  to  time  through  the  loud  roaring  of  the  storm.  The 
sultry  breath  of  the  desert  is  felt  far  beyond  its  bounds.  It  blows  over  Italy,  where 
it  is  known  as  the  sirocco,  and  crosses  even  the  Alps,  where,  under  the  name  of  the 
Fonwind,  it  rapidly  melts  the  snow  of  the  higher  valleys,  and  causes  dangerous  inun- 
dations. The  dust  of  the  desert,  whirled  high  into  the  air,  frequently  falls  upon  the 
decks  of  vessels  crossing  the  Atlantic,  far  from  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  flies  in  clouds 
over  the  Red  Sea  —  a  greeting  from  Nubia  to  Arabia. 

When  we  consider  the  scanty  vegetation  of  the  Sahara,  we  can  not  wonder  that 
animal  life  is  but  sparingly  scattered  over  it.  The  lion,  whom  our  poets  so  frequently 
name  the  "  king  of  the  desert,"  only  shows  himself  on  its  borders;  and  on  asking  the 
nomades  of  the  interior  whether  it  is  ever  seen  in  their  parts,  they  gravely  answer  that 
in  Europe  lions  may  perhaps  feed  on  shrubs  or  drink  the  air,  but  that  in  Africa  they 
cannot  exist  without  flesh  and  water,  and  therefore  avoid  the  sandy  desert.  In  fact, 
they  never  leave  the  wooded  mountains  of  the  Atlas,  or  the  fruitful  plains  of  the  Sou- 
dan, to  wander  far  away  into  the  Sahara,  where  snakes  and  scorpions  are  the  only 
dangerous  animals  to  be  met  with.  The  snakes,  which  belong  to  the  genus  Cerastes, 
which  is  distinguished  by  two  small  horns  upon  the  head,  have  a  deadly  bite,  and  are 
remarkable  for  their  almost  total  abstinence  from  water.  When  a  caravan,  on  first 
entering  the  desert,  meets  with  one  of  these  venomous  reptiles,  it  is  not  killed,  "for 
it  is  of  good  omen  to  leave  evil  behind ; "  but  farther  on  the  snakes  are  mercilessly 
destroyed  wherever  they  are  seen.  Among  the  animals  which  inhabit  those  parts  of 
the  desert  which  are  covered  with  prickly  shrubs,  we  find  hares  and  rabbits,  hyenas 
and  jackals,  the  hedgehog  and  the  porcupine,  ^veral  lizards  inhabit  the  desert; 
among  others,  a  large  gray  monitor,  and  a  small  white  skink,  with  very  short  legs, 
called  zelgague  by  the  Arabs.  Its  movements  are  so  rapid  that  it  seems  to  swim  on 
the  sand  like  a  fish  in  the  water,  and  when  one  fancies  he  has  caught  it,  it  suddenly 
dives  under  the  surface.  Its  traces,  however,  betray  its  retreat,  and  it  is  easily  ex- 
tracted from  its  hole,  —  a  trouble  which,  in  spite  of  the  meagre  booty,  is  not  consid- 
ered too  great  when  provisions  are  scarce. 

The  ostrich,  which  is  proverbially  said  to  drink  only  every  five  days  when  there  is 
water,  and  to  be  able  to  endure  thirst  for  a  much  longer  period  when  there  is  none,  and 
the  gazelle,  which  even  the  greyhound  finds  it  difficult  to  catch,  venture  deeper  into  the 
desert.  The  chase  of  the  gazelle  is  a  favorite  amusement  of  the  Saharians.  On  see- 
ing a  herd  at  a  distance  they  approach  as  cautiously  as  possible  ;  and  when  about  a  mile 
distant,  they  unleash  their  greyhounds,  who  dart  off"  with  the  rapidity  of  arrows,  and 
are  excited,  by  loud  cries,  to  their  utmost  speed.  Yet  they  only  reach  the  flying  herd 
after  a  long  chase  ;  and  now  the  scene  acquires  the  interest  of  a  drama.  The  best 
greyhound  selects  the  finest  gazelle  for  his  prey,  which  uses  all  its  cunning  to  avoid  its 
pursuer,  springing  to  the  right,  to  the  left,  now  forwards,  then  backwards,  sometimes 
even  right  over  the  greyhound's  head ;  but  all  these  zigzag  evolutions  fail  to  save  it 
from  its  indefatigable  enemy.  When  seized  it  utters  a  piteous  scream,  the  signal  of 
the  greyhound's  triumph,  who  kills  it  with  one  bite  in  the  neck. 

According  to  the  seasons  animal  life  fluctuates  in  the  Sahara  from  north  to  south. 
In  winter  and  spring,  when  heavy  rains,  falling  on  its  northern  borders,  provide  wide 
districts,  thoroughly  parched  by  the  summer  heat,  with  the  water  and  pasturage  needed 
for  the  herds,  the  nomadic  tribes  wander  farther  into  the  desert  with  their  camels,  horses, 


THE   DESERT   OF    SAHARA.  Oi:j 

slieep,  and  goats,  and  retreat  again  to  the  coast  lands  as  tlie  sun  gains  power.  At  tliis 
time  of  the  year  the  wild  animals — the  lion,  the  gazelle,  and  the  antelope — also  wan- 
der farther  to  the  south,  which  at  that  time  provides  them,  each  according  to  its  taste, 
with  the  nourishment  which  the  dry  summer  is  unable  to  bestow ;  while  the  ostrich, 
who  during  the  summer  ranged  farther  to  the  north,  then  retreats  to  the  soutli  ;  for  hot 
and  sandy  plains  are  the  paradise  in  which  this  singular  bird  delights  to  roam. 

In  the  southern  part  of  the  Sahara  the  tropical  rains,  whose  limits  extend  to  19° 
north  latitude,  and  in  some  parts  still  farther  to  the  north,  produce  similar  periodical 
changes  in  the  character  of  the  desert.  Under  their  influence  the  sandy  plains  are 
soon  covered  with  grasses  and  shrubs.  In  the  dry  season,  on  the  contrary,  the  green 
carpet  disappears,  and  the  country  then  changes  into  an  arid  waste,  covered  with  stubbles 
and  tufts  of  mimosas.  This  beneficial  change,  however,  does  not  take  place  every 
year ;  for  the  tropical  rains  frequently  fail  to  appear  on  their  northern  boundaries,  and 
thus  disappoint  the  hopes  of  the  thirsty  desert. 


514 


THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 


I6ARIPE,   OR   CANOE-PATH   ON   THE   AMAZON. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

TROPICAL  FORESTS.— VALLEY  OF  THE  AMAZON. 

Characteristics  of  the  Tropical  Forests— Variety  of  Trees  and  Plants— Aspect  During  the 
Rainy  Season — Beauty  After  the  Rainy  Season — A  Morning  Concert — Repose  at  Noon- 
Awakening  at  Evening — Nocturnal  Voices  of  the  Forest. — The  Amazon:  Course  of  the 
River— Size  of  its  Basin— The  Tide  at  its  Mouth— Rising  of  the  River— Igaripes,  or  Canoe- 
Paths— Inundations  of  the  Amazon— Vast  Variety  of  its  Vegetation— Fishes— Agassiz's 
Specimens— AHigators  and  Turtles— Turtle-Hunting— Insects— Ants— Butterflies— Spiders 
—Lizards— Frogs  and  Toads— Snakes— Paucity  of  Mammalia- The  Jaguar— Scantiness 
of  Human  Population— Indian  Tribes— Mundurcu  Tattooing — Travelers'  Accounts  of  tlie 
Tribes— Men  with  Tails— Orton's  Summary  of  their  Character— His  Own  Experience 
Favorable— He  finds  them  Honest  and  Peaceable— Agassiz's  Notices  of  the  Indians— Their 
Familiarity  with  Animals  and  Plants— Whites— Negroes— Mixed  Breeds — Agassiz  and 
Orton  on  the  Capacity  of  Amazonia. 

HAVING-  passed  in  review  the  lofty  plateaus,  the  broad  savannas,  and  the 
burning  deserts,  which  form  striking  though  exceptional  features  of  the 
Tropical  World,  we.  proceed  to  the  forests,  which  constitute  the  most  distinctive 
feature  of  the  regions  which  lie  bordering  the  equator.  Reserving  for  a  separate  chap- 
ter some  of  the  most  notable  trees  specially  characteristic  of  the  tropics,  we  propose  to 


ASPECTS   OF   TROPICAL   FORESTS.  515 

take  a  survey  o.  the  general  aspects  of  the  great  forests,  and  especially  of  that  which 
covers,  with  scarcely  an  interruption,  the  valley  of  the  Amazon,  in  whose  almost  unin- 
habited depths  the  whole  habitable  part  of  Europe  might  be  hidden  away. 

The  peculiar  charms  of  the  tropical  primitive  forest  are  enhanced  by  the  mystery  of 
its  impenetrable  thickets;  for  however  lovely  its  lofty  vaults  and  ever-chano-in*'  forms 
of  leaf  or  blossom  may  be,  fancy  paints  scenes  still  more  beautiful  beyond,  where  the 
eye  cannot  penetrate,  and  where,  as  yet,  no  wanderer  has  ever  strayed.  In  the  bound- 
less forests  of  tropical  America,  the  jaguar  sometimes  loses  himself  in  such  impenetrable 
thickets  that,  unable  to  hunt  upon  the  grouad,  he  lives  for  a  lono-  time  on  the  trees,  a 
terror  to  the  monkeys.  Here  the  padres  of  the  mission-stations,  which  are  not  many 
miles  apart  in  a  direct  line,  often  require  more  than  a  day's  navio-ation  to  visit  each 
other,  following  the  windings  of  small  rivulets  in  their  courses,  as  the  forest  renders 
communication  by  land  impossible.  The  matted  bush-ropes,  climbing  along  the  trunks 
and  branches,  extend  like  the  rigging  of  a  ship  from  one  tree  to  another,  and  blossom 
at  such  a  giddy  hight  that  it  is  frequently  as  impossible  to  reach  these  flowers  as  it  is 
to  distinguish  to  which  of  the  many  interlacing  stems  they  may  belong.  Nor  is  it 
possible  to  drag  down  one  of  these  inaccessible  creepers;  for,  owing  to  their  strength 
and  toughness,  it  would  be  easier  to  pull  down  the  tree  to  whicli  it  attaches  itself  than 
to  force  the  liana  from  its  hold.  No  botanist  ever  entered  a  primitive  forest  without 
envying  the  bird  to  whom  no  blossom  is  inaccessible ;  who,  high  above  the  loftiest 
trees,  looks  down  upon  the  sea  of  verdure,  and  enjoys  prospects  whose  beauty  can 
hardly  be  imagined  by  man. 

A  majestic  uniformity  is  the  character  of  our  woods,  which  often  consist  but  of  one 
species  of  tree,  while  in  the  tropical  forests  an  immense  variety  of  families  strive  for 
existence,  and  even  in  a  small  space  one  neighbor  scarcely  ever  resembles  the  other. 
Within  the  space  of  half  a  mile  square,  Agassiz  counted  one  hundred  and  seventeen 
different  kinds  of  wood,  many  of  them  fitted  for  the  finest  cabinet  work.  Even  at  a 
distance  this  difference  becomes  apparent  in  the  irregular  outlines  of  the  forest,  as  hero 
an  airy  dome-shaped  crown,  there  a  pointed  pyramid,  rises  above  the  broad  flat  masses 
of  green,  in  ever  varying  succession.  On  approaching,  the  differences  of  color  are 
added  to  the  irregularities  of  form ;  for  while  our  forests  are  deprived  of  the  ornament 
^of  flowers,  many  tropical  trees  have  large  blossoms,  mixing  in  thick  bunches  with  the 
leaves,  and  oftea  entirely  overpowering  the  verdure  of  the  foliage  by  their  gaudy 
tints.  Thus  splendid  white,  yellow,  or  red  colored  crowns  are  mingled  with  those  of 
darker  or  more  humble  hue.  At  length  when,  on  entering  the  forest,  the  single  leaves 
become  distinguishable,  even  the  last  traces  of  harmony  disappear.  Here  they  are 
delicately  feathered,  there  lobed ;  here  narrow,  there  broad;  here  pointed,  there 
obtuse ;  here  lustrous  and  fleshy,  as  if  in  the  full  luxuriance  of  youth,  there  dark  and 
arid,  as  if  decayed  with  age.  In  many  the  inferior  surface  is  covered  with  hair;  and 
as  the  wind  plays  with  the  foliage,  it  appears  now  silvery,  now  dark  green,  now  of  a 
lively,  now  of  a  melancholy,  hue.  Thus  the  foliage  exhibits  an  endless  variety  of 
form  and  color;  and  where  plants  of  the  same  species  unite  in  a  small  group,  they  are 
mostly  shoots  from  the  roots  of  an  old  stem.  Where  so  many  thousand  forms  of  equal 
pretensions  vie  for  the  possession  of  the  soil,  none  is  able  to  expand  its  crown  or  extend 
its  branches  at  full  liberty.  Hence  there  is  a  universal  tendency  upwards ;  for  it  is 
only  by  overtopping  its  neighbors  that  each  tree  can  hope  to  attain  the  region  of  free- 


510  THE   TROPICAL   AVORLD. 

dora  and  of  ligbt;   and  hence  also  the  crowns  borne   aloft  on  those  high  columnar 
trunks  are  comparatively  small. 

In  the  deep  lowlands  the  forest  assumes  a  severe  and  gloomy  character:  dense 
crowns  of  foliage  form  lofty  vaults  almost  impenetrable  to  the  light  of  day ;  no  under- 
wood thrives  on  the  swampy  ground ;  no  parasite  puts  forth  its  delicate  blossoms 
where  the  mighty  trees  stand  in  interminable  confusion ;  and  only  mushrooms  sprout 
abundantly  from  the  humid  soil.  Nothing  can  equal  the  gloom  of  these  forests  during 
the  rainy  season.  Thick  fogs  obscure  the  damp  and  sultry  air,  and  clouds  of  mos- 
quitoes whirl  about  in  the  mist.  The  trees  drip  with  moisture;  the  flowers  expand 
their  petals  only  during  the  few  dry  hours  of  the  day,  and  every  animal  seeks  shelter 
in  the  thicket.  No  bird ,  no  butterfly  comes  forth ;  the  snorting  of  the  capybaras,  and 
the  monotonous  croaking  of  frogs  and  toads,  are  the  only  sounds  that  break  the  dull 
silence ;  except  when  the  roar  of  the  jaguar,  or  the  bowlings  of  the  stentor-monkey, 
issue  like  notes  of  distress  from  the  depth  of  the  melancholy  woods. 

After  the  wet  season  the  woods  appear  in  their  full  beauty.  Before  the  first 
showers,  the  long  continued  drought  had  withered  their  leaves,  and  dried  up  many 
of  the  more  tender  parasites ;  during  its  continuance  the  torrents  of  rain  despoiled 
them  of  all  ornament;  but  when  the  clouds  disperse  and  the  animals  come  forth 
from  their  retreats  to  stretch  their  stifiened  limbs  in  the  warm  sunshine,  then  also 
the  vegetable  world  awakens  to  new  life ;  and  where,  a  few  days  before,  the  eye 
met  only  with  green  in  every  variety  of  shade,  it  now  revels  in  the  luxuriance  of 
beautiful  flowers,  which  embalm  the  air  with  exquisite  fragrance.  These  fairy 
bowers  are  enlivened  by  birds  of  splendid  plumage,  particularly  in  the  early 
morning,  when  the  luscious  green  of  the  high  palm-fronds  or  the  burning  yellow 
of  the  lofty  leopoldinias,  touched  by  the  first  rays  of  the  sun,  suddenly  shines  forth. 
Then  hundreds  of  gaudy  parrots  fly  across  the  river ;  numberless  colibris  dart  like 
winged  gems  through  the  air ;  whole  herds  of  cotingas  flutter  among  the  blossoms  ; 
ducks  of  brilliant  plumage  cackle  on  the  branches  of  submerged  trees ;  on  the  highest 
tree-tops  the  toucan  yelps  his  loud  pia-po-ko  !  while,  peeping  from  his  nest,  the  oriole 
endeavors  to  imitate  the  sound ;  and  the  scarlet  ibis  flies  in  troops  to  the  coast,  while 
the  white  egrette  flutters  along  before  the  boat,  rests,  and  then  again  rises  for  a  new 
career. 

In  general  the  morning  hours  are  loudest  in  the  primitive  forest ;  for  the  animals 
that  delight  in  daylight,  though  not  more  numerous  than  the  nocturnal  species,  have 
generally  a  louder  voice.  Their  full  concert,  however,  does  not  begin  immediately 
after  sunrise ;  for  they  are  mostly  so  chilled  by  the  colder  night,  that  they  need  to  be 
warmed  for  some  time  before  awakening  to  the  complete  use  of  their  faculties.  First, 
single  tones  ring  from  the  high  tree-crown,  and  gradually  thousands  of  voices  join  in 
various  modulation, — now  approaching,  now  melting  into  distance.  Pre-eminent  in 
loudness  is  the  roar  of  the  howling  monkeys,  though  without  being  able  fully  to  stifle 
the  discordant  cries  and  chattering  of  the  noisy  parrots.  But  the  sun  rapidly  ascends 
towards  the  zenith,  and  one  musician  after  the  other  grows  mute  and  seeks  the  cool 
forest  shade,  until  finally  the  whole  morning  concert  ceases  to  be  heard. 

As  the  heat  grows  more  intense,  the  stillness  of  the  forest  is  only  interrupted  at  in- 
tervals by  single  animal  voices.  The  deepest  silence  reigns  at  nogn,  when  the  sun 
becomes  too  powerful  even  for  the  children  of  the  torrid  zone ;  and  many  creatures, 


thp:  valley  of  the  amazon.  517 

particularly  birds,  sink  into  a  profound  sleep.  Then  all  the  warm-blooded  animals 
seek  the  shade,  and  only  the  cold  reptiles, — alligators,  lizards,  salamanders, — stretch 
themselves  upon  the  glowing  rocks  in  the  bed  of  the  forest-streams,  or  on  sunny  slopes, 
and,  with  raised  head  and  distended  jaws,  seem  to  inhale  with  delight  the  sultry  air. 

As  evening  approaches,  the  noise  of  the  morning  begins  to  reawaken.  With  loud 
cries  the  parrots  return  from  their  distant  feeding-grounds  to  the  trees  on  which  they 
are  accustomed  to  rest  at  night ;  and,  as  the  monkeys  saluted  the  rising  sun,  so  chat- 
tering or  howling,  they  watch  him  sinking  in  the  west.  With  twilight  a  new  world 
of  animals, — which,  as  long  as  the  day  lasted,  remained  concealed  in  the  recesses  of 
the  forest, — awakens  from  its  mid-day  torpor,  and  prepares  to  enjoy  its  nightly  revels. 
Then  bats  of  hideous  size  wing  their  noiseless  flight  through  the  wood,  chasino-  the 
giant  hawk-moths  and  beetles,  which  have  also  waited  for  the  evening  hour,  while  the 
felidae  quit  their  lairs,  ready  to  spring  on  the  red  stag  near  some  solitary  pool,  or  on 
the  unwieldy  tapir,  who,  having  slept  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  seeks,  as  soon  as 
evening  approaches,  the  low-banked  river,  where  he  loves  to  wallow  in  the  mud.  Then 
also  the  shy  opossum  quits  his  nest  in  hollow  trees,  or  under  some  arch-like  vaulted 
root,  to  search  for  insects  or  fruits,  and  the  cautious  agouti  sallies  from  the  bush. 

In  our  forests  scarcely  a  single  tone  is  heard  after  sunset ;  but  in  the  tropical  xone 
many  loud  voices  celebrate  the  night,  where,  for  hours  after  the  sun  has  disappeared, 
the  cicadas,  toads,  frogs,  owls,  and  goatsuckers  chirrup,  cry,  croak,  howl,  and  wail. 
The  quietest  hours  are  from  midnight  until  about  three  in  the  morning.  Complete 
silence,  however,  occurs  only  during  very  short  intervals ;  for  there  is  always  some 
cause  or  other  that  prompts  some  animal  to  break  the  stillness.  Sometimes  the  din 
grows  so  loud,  that  one  might  fancy  a  legion  of  evil  spirits  were  celebrating  their 
orgies  in  the  darkness  of  the  forest.  Humboldt  supposes  the  first  cause  of  these  tu- 
mults to  be  a  conflict  among  animals,  which,  arising  by  chance,  gradually  swells  to 
larger  dimensions.  The  jaguar  pursues  a  horde  of  pecaris  or  tapirs  which  break 
wildly  through  the  bushes.  Terrified  by  the  noise,  the  monkeys  howl,  awakening  par- 
rots and  toucans  from  their  slumber;  and  thus  the  din  spreads  through  the  wood. 
A  long  time  passes  before  the  forest  returns  to  its  stillness.  Towards  the  approach 
of  day  the  owls,  the  goatsuckers,  the  toads,  the  frogs,  howl,  groan,  and  croak  for  the 
last  time ;  and  as  soon  as  the  first  beams  of  morning  purple  the  sky,  the  shrill  notes 
of  the  cicadas  mix  with  their  expiring  cries. 

The  valley  of  the  Amazon  is  the  great  forest  of  the  globe.  This  mighty  river, 
rising  in  the  small  mountain  lake  of  Lauricocha,  only  sixty  miles  from  the  Pacific, 
runs  clear  across  the  breadth  of  the  continent,  almost  on  the  line  of  the  P]quator,  and 
empties  into  the  Atlantic.  Its  whole  length  is  2,740  miles,  following  its  windings,  or 
2,050  in  a  straight  line.  From  north  to  south  its  tributaries  stretch  1,700  miles.  At 
a  distance  of  2,000  miles  above  its  mouth  it  has  a  breadth  of  a  mile  and  a  half,  after- 
wards it  spreads  to  ten  miles,  then  expands  until  it  presents  to  the  Atlantic  a  front  of 
one  hundred  and  eighty  miles.  The  lake  which  is  the  source  of  the  main  stream  lies 
just  below  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow.  For  the  first  five  hundred  miles  the  stream 
flows  through  a  deep  valley,  before  reaching  the  level  of  the  great  plain. 

The  region  drained  by  the  Amazon  dwarfs  that  of  any  other  river.  The  Mississippi 
drains  an  area  of  a  million  and  a  quarter  square  miles,  the  Amazon  almost  twice  as 


518  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

much,  a  space  equal  to  two-thirds  of  all  Europe.  Into  this  basin  the  United  States 
might  be  packed  without  touching  its  boundaries.  It  would  hold  the  basins  of  the 
Mississippi,  the  Nile,  the  Danube,  and  the  Hoang-Ho. 

Dangerous  sand-banks  guard  the  giant's  threshold ;  and  no  less  perilous  to  the  nav- 
igator is  the  famous  Pororocca,  or  the  rapid  rising  of  the  spring-tide  at  the  shallow 
mouths  of  the  chief  stream  and  some  of  its  embranchments, — a  phenomenon  which, 
though  taking  place  at  the  mouth  of  many  other  rivers,  such  as  the  Hooghly,  the 
Indus,  the  Dordogne,  and  the  Seine,  nowhere  assumes  such  dimensions  as  here,  where 
the  colossal  wave  frequently  rises  suddenly  along  the  whole  width  of  the  stream  to 
a  hight  of  twelve  or  fifteen  feet,  and  then  collapses  with  a  roar  so  dreadful  that  it  is 
heard  at  the  distance  of  more  than  six  miles.  Then  the  advancing  flood-wave  glides 
almost  imperceptibly  over  the  deeper  parts  of  the  river  bed,  but  again  rises  angrily 
as  soon  as  a  more  shallow  bottom  arrests  its  triumphant  career. 

The  territory  drained  by  the  Amazon  is  so  vast  that^  at  the  sources  of  its  northern 
and  southern  tributaries,  the  rainy  season  takes  place  at  opposite  times  of  the  year. 
So  wonderful  is  the  length  of  the  stream  that,  while  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes  it  begins 
to  rise  early  in  January,  the  Solimoens  swells  only  in  February ;  and  below  the  Rio 
Negro  the  Amazon  does  not  attain  its  full  hight  before  the  end  of  March.  The 
swelling  of  the  river  is  colossal  as  itself.  In  the  Solimoens  and  farther  westward  the 
water  rises  above  forty  feet ;  and  Von  Martins  even  saw  trees  whose  trunks  bore 
marks  of  the  previous  inundation  fifty  feet  above  the  hight  of  the  stream  during  the 
dry  season.  Then  for  miles  and  miles  the  swelling  giant  inundates  his  low  banks,  and, 
majestic  at  all  times,  becomes  terrible  in  his  grandeur  when  rolling  his  angry  torrents 
through  the  wilderness.  The  largest,  forest-trees  tremble  under  the  pressure  of  the 
waters,  and  trunks,  uprooted  and  carried  away  by  the  stream,  bear  witness  to  its 
power.  Fishes  and  alligators  now  swim  where  a  short  while  ago  the  jaguar  lay  in 
wait  for  the  tapir,  and  only  a  few  birds,  perching  on  the  highest  tree-tops,  remain  to 
witness  the  tumult  which  disturbs  the  silence  of  the  woods. 

Meanwhile  the  waters  stimulate  vegetation ;  numberless  blossoms  break  forth  from 
the  luxuriant  foliage ;  and  while  the  turbid  waters  still  play  round  the  trunks  of  the 
submerged  trees,  the  gayest  flowers  enamel  their  green  crowns,  and  convert  the  inun- 
dated forest  into  an  enchanted  garden.  When  at  length  the  river  retires  within  its 
usual  limits,  new  islands  have  been  formed  in  its  bed,  while  others  have  been  swept 
away  ;  and  in  many  places  the  banks,  undermined  by  the  floods,  threaten  to  crush  the 
passing  boat  by  their  fall, — a  misfortune  which  not  seldom  happens,  particularly  when 
hio-h  trees  come  falling  headlong  down  with  the  banks  into  the  river. 

Countless  lagunes  stretch  along  the  course  of  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries.  These 
lao-unes,  called  by  the  natives  igaripes,  or  canoe-paths,  are  a  characteristic  feature  of 
the  river.  One  may  paddle  from  Santarem  a  thousand  miles  up  the  Amazon,  and 
never,  unless  he  chooses,  enter  the  river  itself.  Most  of  these  lagunes  communicate 
with  the  larger  currents  by  channels,  which,  however,  are  generally  dried  up  before 
the  rainy  season  sets  in.  The  magical  beauty  of  tropical  vegetation  reveals  itself  in 
all  its  glory  to  the  traveler  who  steers  his  boat  through  the  solitudes  of  these  aquatic 
mazes.  Here  the  forest  forms  a  canopy  over  his  head;  there  it  opens,  allowing  the 
sunshine  to  disclose  the  secrets  of  the  wilderness ;  while  on  either  side  the  eye  pene- 
trates throutrh  beautiful  vistas  into  the  depths  of  the  woods.      Sometimes,  on  a  higher 


THE   FORESTS    OF   AMAZONIA.  519 

spot  of  ground,  a  clump  of  trees  forms  an  island  worthy  of  Eden.  A  chaos  of  hush- 
ropes  and  creepers  flings  its  garlands  of  gay  flowers  over  the  forest,  and  fills  the  air 
with  the  sweetest  odor.  Numerous  birds,  partly  rivaling  in  beauty  of  color  the  passi- 
floras  and  bignonias  of  these  hanging  gardens,  animate  the  banks  of  the  lagune,  while 
gaudy  macaws  perch  on  the  loftiest  trees ;  and,  as  if  to  remind  one  that  death  is  not 
banished  from  this  scene  of  Paradise,  a  dark-robed  vulture  screeches  through  the 
woods,  or  an  alligator  rests,  like  a  black  log  of  wood  or  a  sombre  rock,  on  the  tranquil 
waters.  Well  he  knows  that  food  will  not  be  wanting ;  for  river  tortoises  and  large 
fish  are  fond  of  retiring  to  these  lagunes. 

The  inundations  of  the  Amazon,  which  often  extend  many  miles  inland,  essentially 
modify  the  character  of  the  bordering  forest ;  for  it  it  only  beyond  their  verge  that  the 
enormous  fig  and  laurel  trees  appear  in  all  their  grandeur.  As  here  the  underwood  is 
less  dense  and  more  dwarfish,  it  is  easy  to  measure  the  colossal  trunks,  and  to  admire 
their  proportions,  often  towering  to  a  bight  of  120  feet,  and  measuring  fifteen  feet  in 
diameter  above  the  projecting  roots.  Enormous  mushrooms  spring  from  the  decayed 
leaves,  and  numberless  parasites  rest  upon  the  trunks  and  branches.  The  littoral  for- 
est, on  the  contrary,  is  of  more  humble  growth.  The  trunks,  branchless  in  their  lower 
part,  clothed  with  a  thinner  and  a  smoother  bark,  and  covered  with  a  coat  of  mud 
according  to  the  hight  of  the  previous  inundation,  stand  close  together,  and  form  above 
a  mass  of  interlacing  branches.  These  are  the  sites  of  the  cacao-tree  and  of  the  prickly 
sarsaparilla,  which  is  here  gathered  in  large  quantities  for  the  druggists  of  Europe. 
Leafless  bush-ropes  wind  in  grotesque  festoons  among  the  trees,  between  whose  trunks 
a  dense  underwood  shoots  up,  to  perish  by  the  next  overflowing  of  the  stream.  In- 
stead of  the  larger  parasites,  mosses  and  jungermannias  weave  their  carpets  over  the 
drooping  branches.  But  few  animals  besides  the  numerous  water-birds  inhabit  this 
damp  forest  zone,  in  which,  as  it  is  almost  superfluous  to  add,  no  plantation  has  been 
formed  by  man. 

The  many  windings  of  the  water  channels  which  traverse  the  littoral  woods  are  so 
overgrown  with  bushes,  that  the  boat  can  only  with  difficulty  be  pushed  onwards 
through  these  retreats,  whose  silence  is  only  broken  by  the  splashing  of  a  fish  or  the 
snorting  of  a  crocodile.  The  many  islands  of  the  delta  of  the  Amazon  are  every- 
where encircled  by  mangroves ;  but  sailing  stream  upwards,  the  monotonous  green  of 
these  monarchs  of  the  shore  is  gradually  replaced  by  flowers  and  foliage,  which,  in 
every  variety  of  form  and  color,  for  hundreds  and  hundreds  of  miles  characterize  the 
banks  of  the  river. 

During  the  dry  season  prickly  astricarias,  large  musaceas,  enormous  bamboo-like 
grasses,  white  plumed  ingas,  and  scarlet  poivreas,  are  most  frequently  seen  among  th^ 
numberless  plants  growing  along  the  bank  of  the  stream,  or  projecting  over  its  margin ; 
while  above  the  shrubbery  of  the  littoral  forest  numberless  palms  tower,  like  stately 
columns,  to  the  hight  of  a  hundred  feet ;  others  of  a  lower  stature  are  remarkable  for 
the  size  of  their  trunks,  on  which  the  footstalks  of  the  fallen  leaves  serve  as  supports 
for  ferns  and  other  parasites.  On  the  trees  which  often  lie  floating  on  the  river, 
though  still  attached  by  their  roots  to  the  bank  on  which  they  had  flourished,  petrels 
or  scarlet  ibises  frequently  perch  ;  and  as  a  boat  approaches,  hideous  bats,  disturbed 
in  their  holes,  fly  out  of  the  mouldering  trunks. 

It  stands  to  reason  that  in  a  length  of  more  than  3,000  n)iles  the  species  of  jdants 


520  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

must  frequently  change;  yet  the  low  banks  of  the  Amazon,  and  of  its  vassals,  as  soon 
as  they  have  emerged  from  the  mountains  where  they  rise,  have  everywhere  a  similar 
character.  "  No  spot  on  the  globe,"  says  Orton,  "  contains  so  much  vegetable  matter 
as  the  valley  of  the  Amazon.  From  the  grassy  steppes  of  Venezuela  to  the  treeless 
pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres  expands  a  sea  of  verdure,  in  which  we  may  draw  a  circle  of 
eleven  hundred  miles  in  diameter,  which  shall  include  an  ever  green  unbroken  forest. 
There  is  a  most  bewildering  diversity  of  grand  and  beautiful  trees ;  a  wild,  uncon- 
quered  race  of  vegetable  giants,  draped,  festooned,  corded,  matted,  and  ribboned  with 
climbing  and  creeping  plants,  woody  and  succulent  in  endless  variety.  The  exuber- 
ance of  nature  displayed  in  these  million  square  acres  of  tangled,  impenetrable  forest, 
offers  a  bar  to  civilization  nearly  as  great  as  its  sterility  in  the  African  deserts.  The 
moment  you  land,  (and  it  is  often  difficult  to  get  a  footling  on  the  bank,)  you  are  con- 
fronted by  a  wall  of  vegetation.  A  macheta  is  a  necessary  predecessor,  for  you  must 
literally  cut  your  way  at  every  step."  The  mass  of  the  forests  on  the  banks  consists 
of  palms,  of  which  there  are  about  thirty  species,  leguminous  or  pod-bearing  trees, 
broad-leaved  bananas,  and  giant  grasses.  Among  the  trees  which  might  be  useful  are 
the  palo  de  sangre  and  the  moria-pinima,  or  "tortoise-shell  tree,"  the  most  beautiful 
ornamental  wood  in  the  world.  Enough  of  this  is  annually  wasted  to  veneer  all  the 
palaces  of  the  civilized  world. 

The  great  river  is  a  crowded  aquarium.  Agassiz  brought  back  more  than  80,000 
specimens  of  fishes,  which  are  yet  to  be  classified  and  arranged.  Alligators  abound 
beyond  all  example  elsewhere.  "It  is  scarcely  exaggerating,"  remarks  Bates,  "to 
say  that  the  waters  of  the  Amazon  are  as  well  stocked  with  large  alligators  in  the  dry 
season  as  a  ditch  in  England  is  in  summer  with  tadpoles."  Turtles  are  the  most 
important  product  at  present  of  the  Amazon.  The  hunting  of  its  eggs  is  the  great 
business  of  the  inhabitants.  They  are  used  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  extracting  their 
oil,  which  is  used  for  illumination.  It  is  calculated  that  fifty  millions  of  eggs  are 
annually  destroyed. 

The  Amazonian  forests  are  apparently  almost  bare  of  animal  life.  But  this  barren- 
ness is  more  apparent  than  real ;  for  so  wide  is  the  field  that  myriads  exist,  but  they 
are  widely  scattered  and  very  shy.  Insects  are  rare  in  the  dense  forests,  being  mostly 
confined  to  the  open  country  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers  and  lagoons.  The  most 
numerous  family  is  that  of  ants.  Termites  abound.  Their  special  duty  is  to  hasten 
the  decomposition  of  decaying  vegetation ;  but  they  work  their  way  into  houses  and 
trunks.  They  have  a  special  fondness  for  paper;  so  that,  aqcording  to  Humboldt,  "it 
is  rare  to  find  papers  in  tropical  America  older  than  fifty  years."  Butterflies  swarm 
in  numbers  and  gorgeousness  of  coloring  elsewhere  unknown.  Within  half  an  hour's 
walk  from  Para  700  species  have  been  collected,  while  all  Europe  furnishes  but  390 
species,  and  the  British  islands  only  QG.  Of  spiders  there  are  8,000  species,  more  than 
three  times  as  many  as  exist  in  England.  The  largest  of  these,  the  Mygale  Blondii, 
is  five  inches  long.  Lizards  are  met  everywhere,  in  houses,  roads,  and  forests.  They 
run  with  such  speed  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  catch  them.  Frogs  and  toads  are 
the  chief  musicians  of  the  Amazonian  forest.  They  are  of  all  sizes,  from  an  inch  to  a 
foot  in  diameter.  This  latter  size  is  attained  by  a  toad  of  a  dull  gray  color,  studded 
all  over  with  enormous  warts,  who  has  a  good  right  to  his  name,  Bufo  gigas.  Of 
snakes  there  is  no  lack.     There  are  in  South  America  L50  species,  half  as  many  as  are 


THE   ANIMALS   OF   AMAZONIA.  521 

found  in  the  East  Indies.  The  serpentine  family  is  led  by  the  enormous  boa,  while 
the  rear  is  brought  up  by  the  Araphisbasnas,  or  "  double-headers,"  who  crawl  one  end 
foremast  as  well  as  the  other,  so  that  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  make  head  or  tail  of  them. 
The  greater  part  of  the  South  American  species  are  not  venomous. 

Amazonia  is  remarkably  poor  in  terrestrial  mammals,  and  the  species  arc  of  small 
size.  The  elephants  and  rhinoceroses  of  the  Old  World  are  represented  by  a  sino-le 
species  of  the  tapir,  and  this  is  rare  and  shy.  The  lion  tribe  finds  its  only  representa- 
tive in  the  puma.  The  jaguar,  representing  the  tiger  and  leopard,  is  the  fiercest  and 
most  powerful  beast  of  prey  of  the  New  World.  He  is  marked  somethino-  like  the 
leopard ;  but  his  spots  are  angular  instead  of  rounded,  and  have  a  central  dot.  In 
size  it  exceeds  the  leopard.  Humboldt,  indeed,  saw  a  jaguar  whose  len"-th  surpassed 
that  of  any  of  the  tigers  of  India  whose  skins  he  had  seen  in  the  collections  of  Europe. 
There  are  but  three  species  of  deer,  all  small.  A  peccari,  a  wild  dog,  opossums,  ant- 
eaters,  armadilloes,  capybaras,  pacas,  agoutis,  and  monkeys,  conclude  the  list  of  Ama- 
zonia.    Monkeys  are  the  most  numerous,  about  forty  species  inhabiting  the  valley, 

Man  makes  an  insignificant  figure  in  the  vast  solitudes  of  the  Amazon.  There  is 
but  one  human  being  to  every  four  square  miles.  Put  them  down  at  equal  distances 
apart,  and  each  one  would  be  two  miles  from  his  nearest  neighbor.  From  what  we 
know  and  can  infer,  there  is  no  part  of  the  globe  in  itself  capable  of  supporting  a  more 
dense  population.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  a  third  of  the  present  population  of  the  globe 
could  find  food  in  these  now  almost  unpeopled  wastes.  The  most  zealous  disciple  of 
Malthus  may  dismiss  his  fears  that  the  world  will,  within  any  reasonable  number 
of  centuries,  become  so  over-peopled  that  population  will  outrun  means  of  sustenance. 

There  are  said  to  be  several  hundred  Indian  tribes  in  Amazonia,  each  having  a  dif- 
ferent language  unintelligible  to  all  others.  The  most  numerous  are  the  Mundaraucus, 
who  number  about  10,000.  They  are  far  from  being  savages,  are  friendly  to  the 
whites,  and  are  industrious,  making  considerable  journeys  to  sell  sarsaparilla,  India 
rubber,  and  tonqua  beans.  They  are  noted  for  the  elaborate  manner  in  which  they  arc 
tattooed.  Agassiz  figures  two  of  these  Indians  who  came  from  a  long  distance.  The 
woman  had  the  upper  part  of  the  face  clear, — except  that  a  black  line  was  drawn 
across  the  nose  and  from  the  outer  corner  of  the  eyes  to  the  ears,  presenting  precisely 
the  appearance  of  a  pair  of  spectacles.  The  chin  was  tattooed  in  a  pattern  of  net- 
work. The  upper  part  of  the  breast  was  wrought  in  open  work,  headed  by  two  straight 
lines  around  the  shoulders,  as  if  to  represent  a  lace  finish.  The  man  was  far  more 
fully  ornamented.  The  whole  face  was  tattooed  in  bluish  black,  looking  like  a  fine 
wire  mask,  the  jaws  and  chin  having  a  broad  pattern.  The  neck,  breast,  and  arms 
were  wrought  all  over  in  a  broad  pattern  with  belts,  lozenges,  and  squares,  looking 
very  like  the  netted  shirts  sometimes  worn  by  laborers  with  us.  To  make  a  full  suit 
of  tattoo  costs  more  time  than  to  produce  any  other  article  of  dress  worn  by  human 
beings — a  Cashmere  shawl  or  the  feathered  cloak  of  a  Polynesian  noble  not  excepted. 
Ten  full  years  are  required,  for  so  painful  is  the  operation  that  only  a  bit  c:in  be  made 
at  a  time  ;  but  when  once  made  the  garment  lasts  a  lifo-tiine. 

Of  the  character  of  the  numerous  tribes  little  is  positively  known.  The  few  notices 
of  travelers  are  vague,  often  contradictory,  and  not  seldom  wholly  incredible.  Thus 
Castlennau  gravely  assures  us  that  on  the  banks  of  the  TefFe  "  dwell  the  Canamas  and 
Uginas ;  the  former  dwarfs,  the  latter  having  tails  a  palm  and  a  half  long — a  hybrid 


522  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

from  an  Indian  and  a  monkey."  Orton  sums  up  their  general  characteristics  as  fol- 
lows :  "  Skin  of  a  brown  color,  with  a  yellowish  tinge,  often  nearly  of  the  tint  of 
mahogany;  thick,  straight,  black  hair;  black,  horizontal  eyes;  low  forehead, "  some- 
what compensated  by  its  breadth  ;  beardless  ;  of  middle  hight,  but  thick -set ;  broad, 
muscular  chest ;  small  hands  and  feet ;  incurious,  unambitious,  impassive,  undemon- 
strative ;  with  a  dull  imagination  and  little  superstition ;  with  no  definite  idea  of  a 
Supreme  Being,  few  tribes  having  a  mine  for  God,  though  one  for  the  Demon ;  with 
no  belief  in  a  future  state  ;  and,  excepting  civility,  with  virtues  all  negative.  Yet  a 
little  while,"  he  says,  "  and  the  race  will  become  as  extinct  as  the  Dodo.  He  has  not 
the  supple  organization  of  the  European,  enabling  him  to  accommodate  himself  to 
diverse  conditions."  And  yet  in  the  very  same  paragraph  he  says :  "  The  South 
American  Indian  seems  to  have  a  natural  aptitude  for  the  arts  of  civilized  life  not 
found  in  the  red  man  of  our  continent."  He  makes  brief  mention  of  thirty  or  more 
of  the  tribes.  Some  are  described  as  cannibals.  Others  are  mentioned  in  quite  dif- 
ferent terms.  Thus  the  Mauhes  are  "  an  agricultural  tribe,  well-formed,  and  of  a 
mild  disposition."  The  Uaupes  "have  permanent  abodes  in  the  shape  of  a  parallel- 
ogram, with  a  semicircle  at  each  end  of  a  size  to  contain  several  families.  One  of 
them  was  115  feet  long  by  75  broad,  and  about  30  feet  high.  The  walls  are  bullet- 
proof." The  Passes  and  Juris  are  "  peaceable  and  industrious,  and  have  always  been 
friendly  to  the  whites."  The  Tucunas  are  "  an  extensive  tribe,  leading  a  settled  agri- 
cultural life,  each  horde  having  a  chief  and  a  '  medicine-man,'  or  priest  of  their  super- 
stitions." The  Cucfimas  are  "  shrewd  hard-working  canoe-men,  notorious  for  the 
singular  desire  for  acquiring  property."     And  so  on. 

Mr.  Orton's  personal  acquaintance  with  the  Indians  was  rather  limited  ;  yet  his  brief 
notices  of  them  give  a  favorable  idea  of  their  character.  For  a  month  and  a  half  par- 
ties of  them  served  him  as  peons  and  boatmen.  The  first  party,  consisting  of  twenty, 
undertook  to  carry  his  luggage  a  distance  of  thirteen  days'  journey  through  the  dense 
forest.  "  Not  a  transportation  company  in  the  United  States,"  he  says,  "  ever  kept  its 
engagement  more  faithfully  than  did  these  twenty  peons,  and  this  too  though  we  paid 
them  in  advance,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  country."  His  canoe-men  "  were 
always  in  good  humor,  and  during  the  whole  voyage  of  a  month  we  did  not  see  the 
slightest  approach  to  a  quarrel.  At  no  time  did  we  have  the  least  fear  of  treachery  or 
violence.  When  it  rained  they  invariably  took  off  their  ponchos;  but  in  all  our  in- 
tercourse with  these  wild  men  we  never  noticed  the  slightest  breach  of  modesty.  They 
strictly  maintained  a  decent  arrangement  of  such  apparel  as  they  possessed." 

The  almost  incidental  notices  given  by  Agassiz  in  his  "  Journey  in  Brazil  "  certainly 
place  the  Indians  of  the  Amazon  in  a  light  far  more  favorable  both  for  character  and 
intelligence  than  that  in  which  they  are  usually  represented.  That  the  men  are  disin- 
clined to  labor  is  true  ;  but  this  they  share  with  men  all  over  the  globe.  "  The  women 
are  said,  on  the  contrary,  to  be  very  industrious ;  and  those  whom  we  have  had  an 
opportunity  of  seeing  justify  this  reputation.  The  wife  of  Laudigari  is  always  busy 
at  some  household  work  or  other, — grating  mandioca,  drying  farinha,  packing  tobacco, 
cooking,  or  sweeping.  Her  children  are  active  and  obedient,  the  older  ones  making 
themselves  useful  in  bringing  water,  washing  mandioca,  or  in  taking  care  of  the 
younger  ones.  She  can  hardly  be  called  pretty,  but  she  has  a  pleasant  smile  and  a 
remarkably  sweet  voice,  with   a  kind  of  childlike  intonation  which  is  very  winning." 


THE  INHABITANTS   OF   AMAZONIA.  593 

Of  another  pair  he  says  :  "  Our  host  and  hostess  do  what  they  can  to  make  us  com- 
fortable, and  the  children  as  well  as  the  parents  show  that  natural  courtesy  which  has 
struck  us  so  much  among  these  Indians.  My  books  and  writing  seem  to  interest  them 
much,  and  while  I  was  reading  the  father  and  mother  came  up,  and  after  watching  me 
for  a  few  minutes  in  silence  the  father  asked  me  if  I  had  any  leaves  from  an  old  Imok, 
or  even  a  part  of  a  newspaper  to  leave  with  him  when  I  went  away.  He  said  he  had 
once  known  how  to  read  a  little,  and  he  seemed  to  think  if  he  had  sometliing  to  practice 
upon  he  might  recover  the  lost  art.  Then  he  added  that  one  of  his  boys  was  very  briwht 
and  he  was  sure  that  he  could  learn  if  he  had  the  means  of  sending  him  to  school." 
Again  of  a  still  different  group  :  "  The  familiarity  of  these  children  of  the  forest  with 
the  natural  objects  about  them — plants,  birds,  insects,  fishes,  etc. — is  remarkable. 
They  frequently  ask  to  see  the  drawings,  and  on  turning  over  a  pile  containino-  several 
hundred  colored  sketches  of  fishes,  they  scarcely  make  a  mistake,  even  the  children 
giving  the  name  instantly."  And  again:  "A  large  number  of  the  trees  forming 
these  forests  are  still  unknown  to- science  ;  and  yet  the  Indians,  those  practical  botan- 
ists and  zoologists,  are  well  acquainted  not  only  with  their  external  appearance,  but 
also  with  their  various  properties.  So  intimate  is  their  practical  knowledge  of  the 
natural  objects  about  them,  that  I  believe  it  would  greatly  contribute  to  the  progress 
of  science  if  a  systematic  record  were  made  of  all  the  information  thus  scattered 
through  the  land  ;  and  an  encyclopaedia  of  the  woods,  as  it  were,  taken  down  from 
the  tribes  which  inhabit  them.  I  think  it  would  be  no  bad  way  of  collecting  to  go 
from  settlement  to  settlement,  sending  the  Indians  out  to  gather  all  the  plants  they 
know,  to  dry  and  label  them  with  the  names  applied  to  them  in  the  locality,  and 
writing  out  under  the  heads  of  these  names  all  that  may  thus  be  ascertained  of  their 
medicinal  and  otherwise  useful  properties,  as  well  as  their  botanical  character."  These 
notices  certainly  go  far  to  throw  discredit  upon  the  sweeping  descriptions  given  by 
other  travelers  of  the  savage  character  of  the  natives  of  Amazonia. 

The  other  inhabitants  of  the  Amazon  are  Whites,  Negroes,  and  Mixed  Breeds. 
Excepting  a  few  English,  French,  German,  and  Portuguese  emigrants,  who  come  to 
the  country  temporarily  and  with  a  purpose  to  return  home  when  they  have  acquired 
a  fortune,  few  of  the  so-called  Whites  are  of  pure  Caucasian  descent,  the  emigration 
having  for  many  years  been  almost  wholly  of  the  male  sex.  Indeed  it  is  considered 
in  rather  bad  taste  to  boast  of  purity  of  descent.  All  travelers  speak  in  warm  terms 
of  the  courtesy  of  the  Brazilians ;  and  although  they  are  generally  inclined  to  indo- 
lence, yet  of  late  years  especially  not  a  few  of  them  have  shown  no  inconsiderable 
energy  and  enterprise.  Certainly  the  Empire  of  Brazil  is  by  far  the  most  promising 
of  all  the  South  American  nations.  It  is  the  only  one  which  is  not  in  an  almost 
chronic  revolutionary  condition. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  negroes  are  confined  to  the  lower  portion  ;  yet  they 
have  imparted  a  decided  tinge  to  the  character  of  the  population.  The  mixed  races 
comprise  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  inhabitants.  Fully  five-and-twenty  different 
classes  of  these  are  enumerated,  each  with  its  own  distinctive  name.  IMamclufos,  or 
White  and  Indian,  are  the  most  common  ;  Mulattoes,  are  White  and  Negro  ;  Cafuzos 
or  Zambos  are  Indian  and  Negro ;  Curibocos  are  Cafuzo  and  Indian ;  Xibaros  are 
Cafuzo  and  Negro  ;  and  so  on  through  different  degrees  of  intermixture.  Von  Tschudi 
gives  the  following  summation  of  the  character  of  the  mixed  races  :  "  As  a  general  rule 


524  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

it  may  be  said  that  they  unite  in  themselves  all  the  faults  without  any  of  the  virtues  of 
their  progenitors.  As  men  they  are  generally  inferior  to  the  pure  races,  and  as  mem- 
bers of  society  they  are  the  worst  class  of  citizens."  Orton  quotes  this,  but  makes 
decided  qualifications  to  the  generalization.  "  They  display,"  he  says,  "  considerable 
talent  and  enterprise  ;  a  proof  that  mental  degeneracy  does  not  necessarily  result  from 
the  mixture  of  white  with  Indian  blood.  Our  observations  do  not  support  the  opinion 
that  the  result  of  amalgamation  is  '  a  vague  compound  lacking  character  and  expres- 
sion.' The  moral  part  is  perhaps  deteriorated  ;  but  in  tact  and  enterprise  they  often 
exceed  their  progenitors."  We  have  already,  in  Chapter  II.,  quoted  his  statement 
that  in  Quito,  where  he  had  the  best  opportunity  of  becoming  acquainted  with  them, 
"  They  are  the  soldiers,  artisans,  and  tradesmen  who  keep  up  the  only  signs  of  life  in 
Quito." 

Agassiz  thus  sums  up  some  of  the  leading  capacities  of  the  basin  of  the  Amazon  : 
"  Its  woods  alone  have  an  almost  priceless  value.  Nowhere  in  the  world  is  there  finer 
timber  either  for  solid  construction  or  for  works  of  ornament.  The  rivers  which  flow 
past  these  magnificent  forests  seem  meant  to  serve  first  as  a  water-power  for  the  saw- 
mills which  ought  to  be  established  on  their  borders,  and  then  as  a  means  of  transpor- 
tation for  material  so  provided.  Yet  all  the  lumber  used  is  brought  from  Maine.  Set- 
ting aside  the  woods  as  timber,  what  shall  I  say  of  the  mass  of  fruits,  resins,  oils,  color- 
ing matter,  textile  fabrics  which  they  yield  ?  What  surprised  me  most  was  to  find 
that  a  great  part  of  this  region  was  favorable  to  the  raising  of  cattle.  An  empire 
might  esteem  itself  rich  in  any  one  of  the  sources  of  industry  which  abound  in  this 
valley ;  and  yet  the  greater  part  of  its  vast  growth  rots  on  the  ground ,  and  goes  to 
form  a  little  more  river-mud,  or  to  stain  the  waters  on  the  shores  of  which  its  manifold 
products  die  and  decompose.  Although  the  rivers  abound  in  delicious  fish,  large  use 
is  made  of  salt  cod  imported  from  other  countries ;  and  bread  and  butter  are  brought 
from  the  United  States  and  England." 

Orton  says  of  the  Valley  of  the  Amazon  :  "  It  possesses  the  most  agreeable  and 
enjoyable  climate  in  the  world,  with  a  brilliant  atmosphere  only  equaled  by  that  of 
Quito,  and  with  no  changes  of  seasons.  Life  may  be  maintained  with  as  little  labor 
as  in  the  Garden  of  Eden.  Perhaps  no  country  in  the  world  is  capable  of  yielding  so 
large  a  return  for  agriculture.  Nature,  evidently  designing  this  land  as  the  home  of  a 
great  nation,  has  heaped  up  her  bounties  of  every  description  :  fruits  of  richest  flavors, 
woods  of  the  finest  grain,  dyes  of  gayest  colors,  drugs  of  rarest  virtues,  and  left  no 
sirocco  or  earthquake  to  disturb  its  people." 


TROPICAL    VKGETAl'ION. 


525 


CHAPTER    V. 

CHARACTERISTIC  FORMS  OF  TROPICAL  VEGETATION. 

General  Features  of  Tropical  Forests— Number  of  Species  of  Plants— The  Baobab— Its  Gigan- 
tic Size— Age  of  the  Great  Trees— Dragon -Trees— The  Great  Dragon-Tree  of  Orotava— 
The  Sycamore— The  Banyan — The  Sacreil  Bo-Tree— The  Oldest  Historical  Tree— The 
Teak — The  Satin-wood — The  Sandal  Tree— The  Ceiba— The  Mahogany  Tree — The  Mora 
—The  Guadua— Bamboos— The  Aloe— The  Agave— The  Cactus— The  Screw  Pine- 
Mimosas — Lianas— Climbing  Trees — Epiphytes — Water  Plants — Buttressed  Trees — Trees 
with  Fantastic  Roots— Mangroves— Marsii  Forests— Palms— The  Cocoa  Palm— Tlie  Sago 
Palm— The  Saguer  Palm— The  Areca  Palm— The  Palmyra  Palm— The  Talipot  Palm— 
Ratans— The  Date  Palm— Oil  Palms— Variety  of  Size,  Form,  Foliage  and  Fruit— Future 
Commercial  Value  of  the  Palm. 

"TTT^HEREVER  in  the  tropical  regions  periodical  rains  saturate  the  earth,  vege- 
VV  table  life  expands  in  a  wonderful  variety  of  forms.  In  the  higher  latitudes 
of  the  frozen  north,  a  rapidly  evanescent  summer  produces  but  few  and  rare  flowers  in 
sheltered  situations,  soon  again  to  disappear  under  the  winter's  snow;  in  the  temperate 
zones,  the  number,  beauty  and  variety  of  plants  increase  with  the  warmth  of  a  genial 
sky ;  but  it  is  only  where  the  vertical  rays  of  an  equatorial  sun  awaken  and  foster  life 
on  humid  grounds  that  ever-youtliful  Flora  appears  in  the  full  exuberance  of  her 
creative  power.  It  is  only  there  we  find  the  majestic  palms,  the  elegant  mimosas,  the 
large-leafed  bananas,  and  so  many  other  beautiful  forms  of  vegetation  alien  to  more  cold 
and  variable  climes.  While  our  trees  are  but  sparingly  clad  with  scanty  lichens  and 
rao.sses,  they  are  there  covered  with  stately  bromelias  and  wondrous  orchids.  Sweet- 
smelling  vanillas  and  passifloras  wind  round  the  giants  of  the  forest,  and  large  flowers 
break  forth  from  their  rough  bark,  or  even  from  their  very  roots. 

"  The  tropical  trees,"  says  Humboldt,  "  are  endowed  with  richer  juices,  ornamented 
with  a  fresher  green,  and  decked  with  larger  and  more  lustrous  leaves  than  those  of 
the  more  northerly  regions.  Social  plants,  which  render  European  vegetation  so 
monotonous,  are  but  rarely  found  within  the  tropics.  Trees,  nearly  twice  as  high 
as  our  oaks,  there  glow  with  blossoms  large  and  magnificent  as  those  of  our  lilies. 
On  the  shady  banks  of  the  Magdalena  river,  in  South  America,  grows  a  climbing 
Aristolochia,  whose  flower,  of  a  circumference  of  four  feet,  the  children,  while  play- 
ing, sometimes  wear  as  a  helmet ;  and  in  the  Indian  Archipelago  the  blo.s.som 
of  the  Rafflesia  measures  three  feet  in  diameter,  and  weighs  more  than  fourteen 
pounds." 

The  number  of  known  plants  is  estimated  at  about  200,000,  and  the  greater  part  of 
this  vast  multitude  of  species  belongs  to  the  torrid  zone.  But  if  we  consider  how  very 
imperfectly  these  sunny  regions  have  as  yet  been  explored, — that  in  South  America 


526 


THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 


enormous  forest  lands  and  river  basins  have  never  yet  been  visited  by  a  naturalist, — 
that  the  vegetation  of  the  greater  part  of  Central  Africa  is  still  completely  hidden  in 


FOKEST  ON  THE  PANAMA  RAILROAD. 


mystery, — that  no  botanist  has  ever  yet  penetrated  into  the  interior  of  Madagascar, 
Borneo,  New  Guinea,  South-western  China,  and  Ultra-Gangetic  India,— and  that, 


THE   BAOBAB.  527 

moreover,  many  of  the  countries  visited  by  travelers  have  been  but  very  superficially 
and  hastily  examined, — we  may  well  doubt  whether  even  one-fourth  part  of  the  tropical 
plants  is  actually  known  to  science.  What  a  vast  field  for  future  naturalists !  What 
prospects  for  the  trade  and  industry  of  future  generations  ! 

After  these  general  remarks  on  the  variety  and  exuberance  of  tropical  vegetation,  I 
shall  now  briefly  review  those  plants  which,  by  their  enormous  size,  their  singularity 
of  form,  or  their  frequency  in  the  landscape,  chiefly  characterize  the  various  regions 
of  the  torrid  zone  in  different  parts  of  the  globe. 

The  African  Baobab,  or  "monkey-bread  tree,"  {Adansoma  digitata,')  may  justly 
be  called  the  elephant  of  the  vegetable  world.  Near  the  village  Gumer,  in  Fassokl, 
Russegger  saw  a  baobab  thirty  feet  in  dij^meter  and  ninety-five  in  circumference;  the 
horizontally  outstretched  branches  were  so  large  that  the  negroes  could  comfortably 
sleep  upon  them.  The  Venetian  traveler  Cadamosto  (1454)  found,  near  the  mouths 
of  the  Senegal,  baobabs  measuring  more  than  a  hundred  feet  in  circumference.  As 
these  vegetable  giants  are  generally  hollow,  they  are  frequently  made  use  of  as  dwell- 
ings or  stables.  Livingstone  mentions  one  in  which  twenty  or  thirty  men  could  lie 
down  and  sleep,  as  in  a  hut.  As  the  baobab  begins  to  decay  in  the  part  where  the 
trunk  divides  into  the  larger  branches,  and  the  process  of  destruction  thence  continues 
downwards,  the  hollow  space  fills,  during  the  rainy  season,  with  water,  which  keeps  a 
long  time,  from  its  being  protected  against  the  rays  of  the  sun.  The  baobab  thus 
forms  a  vegetable  cistern. 

The  hight  of  the  baobab  does  not  correspond  to  its  bulk,  as  it  seldom  exceeds  sixty 
feet.  As  it  is  of  very  rapid  growth,  it  acquires  a  diameter  of  three  or  four  feet  and  its 
full  altitude  in  about  thirty  years,  and  then  continues  to  grow  in  circumference.  The 
larger  beam-like  branches,  almost  as  thick  at  their  extremity  as  at  their  origin,  are 
abruptly  rounded,  and  then  send  forth  smaller  branches,  with  large,  light  green,  pal- 
mated  leaves.  The  bark  is  smooth  and  greyish.  The  oval  fruits,  which  are  of  the 
size  of  large  cucumbers,  and  brownish  yellow  when  ripe,  hang  from  long  twisted  spongy 
stalks,  and  contain  a  white  farinaceous  substance,  of  an  agreeable  acidulated  taste, 
enveloping  the  dark  brown  seeds.  They  are  a  favorite  food  of  the  monkeys,  whence 
the  tree  has  derived  one  of  its  names.  From  the  depth  of  the  incrustations  formed  on 
the  marks  which  the  Portuguese  navigators  of  the  fifteenth  century  used  to  cut  in  the 
large  baobabs  which  they  found  growing  on  the  African  coast,  and  by  comparing  the 
relative  dimensions  of  several  trunks  of  a  known  age,  Adanson  concluded  that  a  baobab 
of  thirty  feet  in  diameter  must  have  lived  at  least  5,000  years ;  but  a  more  careful 
investigation  of  the  rapid  growth  of  the  spongy  wood  has  reduced  the  age  of  the  giant 
tree  to  more  moderate  limits,  and  proved  that,  even  in  comparative  youth,  it  attains 
the  hoary  aspect  of  extreme  senility. 

The  baobab  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  mallow  or  the  hollyhock.  It  ranges 
over  a  wide  extent  of  Africa,  particularly  in  parts  where  the  summer  rains  fall  in 
abundance,  as  in  Senegambia,  in  Soudan,  and  in  Nubia.  Livingstone  admired  its 
colossal  proportions  on  the  banks  of  the  Zouga  and  the  Zambesi;  under  a  great 
baobab  near  this  river  lie  the  remains  of  his  wife,  who  bore  him  company  during  his 
journeyings;  and  William  Peters  found  it  on  the  eastern  coast,  near  20°  south 
latitude.  It  forms  a  conspicuous  feature  in  the  landscape  at  Manaar  in  Ceylon. 
Tennent  found  one  of  the  largest,  measuring  upwards  of  thirty  feet  in  circumference; 


528 


THE   TROPICAL    WORLD. 


and  another  at  Putten,  since  destroyed  by  the  digging  of  a  well  under  part  of  its 
roots,  which,  though  but  seventy  feet  high,  was  forty-six  feet  in  girth. 


Dracoenas,  or  "dragon-trees,"  are  found  growing  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  and 
in  the  Cape  Colony,  in  Bourbon  and  in  China  ;  but  it  is  only  in  the  Canary  Islands, 
in  Madeira,  and  Porto  Santo,  that  they  attain  such  gigantic  dimensions  as  to  entitle 
them  to  rank  amons  the  vegetable  wonders  of  the  world.     Near  Orotava,   in  Tene- 


DRAGON  -TREE— SYCAMORE— BANYAN.  529 

riffe,  still  flourishes  the  venerable  dragon-tree,  which  was  already  reverenced  for  its 
age  by  the  extirpated  nation  of  the  Guanches,  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  island, 
and  which  the  adventurous  Bethencourts,  the  conquerors  of  the  Canaries,  found  hardly 
less  colossal  and  cavernous  in  1402  than  Humboldt,  who  visited  it  in  1799.  Above 
the  roots,  the  illustrious  traveler  measured  a  circumference  of  forty-five  feet ;  and  ac- 
cording to  Sir  George  Staunton,  the  trunk  has  still  a  diameter  of  four  yards,  at  an 
elevation  of  ten  feet  above  the  ground.  The  whole  bight  of  the  tree  is  not  much 
above  sixty-five  feet.  The  trunk  divides  into  numerous  upright  branches,  terminating 
in  tufts  of  evergreen  leaves,  resembling  those  of  the  pine-apple. 

Next  to  the  baobab  and  the  dracasna,  the  Sycamore  {Ficus  sycomorus)  holds  a  con- 
spicuous rank  among  the  giant  trees  of  Africa.  It  attains  a  hight  of  only  forty  or 
fifty  feet,  but  in  the  course  of  many  centuries  its  trunk  swells  to  a  colossal  size,  and 
its  vast  crown  covers  a  large  space  of  ground  with  an  impenetrable  shade.  Its  leaves 
are  about  four  inches  long  and  as  many  broad,  and  its  figs  have  an  excellent  flavor. 
In  Egypt  it  is  almost  the  only  grove-forming  tree  ;  and  most  of  the  mummy  coffins 
are  made  of  its  incorruptible  wood. 

No  baobab  rears  its  monstrous  trunk  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  ;  no  drao-on-tree 
of  patriarchal  age  here  reminds  the  wanderer  of  centuries  long  past ;  but  the  beautiful 
and  stately  Banyan  {Ficus  indica)  gives  him  but  little  reason  to  regret  their  absence. 
Each  tree  is  in  itself  a  grove,  and  some  of  them  are  of  an  astonishing  size,  as  they  are 
continually  increasing,  and,  contrary  to  most  other  animal  and  vegetable  productions, 
seem  to  be  exempted  from  decay  ;  for  every  branch  from  the  main  body  throws  out  its 
own  roots,  at  first  in  small  tender  fibers,  several  yards  from  the  ground,  which  contin- 
ually grow  thicker,  until,  by  a  gradual  descent,  they  reach  its  surface,  where,  striking 
in,  they  increase  to  a  large  trunk  and  become  a  parent-tree,  throwing  out  new  branches 
from  the  top.  These  in  time  suspend  their  roots,  and,  receiving  nourishment  from 
the  earth,  swell  into  trunks  and  send  forth  other  branches,  thus  continuing  in  a  state 
of  progression  so  long  as  the  first  parent  of  them  all  supplies  her  sustenance.  The 
Hindoos  are  peculiarly  fond  of  this  tree  ;  they  consider  its  long  duration,  its  outstretch- 
ing arms  and  overshadowing  beneficence,  as  emblems  of  the  Deity ;  they  plant  it  near 
their  temples ;  and  in  those  villages  where  there  is  no  structure  for  public  worship 
they  place  an  image  under  a  banyan,  and  there  perform  a  morning  and  evening  sacrifice. 

Many  of  these  beautiful  trees  have  acquired  an  historic  celebrity ;  and  the  famous 
"  Cubbeer-burr,"  on  the  banks  of  the  Nerbuddah,  thus  called  by  the  Hindoos  in  mem- 
ory of  a  favorite  saint,  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  that  described  by  Nearchus,  the 
admiral  of  Alexander  the  Great,  as  being  able  to  shelter  an  army  under  its  fjir-spread- 
mg  shade.  High  floods  have  at  various  times  swept  away  a  considerable  part  of  this 
extraordinary  tree,  but  what  still  remains  is  near  2,000  feet  in  circumference,  meas- 
ured round  the  principal  stems;  the  overhanging  branches  not  yet  struck  down  cover 
a  much  larger  space ;  and  under  it  grow  a  number  of  custard-apple  and  other  fruit 
trees.  The  large  trunks  of  this  single  colossus  amount  to  a  greater  number  than  the 
days  of  the  year,  and  the  smaller  ones  exceed  3,000,  each  constantly  sending  forth 
branches  and  hanging  roots,  to  form  other  trunks  and  become  the  parents  of  a  future 
progeny.  In  the  march  of  an  army  it  has  been  known  to  shelter  7,000  men.  Such 
IS  the  banyan  —  more  wonderful,  and  infinitely  more  beautiful  and  majestic,  than  all 
the  temples  and  palaces  which  the  pride  of  the  Moguls  has  ever  reared  ! 
34 


530  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

The  nearly  related  Pippul  of  India,  or  Bo-tree  {Ficus  religiosa),  which  differs 
from  the  banyan  by  sending  down  no  roots  from  its  branches,  is  reverenced  by  the  Bud- 
dhists as  the  sacred  plant,  under  whose  shade  Gotama,  the  founder  of  their  religion, 
reclined  when  he  underwent  his  divine  transfiguration.  Its  heart-shaped  leaves,  which 
like  those  of  the  aspen,  appear  in  the  profoundest  calm  to  be  ever  in  motion,  are 
supposed  to  tremble  in  recollection  of  the  mysterious  scene  of  which  they  were  the 
witnesses.  The  sacred  Pippul  at  Anarajapoora,  the  fallen  capital  of  the  ancient  kings 
of  Ceylon,  is  probably  the  oldest  historical  tree  in  the  world  ;  as  it  was  planted  288 
years  before  Christ,  and  hence  is  now  2,150  years  old.  The  enormous  age  of  the  bao- 
babs of  Senegal,  and  of  the  wondrous  sequoias  of  California,  can  only  be  conjectured ; 
but  the  antiquity  of  the  Bo-tree  is  matter  of  record,  as  its  preservation  has  been  an  object 
of  solicitude  to  successive  dynasties ;  and  the  story  of  its  fortunes  has  been  preserved 
in  a  series  of  continuous  chronicles  amongst  the  most  authentic  that  bare  been  handed 
down  by  mankind.  The  olives  in  the  garden  of  Gethsemane  were  full-grown  when 
the  Saracens  were  expelled  from  Jerusalem,  and  the  cypress  of  Somma  in  Lombardy 
is  said  to  have  been  a  tree  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar.  Yet  the  Bo-tree  is  older  than 
the  oldest  of  these  by  a  century,  and  would  almost  seem  to  verify  the  prophecy  pro- 
nounced when  it  was  planted,  that  it  would  "flourish  and  be  green  forever."  The 
degree  of  sanctity  with  which  this  extraordinary  tree  has  been  invested  in  the  imagi- 
nation of  the  Buddhists,  may  be  compared  to  the  feeling  of  veneration  with  which 
Christians  would  regard  the  attested  wood  of  the  cross.  At  the  present  day  the  aspect 
of  the  tree  suggests  the  idea  of  extreme  antiquity  :  the  branches  which  have  rambled 
at  their  will  far  beyond  the  outline  of  its  inclosure,  the  rude  pillars  of  masonry  that 
have  been  carried  out  to  support  them,  the  retaining  walls  which  shore  up  the  parent 
stem,  the  time-worn  steps  by  which  the  place  is  approached,  and  the  grotesque  carvings 
that  decorate  the  stone-work  and  friezes,  all  impart  the  conviction  that  the  tree  which 
they  encompass  has  been  watched  over  with  abiding  solicitude,  and  regarded  with  an 
excess  of  veneration  that  could  never  attach  to  an  object  of  dubious  authenticity. 

Although  fiir  inferior  to  these  wonders  of  the  vegetable  world  in  amplitude  of  growth, 
yet  the  Teak  tree,  ov  Indian  oak  (  Tectona  grandis),  far  surpasses  them  in  value,  as  the 
ship-worm  in  the  water,  and  the  termite  on  land,  equally  refrain  from  attacking  its  close- 
grained  strongly-scented  wood ;  and  no  timber  equals  it  for  ship-building  purposes. 
It  grows  wild  over  a  great  part  of  British  India ;  in  the  mountainous  districts  along 
the  Malabar  coast,  in  Guzerat,  the  valley  of  the  Nerbuddah,  in  Tenasserim  and  Pegu. 
In  Java  also  the  teak  forests,  both  those  of  natural  growth  and  those  that  have  been 
planted  by  the  Dutch,  are  carefully  administered.  This  tree,  which  requires  a  century 
to  attain  its  full  diameter  of  four  feet,  loses  its  leaves  in  the  dry  season,  when  the 
grass  and  undergrowth  of  shrubbery  is  burnt,  as  the  heat  which  is  developed  does  the 
trees  no  injury.  The  ashes  afford  an  excellent  manure,  and  the  fire  makes  crevices  and 
rents  in  the  soil,  through  which  the  fertilizing  rain  can  afterwards  more  easily  penetrate 
to  the  roots.  In  Java  the  teak  tree  attains  only  a  hight  of  eighty  feet,  inferior  to  its 
loftier  Hindostanic  stature. 

Among  the  numerous  timber-trees  of  Ceylon,  the  Satrnwood  ( Ohloroxylon  Swie- 
tenia)  is  by  far  the  first,  in  point  of  size  and  durability.  All  the  forests  around  Bat- 
ticaloa  and  Trincomalee,  and  as  far  north  as  Jaffna,  are  thickly  set  with  this  valuable 
tree,  under  whose  ample  shade  the  traveler  rides  for  days  together.     It  grows  to  the 


SANDAL— CEIBA—MAIIO(}ANY— MORA.  531 

bight  of  a  hundred  feet,  with  a  rugged,  gray  bark,  small,  white  flowers,  and  polished 
leaves,  with  a  somewhat  unpleasant  odor.  Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  carrying  its  heavy 
beams,  the  natives  cut  it  only  near  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  down  which  it  is  floated  to 
the  coast,  whence  large  quantities  are  exported  to  every  part  of  the  colony.  The 
richly  colored  and  feathery  pieces  are  used  for  cabinet-work,  and  the  more  ordinary 
logs  for  building  purposes,  every  house  in  the  eastern  province  being  floored  and  tim- 
bered with  satin-wood. 

The  Sandal-tree,  which  furnishes  the  sweet-scented,  fine-grained  wood,  so  highly 
prized  by  the  Chinese,  and  so  much  used  in  small  cabinets,  escritoires,  and  similar 
articles,  because  no  insect  can  exist  within  its  influence,  also  deserves  to  be  noticed  as 
one  of  the  most  valuable  productions  of  the  Malabar  coast.  It  chiefly  grows  on  rocky 
hills,  and,  if  permitted,  would  attain  a  tolerable  size,  but,  from  its  great  value,  is  gen- 
erally cut  down  at  an  early  stage.  On  low  land  and  a  richer  soil  it  degenerates,  and  is 
in  all  respects  less  esteemed.  A  variety  of  the  same  tree,  but  furnishino-  a  wood  of 
inferior  quality,  grows  on  many  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  ;  but  in  many  parts  the 
excessive  avidity  of  the  traders  has  almost  caused  its  total  extirpation.  The  sandal  is 
a  beautiful  tree;  the  branches  regular  and  tapering;  the  leaf  like  that  of  the  willow, 
but  shorter  and  delicately  soft.  The  blossoms  hang  in  bunches  of  small  flowers,  either 
red  or  white,  according  to  the  color  of  the  wood. 

On  turning  our  attention  to  America  we  find  that  Nature,  delighting  in  infinite  vari- 
eties of  development,  and  disdaining  a  servile  copy  of  what  she  had  elsewhere  formed, 
covers  the  earth  with  new  and  no  less  remarkable  forms  of  vegetation.  Thus,  while  in 
Africa  the  baobab  attracts  the  traveler's  attention  by  its  colossal  size  and  peculiarity  of 
growth,  the  gigantic  Ceiba  {Bomhax  ceiha),  belonging  to  the  same  fomily  of  plants, 
raises  his  astonishment  in  the  forests  of  Yucatan.  Like  the  baobab,  this  noble  tree  rises 
only  to  a  moderate  bight  of  sixty  feet,  but  its  trunk  swells  to  such  dimensions  that  fif- 
teen men  are  hardly  able  to  span  it,  while  a  thousand  may  easily  screen  themselves 
under  its  canopy  from  the  scorching  sun.  The  leaves  fall  oflf  in  January  ;  and  then  at 
the  end  of  every  branch  bunches  of  large,  glossy,  purple-red  flowers  make  their  appear- 
ance, aflfording,  as  one  may  well  imagine,  a  magnificent  sight.  In  Guiana  the  savages 
take  refuge  upon  the  ceiba  trees  during  the  inundations.  The  seeds  have  an  agree- 
able taste,  and  are  frequently  eaten,  as  well  as  the  young  and  mucilaginous  leaves. 

In  British  Honduras,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Balize,  and  along  the  Motagua  river, 
the  Mahogany  tree  (Swietenia  mahagoni)  is  found  scattered  in  the  forests,  attracting 
the  woodman's  attention  from  a  distance  by  its  light-colored  foliage.  Such  are  its 
dimensions,  and  such  is  the  value  of  peculiarly  fine  specimens,  that  in  October,  1823,  a 
tree  was  felled  which  weighed  more  than  seven  tons,  and  cost,  when  landed  at  Liver- 
pool, above  <£375 ;  here  it  was  sold  for  £525,  and  the  expense  of  sawing  amounted 
to  £750  more  ;  so  that  the  wood  of  this  single  tree,  before  passing  into  the  hands  of 
the  cabinet-maker,  was  worth  as  much  as  a  moderately  sized  farm.  The  African 
niahogany  wood  is  furnished  by  the  near  related  Khaija  senegalcnsis,  which  likewise 
towers  to  the  hight  of  a  hundred  feet,  and  has  been  transplanted  to  the  Antilles. 

"Heedless  and  bankrupt  in  all  curiosity  must  he  be,"  says  Waterton,  "who  can 
journey  through  the  forests  of  Guiana  without  stopping  to  take  a  view  of  the  towering 
Mora.  Its  topmost  branch,  when  naked  with  age,  or  dried  by  accident,  is  the  favorite 
resort  of  the  toucan.     Many  a  time  has  this  singular  bird  felt  the  shot  faintly  strike 


532  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

him  from  the  gun  of  the  fowler  beneath,  and  owed  his  life  to  the  distance  betwixt 
them.  The  wild  fig  tree,  as  large  as  a  common  English  apple  tree,  often  rears  itself 
from  one  of  the  thick  branches  at  the  top  of  the  mora;  and  when  its  fruit  is  ripe,  to  it 
the  birds  resort  for  nourishment.  It  was  to  an  indigested  seed  passing  through  the 
body  of  this  bird,  which  had  perched  on  the  mora,  that  the  fig  tree  first  owed  its 
elevated  station  there.  The  sap  of  the  mora  raised  it  into  full  bearing  ;  but  now,  in 
its  turn,  it  is  doomed  to  contribute  a  portion  of  its  own  sap  and  juices  towards  the 
growth  of  different  species  of  vines,  the  seeds  of  which  also  the  birds  deposited  on  its 
branches.  These  soon  vegetate  and  bear  fruit  in  great  quantities;  so  what  with  their 
usurpation  of  the  resources  of  the  fig  tree,  and  the  fig  tree  of  the  mora,  the  mora, 
unable  to  support  a  charge  which  Nature  never  intended  it  should,  languishes  and 
dies  under  its  burden;  and  then  the  fig  tree  and  its  usurping  progeny  of  vines, 
receiving  no  more  succor  from  their  late  foster-parent,  droop  and  perish  in  their  turn." 
Our  stateliest  oaks  would  look  like  pigmies  near  this  "chieftain  of  the  forests,"  who 
raises  his  dark  green  cupola  over  all  the  neighboring  trees,  and  deceives  the  traveler, 
who  fancies  that  a  verdant  hill  is  rising  before  him.  Its  wood  is  much  firmer  than 
that  of  the  fir. 

The  graceful  tapering  form  of  the  Graminece,  or  grasses,  belongs  to  every  zone; 
but  it  is  only  in  the  warmer  regions  of  the  globe  that  we  find  the  colossal  BamhusacecB, 
rivaling  in  grandeur  the  loftiest  trees  of  the  primeval  forest.  Such  is  the  rapidity 
of  their  growth,  that  in  the  Royal  Botanical  Garden  of  Edinburgh,  a  bamboo  was 
observed  to  increase  six  inches  a  day  in  a  temperature  of  from  65°  to  70°.  The 
Bamhusa  gigantea  of  Burmah  has  been  known  to  grow  eighteen  inches  in  twenty-four 
hours ;  and  as  the  Bamhusa  Tulda  in  Bengal  attains  its  full  bight  of  seventy  feet  in 
a  single  month,  its  average  increase  can  not  be  less  than  an  inch  per  hour.  In  New 
Grenada  and  Ecuador  the  Guadua,  one  of  these  giant  grasses,  ranks  next  to  the 
sugar-cane  and  maize  as  the  plant  most  indispensable  to  man.  It  forms  dense  jungles, 
not  only  in  the  lower  regions  of  the  country,  but  in  the  valleys  of  the  Andes,  5,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  culms  attain  a  thickness  of  six  inches,  the  single 
joints  are  twenty  inches  long,  and  the  leaves  are  of  indescribable  beauty.  A  whole 
hut  can  be  built  and  thatched  with  the  guadua,  while  the  single  joints  are  extensively 
used  as  water  vessels  and  drinking  cups. 

India,  South  China,  and  the  Eastern  Archipelago  are  the  seats  of  the  real  bamboos, 
which  grow  in  a  variety  of  genera  and  species,  as  well  on  the  banks  of  lakes  and  rivers 
in  low  marshy  grounds,  as  in  the  more  elevated  mountainous  regions.  They  chiefly 
form  the  impenetrable  jungles,  the  seat  of  the  tiger  and  the  python.  Sometimes  a 
hundred  culms  spring  from  a  single  root,  not  seldom  as  thick  as  a  man,  and  towering 
to  a  hight  of  eighty  or  a  hundred  feet.  Fancy  the  grace  of  our  meadow  grasses, 
united  with  the  lordly  growth  of  the  Italian  poplar,  and  you  will  have  a  faint  idea  of 
the  beauty  of  a  clump  of  bamboos. 

The  variety  of  purposes  to  which  these  colossal  reeds  can  be  applied  almost  rivals 
the  multifarious  uses  of  the  cocoa-nut  palm  itself.  Splitting  the  culm  in  its  whole 
length  into  very  thin  pieces,  the  industrious  Chinese  then  twist  them  together  into 
strong  ropes,  for  tracking  their  vessels  on  their  numerous  rivers  and  canals.  The 
sails  of  their  junks,  as  well  as  their  cables  and  rigging,  are  made  of  bamboo ;  and  in 
the  southern  province  of  Sechuen,  not  only  nearly  every  house  is  built  solely  of  this 


ALOES— AGAVES— SCREW-PINE— CACTUSES.  533 

Strong  cane,  but  almost  every  article  of  furniture  which  it  contains — mats,  screens, 
chairs,  tables,  bedsteads,  bedding — is  of  the  same  material.  From  the  young  shoots 
they  also  fabricate  their  fine  writing  paper.  In  Mysore  and  Orizza  the  seeds  of  several 
species  are  eaten  with  honey ;  and  in  Sikkim  the  grain  of  the  Praong,  a  small  bam- 
boo, is  boiled,  or  made  into  cakes,  or  into  beer.  In  Java,  the  prickly  bamboo,  whose 
wood  is  of  such  flinty  hardness  that  sparks  are  emitted  on  its  being  struck  with  an 
axe,  and  whose  formidable  thorns  project  from  every  node,  is  used  to  form  impenetrable 
hedges. 

The  Aloes  form  the  strongest  contrast  to  the  airy  lightness  of  the  grasses,  by  the 
stately  repose  and  strength  of  their  thick,  fleshy,  and  inflexible  leaves.  They  gener- 
ally stand  solitary  in  the  parched  plains,  and  impart  a  peculiarly  austere  or  melancholy 
character  to  the  landscape.  The  real  aloes  are  chiefly  African,  but  the  American 
yuccas  and  agaves  have  a  similar  physiognomical  character.  The  Agave  Americana, 
the  usual  ornament  of  our  hot-houses,  bears  on  a  short  and  massive  stem  a  tuft  of 
fleshy  leaves,  sometimes  no  less  than  ten  feet  long,  fifteen  inches  wide,  and  eight  inches 
thick.  After  many  years  a  flower-stalk  twenty  feet  high  shoots  forth  in  a  few  weeks 
from  the  heart  of  the  plant,  expanding  like  a  rich  candelabrum,  and  clustered  with 
several  thousands  of  greenish  yellow  aromatic  flowers.  But  a  rapid  decline  succeeds 
this  brilliant  efilorescence,  for  it  is  soon  followed  by  the  death  of  the  exhausted  plant. 

In  Mexico,  where  the  agave  is  indigenous,  and  whence  it  has  found  its  way  to 
Spain  and  Italy,  it  is  reckoned  one  of  the  most  valuable  productions  of  Nature.  At 
the  time  when  the  flower-stalk  is  beginning  to  sprout,  the  heart  of  the  plant  is  cut  out, 
and  the  juice,  which  otherwise  would  have  nourished  the  blossom,  collects  in  the  hol- 
low. About  three  pounds  exude  daily,  during  a  period  of  two  or  three  months. 
Thus  a  single  agave,  or  maguey,  gives  about  a  hundred  and  fifty  bottles.  But  the 
use  of  the  agave  is  not  confined  to  the  production  of  a  vinous  liquor,  as  the  tough 
fibres  of  its  leaves  furnish  an  excellent  material  for  the  strongest  ropes,  or  the  forma- 
tion of  coarse  cloth.  Long  before  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  Cortez,  the  abo- 
rigines applied  the  agave  to  a  great  variety  of  purposes.  From  it  they  made  their 
paper  (pieces  of  which  of  various  thickness  are  still  found  covered  with  curious  hiero- 
glyphic writing),  their  threads,  their  needles  (from  its  sharp  points),  and  many  arti- 
cles of  clothing  and  cordage. 

The  Pandanus  odoratissimus,  or  Sweet  smelling  Screw-pine,  whose  fruits,  when 
perfectly  mature,  resemble  large  richly-colored  pine-apples,  plays  an  important  part  in 
the  household  economy  of  the  coral-islanders  of  the  South  Sea.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  Mulgrave  Archipelago,  where  the  cocoa-nut  is  rare,  live  almost  exclusively  on  the 
juicy  pulp,  and  the  pleasant  kernels  of  the  fruit.  The  dried  leaves  serve  to  thatch 
their  cottages,  or  are  made  use  of  as  a  material  for  mats  and  raiment.  The  wood  is 
hard  and  durable.  They  string  together  the  beautiful  red  and  yellow  colored  nuts  for 
ornaments,  and  wear  the  flowers  as  garlands.  When  the  tree  is  in  full  blossom,  the 
air  around  is  impregnated  with  delicious  aromas. 

The  grotesque  forms  of  the  Cactuses  possess  the  stiff"  rigidity  of  the  aloes.  Their 
fleshy  stems,  covered  with  a  gray-green  coriaceous  rind,  generally  exhibit  bunches  of 
hair  and  thorns  instead  of  leaves.  The  angular  columns  of  the  Cerei,  or  torch-cac- 
tuses, rise  to  the  hight  of  sixty  feet, — generally  branchless,  sometimes  strangely  rami- 
fied, as  candelabras,  while  others  creep  like  ropes  upon  the  ground,  or  hang,  snake- 


534  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

like,  from  the  trees,  on  which  they  are  parasitically  rooted.  The  Opuntias  arc  unsym- 
metrically  constructed  of  thick,  flat  joints  springing  one  from  the  other,  while  the 
melon-shaped  Echinocacti  and  Mammillarire,  longitudinally  ribbed  or  covered  with 
warts,  remain  attached  to  the  soil.  The  dimensions  of  these  monstrous  plants  are  ex- 
ceedingly variable.  One  of  the  Mexican  echinocacti  {E.  Visnaga)  measures  four 
feet  in  hight,  three  in  diameter,  and  weighs  about  two  hundred  pounds ;  while  the 
dwarf-cactus  (E.  nana)  is  so  small  that,  loosely  rooted  in  the  sand,  it  frequently  re- 
mains sticking  between  the  toes  of  the  dogs  that  pass  over  it.  The  splendid  purple 
flowers  of  the  cactuses  form  a  strange  contrast  to  the  deformity  of  their  stems,  and  the 
spectator  stands  astonished  at  the  glowing  life  that  springs  forth  from  so  unpromising 
a  stock.  These  strange  compounds  of  ugliness  and  beauty  are  in  many  respects  useful 
to  man.  The  pulp  of  the  melocacti,  which  remains  juicy  during  the  driest  season  of 
the  year,  is  one  of  the  vegetable  sources  of  the  wilderness,  and  refreshes  the  traveler 
after  he  has  carefully  removed  the  thorns.  Almost  all  of  them  bear  an  agreeable  acid 
fruit,  which,  under  the  name  of  the  Indian  fig,  is  consumed  in  large  quantities  in  the 
West  Indies  and  Mexico.  The  light  and  incorruptible  wood  is  admirably  adapted  for 
the  construction  of  oars  and  many  other  implements.  The  farmer  fences  his  garden 
with  the  prickly  opuntias  ;  but  the  services  which  they  render,  as  the  plants  on  which 
the  valuable  cochineal  insect  feeds  and  multiplies,  are  far  more  important. 

The  cactuses  prefer  the  most  arid  situation,  naked  plains,  or  slopes,  where  they  are 
fully  exposed  to  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun,  and  impart  a  peculiar  physiognomy  to  a 
great  part  of  tropical  America.  None  of  the  plants  belonging  to  this  family  existed 
in  the  Old  World  previously  to  the  discovery  of  America  ;  but  some  species  have 
since  then  rapidly  spread  over  the  warmer  regions  of  our  hemisphere.  The  Nopal 
( Cactus  opuntia)  skirts  the  Mediterranean  along  with  the  American  agave,  and 
from  the  coasts  has  even  penetrated  far  into  the  interior  of  Africa,  everywhere  main- 
taining its  ground,  and  conspicuously  figuring  among  the  primitive  vegetation  of  the 
land.  Although  chiefly  tropical,  the  cactuses  have  a  perpendicular  range,  which  but 
few  other  families  enjoy.  From  the  low  sand-coasts  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  they  ascend 
through  vales  and  ravines  to  the  highest  ridges  of  the  Andes. 

What  a  contrast  between  these  deformities  and  the  delicately  feathered  Mimosas, 
unrivaled  among  the  loveliest  children  of  Flora  in  the  matchless  elegance  of  their 
foliage  !  Our  acacias  give  but  a  faint  idea  of  the  beauty  which  these  plants  attain 
under  the  fostering  rays  of  a  tropical  sun.  In  most  species  the  branches  extend  hori- 
zontally, or  umbrella-shaped,  somewhat  like  those  of  the  Italian  pine,  and  the  deep- 
blue  sky  shining  through  the  light  green  foliage,  whose  delicacy  rivals  the  finest  em- 
broidery, has  an  extremely  picturesque  effect.  Endowed  with  a  wonderful  sensibility, 
many  of  the  mimosas  seem,  as  it  were,  to  have  outstepped  the  bounds  of  vegetable 
life,  and  to  rival  in  acuteness  of  feeling  the  coral  polyps  and  the  sea-anemones  of  the 
submarine  gardens.  The  Porliera  hygrometrica  foretells  serene  or  rainy  weather  by 
the  opening  or  closing  of  its  leaves.  Large  tracts  of  country  in  Brazil  are  almost 
entirely  covered  with  sensitive  plants.  The  tramp  of  a  horse  sets  the  nearest  ones  in 
motion,  and,  as  if  by  magic,  the  contraction  of  the  small  gray-green  leaflets  spreads  in 
quivering  circles  over  the  field,  making  one  almost  believe,  with  Darwin  and  Dutro- 
chet,  that  plants  have  feeling 

Among  the  most  remarkable  forms  of  tropical  vegetation,  the  creeping  plants,  bush- 


1.1ANAS— CLIMBING-TREES— KPiniYTES— ORCHIDS.  535 

ropes,  or  Lianas,  that  contribute  so  largely  to  the  impenetrability  of  the  forests,  hold 
a  conspicuous  rank.  Often  three  or  four  bushropes,  like  strands  in  a  cable,  join  tree 
to  tree,  and  branch  to  branch  ;  others,  descending  from  on  high,  take  root  as  soon  as 
their  extremity  touches  the  ground,  and  appear  like  shrouds  and  stays  supporting  the 
mainmast  of  a  line-of-battle  ship  ;  while  others  send  out  parallel,  oblique,  horizontal, 
and  perpendicular  shoots  in  all  directions.  Frequently  trees  above  a  hundred  feet 
high,  uprooted  by  the  storm,  are  stopped  in  their  fall  by  these  amazing  cables  of  Na- 
ture, and  are  thus  enabled  to  send  forth  vigorous  shoots,  though  far  from  their  perpen- 
dicular, with  their  trunks  inclined  to  every  degree  from  the  meridian  to  the  horizon. 
Their  heads  remain  firmly  supported  by  the  bushropes ;  many  of  their  roots  soon  refix 
themselves  in  the  earth,  and  frequently  a  strong  shoot  will  sprout  out  perpendicularly 
from  near  the  root  of  the  reclined  trunk,  and  in  time  become  a  stately  tree.  No  less 
pliable  than  tough,  the  lianas  of  the  western  hemisphere  are  used  by  the  Brazilians  as 
cordage  to  fasten  the  rafters  of  their  houses,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  equally  flexible 
ratans  are  employed  throughout  the  East  Indian  world. 

The  enormous  Climbing  Trees,  that  stifle  the  life  of  the  mightiest  giants  of  the  forest, 
offer  a  still  more  wonderful  spectacle.  At  first,  these  emblems  of  ingratitude  grow 
stryight  upwards  like  any  feeble  shrub,  but  as  soon  as  they  have  found  a  support  in 
other  trees,  they  begin  to  extend  over  their  surface ;  for,  while  the  stems  of  otlier 
plants  generally  assume  a  cylindrical  form,  these  climbers  have  the  peculiarity  of  di- 
vesting themselves  of  their  rind  when  brought  into  contact  with  an  extraneous  body, 
and  of  spreading  over  it,  until  they  at  length  enclose  it  in  a  tubular  mass.  When, 
during  this  process,  the  powers  of  the  original  root  are  weakened,  the  trunk  sends 
forth  new  props  to  restore  the  equilibrium  ;  and  thus  this  tough  and  hardy  race  con- 
tinually acquires  fresh  strength  for  the  ruin  of  its  neighbors. 

Several  species  of  the  fig-trees  are  peculiarly  remarkable  for  this  distinctive  prop- 
erty, and  from  the  facility  with  which  their  seeds  take  root  where  there  is  a  sufficiency 
of  moisture  to  permit  of  germination,  are  formidable  assailants  of  ancient  monuments. 
Sir  Emerson  Tennent  mentions  one  which  had  fixed  itself  on  the  walls  of  a  ruined 
edifice  at  Polanarrua,  and  formed  one  of  the  most  remarkable  objects  of  the  place,  its 
roots  streaming  downwards  over  the  walls  as  if  their  wood  had  once  been  fluid,  and 
following  every  sinuosity  of  the  building  and  terraces  till  they  reached  the  earth. 

On  the  borders  of  the  Rio  Guama,  the  celebrated  botanist,  Von  Martins,  saw  whole 
groups  of  Macauba  palms  encased  by  fig-trees  that  formed  thick  tubes  round  the  shafts 
of  the  palms,  whose  noble  crowns  rose  high  above  them  ;  and  a  similar  spectacle  occurs 
in  India  and  Ceylon,  when  the  Tamils  look  with  increased  veneration  on  their  sacred 
pippul  thus  united  in  marriage  with  the  palmyra.  After  the  incarcerated  trunk  has 
been  stifled  and  destroyed,  the  grotesque  form  of  the  parasite,  tubular,  cork-screw  like, 
or  otherwise  fantastically  contorted,  and  frequently  admitting  the  light  through  inter- 
stices like  loopholes  in  a  turret,  continues  to  maintain  an  independent  existence  among 
the  straight-stemmed  trees  of  the  forest, — the  image  of  an  eccentric  genius  in  the 
midst  of  a  group  of  steady  citizens. 

Like  the  mosses  and  lichens  of  our  woods.  Epiphytes  of  endless  variety  and  almost 
inconceivable  size  and  luxuriance  {ferns,  bromelias,  tillandsias,  orchids,  and  pothos) 
cover  in  the  tropical  zone  the  trunks  and  branches  of  the  forest  trees,  forming  hanging 
gardens,  far  more  splendid  than  those  of  ancient  Babylon.     While  the  Orcliids  arc 


536  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

distinguished  by  the  eccentric  forms  and  splendid  coloring  of  their  flowers,  sometimes 
resembling  winged  insects  or  birds,  the  Pothos  family  attracts  attention  by  the  beauty 
of  their  large,  thick-veined,  generally  arrow-shaped,  digitated,  or  elongated  leaves,  and 
form  a  beautiful  contrast  to  the  stiff  bromelias  or  the  hairy  tillandsias  that  conjointly 
adorn  the  knotty  stems  and  branches  of  the  ancient  trees. 

In  size  of  leaf,  the  Pothos  family  is  surpassed  by  the  large  tropical  water  plants, 
the  Nymphfeas  and  Nelumbias,  among  which  the  Victoria  regia,  discovered  in  1837 
by  Robert  Schomburgk  in  the  river  Berbice,  enjoys  the  greatest  celebrity.  The  round, 
light-green  leaves  of  this  queen  of  water-plants  measure  no  less  than  six  feet  in  diam- 
eter, and  are  surrounded  by  an  elevated  rim  several  inches  high,  and  exhibiting  the 
pale  carmine-red  of  the  under  surface.  The  odorous  white  blossoms,  deepening  into 
roseate  hues,  are  composed  of  several  hundred  petals  ;  and,  measuring  no  less  than 
fourteen  inches  in  diameter,  rival  the  colossal  proportions  of  the  leaves. 

The  trunk  of  several  tropical  trees  offers  the  remarkable  peculiarity  of  bulging  out 
in  the  middle  like  a  barrel.  In  the  Brazilian  forests,  the  Pao  Barrigudo  arrests  the 
attention  of  every  traveler  by  its  odd  ventricose  shape,  nearly  half  as  broad  in  the 
centre  as  long,  and  gradually  tapering  towards  the  bottom  and  the  top,  whence  spring 
a  few  thin  and  scanty  branches. 

In  other  trees  which,  struggling  upwards  to  air  and  light,  attain  a  prodigious  alti- 
tude, or  from  their  enormous  girth  and  the  colossal  expansion  of  their  branches  require 
steadying  from  beneath,  we  find  buttresses  projecting  like  rays  from  all  sides  of  the 
trunk.  They  are  frequently  from  six  to  twelve  inches  thick,  and  project  from  five  to 
fifteen  feet,  and,  as  they  ascend,  gradually  sink  into  the  bole  and  disappear  at  the 
bight  of  from  ten  to  twenty  feet  from  the  ground.  By  the  firm  resistance  which  they 
oflPer  below,  the  trees  are  effectually  protected  from  the  leverage  of  the  crown,  by 
which  they  would  otherwise  be  uprooted.  Some  of  these  buttresses  are  so  smooth 
and  flat  as  almost  to  resemble  sawn  planks ;  as,  for  instance,  in  the  Bombax  ceiha, 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  examples  of  this  wonderful  device  of  Nature. 

In  other  cases  we  find  the  roots  fantastically  spreading  and  reveling  in  a  variety  of 
grotesque  shapes,  such  as  we  nowhere  find  in  the  less  exuberant  vegetation  of  Europe. 
Thus,  in  the  India  rubber  tree  (Ficus  elastica),  masses  of  the  roots  appear  above 
ground,  extending  on  all  §ides  from  the  base,  and  writhing  over  the  surface  in  serpen- 
tine undulations,  so  that  the  Indian  villagers  give  it  the  name  of  the  snake-tree.  Sir 
Emerson  Tennent  mentions  an  avenue  of  these  trees  leading  to  the  botanical  garden 
of  Peradenia,  in  Ceylon,  the  roots  of  which  meet  from  either  side  of  the  road,  and 
have  so  covered  the  surface,  as  to  form  a  wooden  frame-work,  the  interstices  of  which 
retain  the  materials  that  form  the  roadway.  These  tangled  roots  sometimes  trail  to 
such  an  extent,  that  they  have  been  found  upwards  of  140  feet  in  length,  whilst  the 
tree  itself  was  not  thirty  feet  high. 

The  thorns  and  spines  with  which  many  European  plants  are  armed,  give  but  a 
faint  idea  of  the  size  which  these  defensive  weapons  attain  in  the  tropical  zone.  The 
cactuses,  the  acacias,  and  many  of  the  palm  trees,  bristle  with  sharp-pointed  shafts, 
aflfbrding  ample  protection  against  the  attacks  of  hungry  animals,  and  might  appropri- 
ately be  called  vegetable  hedge-hogs,  or  porcupines.  The  Toddalia  acideata,  a  climb- 
ing plant,  very  common  in  the  hill-jungles  of  Ceylon,  is  thickly  studded  with  knobs, 
about  half  an  inch  high,  and  from  the  extremity  of  each  a  thorn  protrudes,  as  large 


THORNY   PLANTS— MANGROVES.  537 

and  sharp  as  the  bill  of  a  sparrow-hawk.  The  black  twigs  of  the  buffalo-thorn  (Acacia 
latronum),  a  low  shrub,  abounding  in  northern  Ceylon,  are  beset  at  every  joint  by  a 
pair  of  thorns  set  opposite  each  other,  like  the  horns  of  an  ox,  as  sharp  as  a  needle, 
from  two  to  three  inches  in  length,  and  thicker  at  the  base  than  the  stem  they  grow 
on;  and  the  Acacia  tomentosa,  another  member  of  the  same  numerous  genus,  has 
thorns  so  large  as  to  be  called  the  jungle-nail  by  Europeans,  and  the  elephant-thorn 
by  the  natives.  In  some  of  these  thorny  plants,  the  spines  grow,  not  singly,  but  in 
branching  clusters,  each  point  presenting  a  spike  as  sharp  as  a  lancet;  and  where 
these  shrubs  abound,  they  render  the  forest  absolutely  impassable,  even  to  animals  of 
the  greatest  size  and  strength.  The  formidable  thorny  plants  of  the  torrid  zone,  which 
are  often  made  use  of  by  man  to  protect  his  fields  and  plantations  against  wild  beasts 
and  robbers,  have  sometimes  even  been  made  to  serve  as  a  bulwark  against  hostile 
invasions.  Thus  Sir  Emerson  Tennent  informs  us,  that  during  the  existence  of  the 
Kandyan  kingdom,  before  its  conquest  by  the  British,  the  frontier  forests  were  so 
thickened  and  defended  by  dense  plantations  of  thorny  plants,  as  to  form  a  natural 
fortification  impregnable  to  the  feeble  tribes  on  the  other  side  ;  and  at  each  pass  which 
led  to  the  level  country,  movable  gates,  formed  of  the  same  thorny  beams,  were  sus- 
pended as  an  ample  security  against  the  incursions  of  the  naked  and  timid  lowlanders. 

In  the  tropical  zone,  wherever  the  reflux  of  the  tide  exposes  a  broad  belt  of  alluvial 
soil,  the  shores  of  the  sea,  particularly  along  the  estuaries  of  rivers  or  in  the  shallow 
lagoons,  are  generally  found  fringed  with  a  dense  vegetation  of  3Iangroves.  For  no 
plants  are  more  admirably  adapted  for  securing  a  footing  on  the  unstable  brink  of  the 
ocean, — none  are  better  formed  to  lead  an  amphibious  life.  The  growth  of  these  salt- 
water loving  trees  is  equally  peculiar  and  picturesque.  The  seeds  germinate  on  the 
branches,  and,  increasing  to  a  considerable  length,  finally  fall  down  into  the  mud, 
where  they  stick,  with  their  sharp  point  buried,  and  soon  take  root.  The  fruits  of 
many  plants  are  furnished  with  wings,  that  the  winds  may  carry  them  far  away  and 
propagate  them  from  land  to  land;  others,  enveloped  in  hard,  water-proof  shells,  float 
on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  are  wafted  by  the  currents  to  distant  coasts ;  but  here 
we  have  a  plant,  the  seeds  of  which  were  destined  to  remain  fixed  on  an  uncertain 
soil,  close  to  the  parent-plant,  and  surely  this  end  could  not  have  been  attained  in  a 
more  beautiful  manner !  As  the  young  mangrove  grows  upwards,  pendulous  roots 
issue  from  the  trunk  and  low  branches,  and  ultimately  strike  into  the  muddy  ground, 
where  they  increase  to  the  thickness  of  a  man's  leg ;  so  that  the  whole  has  the  appear- 
ance of  a  complicated  series  of  loops  and  arches,  from  five  to  ten  feet  high,  supporting 
the  body  of  the  tree  like  so  many  artificial  stakes.  Their  influence  in  promoting  the 
growth  of  land  is  very  great,  and  in  course  of  time  they  advance  over  the  shallow  bor- 
ders of  the  ocean.  Their  matted  roots  stem  the  flow  of  the  waters,  and,  retaining  the 
earthy  particles  that  sink  to  the  bottom  between  them,  gradually  raise  the  level  of  the 
soil.  As  the  new  formation  progresses,  thousands  of  seeds  begin  to  germinate  upon 
its  muddy  foundation,  thousands  of  cables  descend,  still  farther  to  consolidate  it ;  and 
thus  foot  by  foot,  year  after  year,  the  mangroves  extend  their  empire  and  encroach 
upon  the  maritime  domains. 

A  whole  world  of  interesting  discoveries  would  here,  no  doubt,  reward  the  natural- 
ist's attention ;  but  the  mangroves  know  well  how  to  guard  their  secrets,  and  to  repel 
tae  curiosity  of  man.     Should  he  attempt  to  invade  their  domains,  clouds  of  blood- 


538  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

thirsty  insects  would  instantly  make  him  repeat  of  his  temerity ;  for  the  plague  of  the 
mosquitoes  is  nowhere  more  dreadful  than  in  these  thickets.  And  supposing  his 
scientific  zeal  intense  enough  to  bid  defiance  to  the  torture  of  their  stings,  and  to  scorn 
the  attacks  of  every  other  visible  foe — insect  or  serpent,  crocodile  or  beast  of  prey — 
that  may  be  lurking  among  the  mangroves,  yet  the  reflection  may  well  bid  him  pause, 
that  poisonous  vapours,  pregnant  with  cholera  or  yellow  fever,  are  constantly  rising 
from  that  muddy  soil.  Even  in  the  temperate  regions  of  Europe  the  emanations  from 
marshy  grounds  are  pregnant  with  disease,  but  the  malaria  ascending  from  the  sultry 
morasses  of  the  torrid  zone  is  absolutely  deadly.  Thus  there  cannot  possibly  be  a 
better  natural  bulwark  for  a  land  than  to  be  belted  with  mangroves ;  and  if  Borneo, 
Madagascar,  Celebes,  and  many  other  tropical  islands  and  coasts,  have  to  the  present 
day  remained  free  from  the  European  yoke,  they  are  principally  indebted  for  their 
independence  to  the  miasms  and  tangles  of  a  mangrove  girdle,  bidding  defiance  alike 
to  the  sharp  edge  of  the  axe  or  the  destructive  agency  of  fire. 

Next  to  the  mangroves,  the  Bruguieras,  the  Avicennias,  the  Sonneratias,  and  various 
species  of  palms,  such  as  the  Nipa  fruticans  and  the  Phcenix  paludosa,  a  dwarf  date- 
tree,  which  literally  covers  the  islands  of  the  Sunderbunds,  at  the  delta  of  the  Ganges, 
form  conspicuous  features  in  the  marsh-forests  of  the  torrid  zone.  The  magnificent 
Avicennia  tomentosa,  which,  with  a  more  majestic  growth  than  the  rhizophora,  raises 
its  crown  to  the  hight  of  seventy  feet,  and  is  said  to  flourish  throughout  the  whole 
rano-e  of  the  tropics  as  far  as  the  flood  extends,  mixes  with  the  mangroves,  standing 
like  them  on  overarching  roots.  The  Sonneratias  (acida,  alba)  grows  along  the 
marshy  banks  of  the  large  rivers  of  India,  the  Moluccas,  and  New  Guinea;  their  roots 
spread  far  and  wide  through  the  soft  mud,  and  at  various  distances  send  up,  like  the 
avicennias,  extraordinarily  long  spindle-shaped  excrescences  four  or  five  feet  above  the 
surface.  These  curious  formations  spring  very  narrow  from  the  root,  expand  as  they 
rise,  and  then  become  gradually  attenuated,  occasionally  forking,  but  never  throwing 
out  shoots  or  leaves,  or  in  any  way  resembling  the  parent  root.  For  lining  insect- 
boxes  and  making  setting-boards  they  are  unequalled,  as  the  finest  pin  passes  in  easily 
and  smoothly,  and  is  held  so  firmly  and  tightly  that  there  is  no  risk  of  the  insects 
becoming  disengaged.  In  fact  Nature,  while  forming  them,  seems  to  have  had  the 
entomologist  in  view,  and  to  have  studied  how  to  gratify  his  wishes. 

But  of  all  trees  none  are  so  distinctively  characteristic  of  the  Tropical  World  as  the 
different  species  of  the  Palm.  They  assume  every  variety  of  form,  but  all  are  beauti- 
ful. We  shall  undertake  to  mention  only  a  few  of  those  which  are  of  special  utility 
to  man.  The  graceful  Acanthus  gave  the  imaginative  Greeks  the  first  idea  of  the 
Corinthian  capital;  but  the  shady  canopy  of  the  Cocoa-nut  tree  would  form  a  still 
more  beautiful  architectural  ornament  of  architecture,  were  it  possible  for  art  to  imitate 
its  feathery  fronds  and  carve  their  delicate  tracery  in  stone.  No  cathedral  has  a  pil- 
lared aisle  so  magnificent  as  the  famous  Avenue  of  Palms  in  the  Botanical  Garden  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  tall  stems  rise  to  the  bight  of  eighty  feet,  and  their  overarching 
branches  interlace,  forn)ing  a  roof  whose  beauty  human  hands  can  never  imitate. 

Essentially  littoral,  this  noble  palm  requires  an  atmosphere  damp  with  the  spray 
and  moisture  of  the  sea  to  acquire  its  full  stateliness  of  growth ;  and  while  along  the 
bleak  shores  of  the  Northern  Ocean  the  trees  are  generally  bent  landward  by  the 
rough  sea  breeze,  and  send  forth  no  branches  to  face  its  violence,  the  cocoa,  on  the 


THE   COCOA- PALM   AND  ITS   USES.  539 

contrary,  loves  to  bend  over  the  rolling  surf,  and  to  drop  its  fruits  into  the  tiilal  wave. 
Wafted  by  the  winds  and  currents  over  the  sea,  the  nuts  float  along  without  losing 
their  germinating  power,  like  other  seeds  which  migrate  through  the  air;  and  thus, 
during  the  lapse  of  centuries,  the  cocoa-palm  has  spread  its  wide  domain  from  coast  to 
coast  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  tropical  zone.  It  waves  its  graceful  fronds 
over  the  emerald  islands  of  the  Pacific,  fringes  the  West  Indian  shores,  and  from  the 
Philippines  to  Madagascar  crowns  the  atolls,  or  girds  the  sea-board  of  the  Indian 
OceaH.  But  nowhere  is  it  met  with  in 
such  abundance  as  on  the  coasts  of  Cey- 
lon, where  for  miles  and  miles  one  con- 
tinuous grove  of  palms,  preeminent  for 
beauty,  encircles  the  "  Eden  of  the  east- 
ern wave."  Multiplied  by  plantations 
and  fostered  with  assiduous  care,  the  total 
number  in  the  island  cannot  be  less  than 
twenty  millions  of  full-grown  trees;  and 
such  is  its  luxuriance  in  those  favored  dis 
tricts,  where  it  "meets  with  a  rare  combina- 
tion of  every  advantage  essential  to  its 
growth,  a  sandy  and  pervious  soil,  a  free 
and  genial  air,  unobstructed  solar  heat, 
and  abundance  of  water,  that,  when  in  full 
bearing,  it  will  annually  yield  as  much  as 
a  ton's  weight  of  nuts — an  example  of 
fruitfulness  almost  unrivalled  even  in  the 
torrid  zone.  ^    ^ 

No  other  tree  in  the  world,  no  other  °°^^J 
plant  cultivated  by  man,  contributes  in  so 
many  ways  to  his  wants  and  comforts  as 
this  inestimable  palm.  Besides  furnish- 
ing their  chief  food  to  many  tribes  on  the 
coast  within  the  torrid  zone,  the  nut  con- 
tains a  valuable  oil,  which  burns  without 
smoke  or  smell,  and  serves,  when  fresh, 
for  culinary  purposes. 

The  fibrous  rind  or  husk  of  the  nut  fur- 
nishes the  coir  of  commerce,  a  scarce  less 
important  article  of  trade  than  the  oil  itself, 
months  in  water,  for  the  purpose  of  decomposing  the  interstitial  pith,  after  which  it  is 
beaten  to  pieces  until  the  fibres  have  completely  separated,  and  ultimately  dried  in  the 
sun.  Ropes  made  of  coir,  though  not  so  neat  in  appearance  as  hempen  cords,  are 
superior  in  lightness,  and  exceed  them  in  durability,  particularly  if  wetted  frequently 
by  salt  water.  From  their  elasticity  and  strength  they  are  exceedingly  valuable  fur 
cables.  Besides  cordage  of  every  calibre,  beds,  cushions,  carpets,  brashes,  and  iiet.s 
are  manufactured  from  the  filaments  of  the  cocoa-nut  husk,  while  the  hard  shell  is 
fashioned   into  drinking-cups,  spoons,  beads,   bottles,  and  knife-handles.     From  the 


AVENUE  OF  PALMS RIO  DE  JANEIRO. 

It  is  prepared  by  being  soaked  for  some 


540  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

spatbes  of  the  unopened  flowers  a  delicious  "toddy"  is  drawn,  which,  drunk  at  sun- 
rise before  fermentation  has  taken  place,  acts  as  a  cooling,  gentle  aperient,  but  in  a'few 
hours  changes  into  an  intoxicating  wine,  and  may  be  distilled  into  arrack.  The  strong 
tough  foot-stalks  of  the  fronds,  which  attain  a  length  of  from  eighteen  to  twenty  feet, 
are  used  for  fences,  for  yokes,  for  carrying  burdens  on  the  shoulders,  for  fishing-rods ; 
the  leaflets  serve  for  roofiing,  for  mats,  for  baskets,  for  cattle-fodder  ;  and  their  raid- 
ribs  form  good  brooms  for  the  decks  of  ships.  Cooked  or  stewed,  the  cabbage  or 
cluster  of  unexpanded  leaves  is  an  excellent  vegetable,  though  rarely  used,  as  it  neces- 
sarily involves  the  destruction  of  the  tree  ;  and  even  the  tough  web  or  network,  which 
sustains  the  foot-stalks  of  the  leaves,  may  be  stripped  off  in  large  pieces  and  used  for 
straining.  After  the  cocoa-nut  tree  has  ceased  to  bear,  its  wood  serves  for  many  val- 
uable purposes — for  the  building  of  ships,  bungalows,  and  huts,  for  furniture  and 
farming  implements  of  every  description ;  and,  as  it  admits  of  a  fine  polish,  and  its 
reddish  ground  color  is  beautifully  veined  with  dark  lines,  it  is  frequently  imported 
into  England  under  the  name  of  porcupine-wood.  When  we  consider  the  many  bene- 
fits conferred  upon  mankind  by  this  inestimable  tree,  we  cannot  wonder  at  the  anima- 
tion with  which  the  islander  of  the  Indian  Ocean  recounts  its  "  hundred  uses,"  or  at 
the  superstition  which  makes  him  believe  that  by  some  mysterious  sympathy  it  pines 
when  beyond  the  reach  of  the  human  voice. 

In  every  zone  we  find  nations  in  a  low  degree  of  civilization  living  almost  exclu- 
sively upon  a  single  animal  or  plant.  The  Laplander  has  his  reindeer,  the  Esquimau 
his  seal,  the  Sandwich  Islander  his  taro-root ;  and  thus  also  we  find  the  natives  of  a 
great  part  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  living  almost  exclusively  upon  the  pith  of  the 
Sago  palm.  Of  this  tree,  which  is  of  such  great  importance  to  the  indolent  Malay, 
as  it  almost  entirely  relieves  him  of  the  necessity  of  labor,  we  shall  speak  hereafter,  in 
connection  with  its  use  as  furnishing  nutrition  to  man. 

The  Saguer  or  Gomuti,  the  ugliest  of  palms,  but  almost  rivaling  the  cocoa-nut  tree 
by  the  multiplicity  of  its  uses,  is  likewise  a  native  of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  On 
seeing  its  rough  and  swarthy  rind,  and  the  dull  dark-green  color  of  its  fronds,  the 
stranger  wonders  how  it  is  allowed  to  stand,  but  when  he  has  tasted  its  delicious  wine 
he  is  astonished  not  to  see  it  cultivated  in  greater  numbers.  Although  the  outer  cov- 
ering of  the  fruit  has  venomous  qualities,  and  is  used  by  the  Malays  to  poison  springs, 
the  nuts  have  a  delicate  flavor,  and  the  wounded  spathe  yields  an  excellent  toddy, 
which,  like  that  of  the  cocoa-nut  and  the  palmyra  palm,  changes  by  fermentation  into 
an  intoxicating  wine,  and  on  being  thickened  by  boiling  furnishes  a  kind  of  black  sugar, 
much  used  by  the  natives  of  Java  and  the  adjacent  isles.  The  reticulum  or  fibrous  net 
at  the  base  of  the  petioles  of  the  leaves  constitutes  the  gumatty,  a  substance  admirably 
adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  cables,  and  extensively  used  for  cordage  of  every  de- 
scription. The  gumatty  is  black  as  jet,  the  hairs  extremely  strong,  and  resembling 
coir,  except  that  they  are  longer  and  finer.  The  small,  hard  twigs  found  mixed  up 
with  this  material  are  employed  as  pens,  besides  forming  the  shafts  of  the  sumpits,  or 
little  poisoned  arrows  of  the  Malays,  and  underneath  the  reticulum  is  a  soft  silky  ma- 
terial, used  as  tinder  by  the  Chinese,  and  applied  as  oakum  in  caulking  the  seams  of 
ships,  while  from  the  interior  of  the  trunk  a  kind  of  sago  is  prepared. 

The  Areca  palm  {Areca  Catechu)  bears  a  great  resemblance  to  the  cocoa-nut  tree, 
but  is  of  a  still  more  graceful  form,  rising  to  the  hight  of  forty  or  fifty  feet,  without 


THE   ARECA,   PALMYRA,   AND   TALIPOT  PALMS— RATANS.       oil 

any  inequality  on  its  thin  polished  stem,  which  is  dark-green  towards  the  top,  and  sus- 
tains a  crown  of  feathery  foliage,  in  the  midst  of  which  are  clustered  the  astringent 
nuts,  for  whose  sake  it  is  carefully  tended.  In  the  gardens  of  Ceylon  the  areca  palm 
is  invariably  planted  near  the  wells  and  water-courses,  and  the  betel  plant,  which  imme- 
morial custom  has  associated  to  its  use,  is  frequently  seen  twinim^  round  its  trunk. 

The  Palmyra  palm,  the  sacred  Talgaha  of  the  Brahminical  Tamils  of  Ceylon,  ex- 
tends from  the  confines  of  Arabia  to  the  Moluccas,  and  is  found  in  every  region  of 
Hindostan  from  the  Indus  to  Siam,  the  cocoa  and  the  date  tree  being  probably  the  only 
palms  that  enjoy  a  still  wider  geographical  range.  In  northern  Ceylon,  and  particularly 
in  the  peninsula  of  Jaffna,  it  forms  extensive  forests ;  and  such  is  its  importance  in 
the  Southern  Dekkan  and  along  the  Coromandel  coast,  that  its  fruits  afford  a  compen- 
sating resource  to  seven  millions  of  Hindoos  on  every  occasion  of  famine  or  failure  of 
the  rice  crop.  Unlike  the  cocoa-nut  palm,  which  gracefully  bends  under  its  ponderous 
crown,  the  palmyra  rises  vertically  to  its  full  Light  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet,  and  pre- 
sents a  truly  majestic  sight  when  laden  with  its  huge  clusters  of  fruits,  each  the  size 
of  an  ostrich's  egg,  and  of  a  rich  brown  tint,  fading  into  bright  golden  at  its  base. 
The  Palmyra  rivals  the  cocoa-nut  and  the  gomuti  by  its  many  uses,  and  Hindoo  poets 
celebrate  the  numerous  blessings  it  confers  upon  mankind. 

The  Talipot  of  the  Singalese  rises  to  the  hight  of  one  hundred  feet,  and  expands 
into  a  crown  of  enormous  fan-like  leaves,  each  of  which  when  laid  upon  the  ground 
will  form  a  semicircle  of  sixteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  cover  an  area  of  nearly  two 
hundred  superficial  feet.  These  gigantic  foliaceous  expansions  are  employed  by  the 
Singalese  for  many  purposes.  They  form  excellent  fans,  umbrellas,  or  portable  tents, 
one  leaf  being  sufficient  to  shelter  seven  or  eight  persons;  but  their  most  interesting 
use  is  for  the  manufacture  of  a  kind  of  paper,  so  durable  as  to  resist  for  many  ages  the 
ravages  of  time.  The  leaves  are  taken  whilst  still  tender,  cut  into  strips,  boiled  in 
spring  water,  dried,  and  finally  smoothed  and  polished,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  be 
written  on  with  a  style,  the  furrow  made  by  the  pressure  of  the  sharp  point  being  ren- 
dered visible  by  the  application  of  charcoal  ground  with  a  fragrant  oil.  The  leaves  of 
the  palmyra  similarly  prepared  are  used  for  ordinary  purposes ;  but  the  most  valuable 
books  and  documents  are  written  to-day,  as  they  have  been  for  ages  past,  on  olas  or 
strips  of  the  talipot. 

The  Ratans,  a  most  singular  genus  of  creeping  palms,  luxuriate  in  the  forests  of 
tropical  Asia.  Sometimes  their  slender  stems,  armed  with  dreadful  spines  at  every 
joint,  climb  to  the  summit  of  the  highest  tree ;  sometimes  they  run  along  the  ground ; 
and  while  it  is  impossible  to  find  out  their  roots  among  the  intricate  tangles  of  the 
matted  underwood,  their  palm-like  topes  expand  in  the  sunshine,  the  emblems  of 
successful  parasitism.  They  frequently  render  the  forest  so  impervious,  that  the  dis- 
tinguished naturalist  Junghuhn,  while  exploring  the  woods  of  Java,  was  obliged  to  be 
accompanied  by  a  vanguard  of  eight  men,  one  half  of  whom  were  busy  cutting  the 
ratans  with  their  hatchets,  while  the  others  removed  the  stems.  These  rope-like  plants 
frequently  grow  to  the  incredible  length  of  four  or  even  six  hundred  feet,  often  con- 
sisting of  a  couple  of  hundred  joints  two  or  three  feet  long,  and  bearing  at  every  knot 
a  feathery  leaf,  armed  with  thorns  on  its  lower  surface.  Tennent  mentions  having 
seen  a  specimen  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long  and  an  inch  in  diameter,  without  a 
single  irregularity,  and  no  appearance  of  foliage  other  than  the  bunch  of  feathery  leaves 


542  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

at  the  extremity.  Though  often  extremely  disagreeable  to  the  traveler,  yet  the  ratans 
are  far  from  being  useless.  The  natives  of  Java  and  the  other  islands  of  the  Eastern 
Archipelago  cut  the  cane  into  fine  slips,  which  they  plait  into  beautiful  mats,  manu- 
facture into  strong  and  neat  baskets,  or  twist  into  cordage ;  and  they  are  also  exten- 
sively exported  to  Europe,  where  they  are  chiefly  employed  for  the  making  of  chair 
bottoms. 

On  turning  from  Asia  to  the  adjoining  continent  of  Africa,  we  find  a  new  world  of 
palms,  several  of  which  are  no  less  valuable  than  the  cocoa-nut  or  the  palmyra,  either 
as  affording  food,  or  enriching  by  their  produce  the  commerce  of  the  world. 

The  Date-tree,  sung  from  time  immemorial  by  the  poets  of  the  East,  is  as  indispens- 
able as  the  camel  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  wastes  of  North  Africa  and  Arabia,  and, 
next  to  the  "ship  of  the  desert,"  the  devout  Mussulman  esteems  it  the  chief  gift  of 
Allah.  Few  palms  have  a  wider  range,  for  it  extends  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the 
borders  of  the  Atlantic,  and  flourishes  from  the  twelfth  to  the  thirty-seventh  deoree 
of  northern  latitude.  Groves  of  dates  adorn  the  coasts  of  Valencia  in  Spain ;  near 
Genoa  its  plantations  afibrd  leaves  for  the  celebration  of  Palm  Sunday  ;  and  in  the 
gardens  of  southern  France  a  date  tree  sometimes  mixes  among  the  oranges  and  olives. 
But  it  never  bears  fruit  on  these  northern  limits  of  its  empire,  and  thrives  best  in  the 
oases  on  the  borders  of  the  sandy  desert.  Here  it  is  cultivated  with  the  greatest  care, 
and  irrigated  every  morning ;  for,  though  it  will  grow  on  an  arid  soil,  it  absolutely 
requires  water  to  be  fruitful.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  tribes  of  the  desert 
so  highly  value  a  tree  which,  by  enabling  a  family  to  live  on  the  produce  of  a  small 
spot  of  ground,  extends  as  it  were  the  bounds  of  the  green  islands  of  the  desert,  and 
rarely  disappoints  the  industry  that  has  been  bestowed  on  its  culture.  It  is  considered 
criminal  to  fell  it  while  still  in  its  vigor,  and  both  the  Bible  and  the  Koran  forbid  the 
warriors  of  the  true  God  to  apply  the  axe  to  the  date  trees  of  an  enemy. 

Thus  various  forms  of  palms  flourish  along  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  but  in  general 
Africa  has  a  less  number  of  these  trees  to  boast  of  than  either  Asia  or  America.  On 
the  other  hand,  neither  India  nor  Brazil  have  palms  of  such  vast  commercial  impor- 
tance as  the  Cocos  hutyracea,  and  the  Elceis  guineensis,  the  oil-teeming  fruit  trees  of 
tropical  West  Africa.  The  productiveness  of  the  Elaeis  may  be  inferred  from  its  bear- 
ing clusters  of  from  GOO  to  800  nuts,  larger  than  a  pigeon's  egg,  and  so  full  of  oil  that 
it  may  be  pressed  out  with  the  fingers. 

Besides  the  hight  of  the  shaft,  the  position  of  the  leaves  serves  chiefly  to  impart  a 
more  or  less  majestic  character  to  the  palms :  those  with  drooping  leaves  being  far  less 
stately  than  those  whose  fronds  shoot  more  or  less  upwards  to  the  skies.  Nothing  can 
exceed  the  elegance  of  the  Jagua  palm,  which  along  with  the  splendid  Cucuiito  adorns 
the  granite  rocks  in  the  cataracts  of  the  Orinoco  at  Atures  and  Maypures.  The  fronds, 
which  are  but  few  in  number,  rise  almost  perpendicularly  sixteen  feet  high,  from  the 
top  of  the  lofty  columnar  shaft,  and  their  feathery  leaflets  of  a  thin  and  grass-like  texture 
play  lightly  round  the  tall  leaf-stalks,  slowly  bending  in  the  breeze.  The  physiognomy 
of  the  palms  depends  also  upon  the  various  character  of  their  efflorescence.  The  spathe 
is  seldom  vertical,  with  erect  fruits;  generally  it  hangs  downwards,  sometimes  smooth, 
frequently  armed  with  large  thorns. 

In  the  palms  with  a  feathery  foliage,  the  leaf -stalks  rise  either  immediately  from  the 
brown  rugged  ligneous  trunk  (cocoa-nut,  date),  or,  as  in  the  beautiful  Palraa  Real  of 


DIFFERENT   SPECIES   OF    PAEMS. 


543 


the  Havana,  from  a  smooth,  slender,  and  grass-green  shaft,  placed  like  an  additional 
column  upon  the  dark-colored  trunk.  In  the  fan-p:dms,  the  crown  frequently  rests 
upon  a  layer  of  dried  leaves,  which  impart  a  severe  character  to  the  tree. 


The  form  of  the  trunk  also  varies  greatly,  sometimes  almost  entirely  dit^appearing,  as 
in  Chamcerops  humilis ;  sometimes,  as  in  the  Calami,  assuming  a  bush-rope  appear- 
ance, smooth  or  rugged,  unarmed  or  bristling  with  spines.     In  the  American  Yriarteas. 


544  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

the  trunk,  as  in  the  mangroves,  and  many  of  the  screw-pines,  rests  upon  a  number  of 
roots  rising  above  the  ground.  Thus  the  T.  exorrhiza,  which  grows  on  the  banks 
of  the  Amazon  to  the  hight  of  a  hundred  feet,  frequently  stands  upon  a  dozen  or  more 
supports,  embracing  a  circumference  of  twenty  feet,  and  the  trunk  begins  only  six  or 
eight  feet  from  the  ground.  The  Triartea  ventricosa  is  still  more  curious,  as  the 
spindle-shaped  trunk,  which  at  the  top  and  at  the  bottom  is  scarce  a  foot  thick,  swells 
in  the  middle  to  a  threefold  diameter,  and,  from  its  convenient  form,  is  frequently 
used  by  the  Indians  for  the  construction  of  their  canoes. 

The  form  and  color  of  the  fruits  is  also  extremely  various.  What  a  difference 
between  the  large  coco  de  mer  and  the  date — between  the  egg  shaped  fruits  of  the 
Mauritia,  whose  scaly  dark  rind  gives  them  the  appearance  of  fir-cones,  and  the  gold 
and  purple  peaches  of  the  Pirijao,  hanging  in  colossal  clusters  of  sixty  or  eighty  from 
the  summit  of  the  majestic  trunk.  Notwithstanding  the  fecundity  of  the  palms,  gen- 
erally but  few  individuals  of  each  species  are  found  growing  wild,  partly  in  conse- 
quence of  the  frequent  abortive  development  of  the  fruits,  but  chiefly  on  account  of 
the  large  viuraber  of  animals — from  the  grub  to  the  monkey — that  are  constantly  feed- 
ing upon  them. 

When  we  consider  the  enormous  range  of  territory  over  which  the  palm-trees 
extend,  and  how  very  few  of  their  many  hundred  species  have  hitherto  been  multiplied 
and  improved  by  cultivation,  we  can  not  doubt  that  many  benefits  are  yet  to  be 
expected  from  them,  and  that  they  will  at  some  day  rank  high  in  the  commercial 
annals  of  the  world. 


RICE   AND  ITS   CULTIVATION.  545 


CHAPTER  VI.  : 

THE  CHIEF  NUTRITIVE  PLANTS  OF  THE  TROPICAL  WORLD. 

Rice— Aspects  of  Rice-Fields  at  Different  Seasons— The  Rice-Fields  of  Ceylon— Ladang  and 
Sawa  Rice — Rice  in  South  Carolina — The  Rice-Bird — Paddy — Maize — Wiien  first  brought 
to  Europe — Appearance  of  the  Plant — Its  Enormous  Productiveness — Freedom  from  Dis- 
ease— Wide  Extent  of  its  Cultivation — Benjamin  Franklin's  Account  of  Maize — Millet — 
The  Bread-Fruit — Its  Taste — Modes  of  Cooking— The  Banana  and  Plantain— Their  Great 
Productiveness — The  Sago  Palm — Manufacture  of  Sago — Sago  Bread — Cheap  Living — A 
Siesta  and  Starvation — The  Cassava — Yams — The  Sweet  Potato — Arrow  Root — The  Taro 
Root — Tropical  Fruits — The  Chirinioya — The  Litchi — The  Mangosteen — The  Mango — 
The  Durion — Its  Taste  and  Smell — Large  Fruit  on  Tall  Trees. 

OF  all  the  cereals  there  is  none  that  affords  food  to  so  many  human  beings  as  the 
Rice- Plant,  i^Oryza  saliva,')  upon  whose  grains  from  time  immemorial  the 
countless  millions  of  South-eastern  Asia  have  chiefly  subsisted.  It  forms  the  staple, 
one  might  almost  say  the  only  food,  of  a  third  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe.  The 
failure  of  the  rice  crop  for  a  single  season  in  India  oi-  China  causes  a  famine  compared 
with  which  the  potato  famine  of  Ireland  was  nothing.  From  its  primitive  seat  in 
India,  the  rice-plant  has  gradually  spread  not  only  over  the  whole  Tropical  World, 
but  far  beyoad  its  bounds ;  for  it  thrives  alike  in  the  swamps  of  South  Carolina  and 
upon  the  plains  bordering  the  Danube  and  the  Po.  Along  the  low  river  banks,  in 
the  delta-lands  which  the  rains  of  the  tropics  annually  change  into  a  boundless  lake,  or 
where,  by  artificial  embankments,  the  waters  of  the  mountain  streams  have  been  col- 
lected into  tanks  for  irrigation,  the  rice-plant  attains  its  utmost  luxuriance  of  growth, 
and  but  rarely  deceives  the  hopes  of  the  husbandman. 

The  aspect  of  the  lowland  rice-fields  of  India  and  its  isles  is  very  different  at  various 
seasons  of  the  year.  Wliere,  in  Java,  for  instance,  you  see  to-day  long-legged  herons 
gravely  stalking  over  the  inundated  plain  partitioned  by  small  dykes,  or  a  yoke  of 
indolent  buffaloes  slowly  wading  through  the  mud,  you  will  three  or  four  months  later 
be  charmed  by  the  view  of  a  gracefully  undulating  wheat-field.  Cords,  to  which  scare- 
crows are  attached,  traverse  the  field  in  every  direction,  and  converge  to  a  small 
watch-house,  erected  on  high  poles.  Here  the  attentive  villager  sits,  like  a  spider  in 
the  center  of  its  web,  and,  by  pulling  the  cords,  puts  them  from  time  to  time  into 
motion,  whenever  the  wind  is  unwilling  to  undertake  the  office.  Then  the  grotesque 
and  noisy  figures  begin  to  rustle  and  to  caper,  and  whole  flocks  of  the  noat  little  rice- 
bird  or  Java  sparrow  rise  on  the  wing,  and  hurry  ofl"  with  all  the  haste  of  guilty  fright. 
After  another  month  has  elapsed,  and  the  waters  have  long  since  evaporated  or  been 
withdrawn,  the  harvest  takes  place,  and  the  rice-fields  are  enlivened  by  a  motley 
crowd,  for  all  the  villagers,  old  and  young,  are  busy  reaping  the  golden  ears. 
35 


546  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

The  rice-fields  offer  a  peculiarly  charming  picture  when,  as  in  the  mountain  valleys 
of  Ceylon,  they  rise  in  terraces  along  the  slopes.  •'  Selecting,"  says  Sir  Emerson 
Tennent,  "  an  angular  recess  where  two  hills  converge,  the  Kandyans  construct  a 
series  of  terraces,  raised  stage  above  stage,  and  retiring  as  they  ascend  along  the  slope 
of  the  acclivity,  up  which  they  are  carried  as  high  as  the  soil  extends.  Each  terrace 
is  furnished  with  a  low  ledge  in  front,  behind  which  the  requisite  depth  of  water  is 
retained  during  the  germination  of  the  seed,  and  what  is  superfluous  is  permitted  to 
trickle  down  to  the  one  below  it.  In  order  to  carry  on  this  peculiar  cultivation  the 
streams  are  led  along  the  level  of  the  hills,  often  from  a  distance  of  many  miles,  with 
a  skill  and  perseverance  for  which  the  natives  of  these  mountains  have  attained  a  great 
renown.  Many  of  the  tanks,  though  partially  in  ruins,  cover  an  area  from  ten  to 
fifteen  miles  in  circumference.  They  are  now  generally  broken  and  decayed;  the 
waters,  which  would  fertilize  a  province,  are  allowed  to  waste  themselves  in  the  sands; 
and  hundreds  of  square  miles,  capable  of  furnishing  food  for  all  the  inhabitants  of 
Ceylon,  are  abandoned  to  solitude  and  malaria ;  whilst  rice  for  the  support  of  the  non- 
agricultural  population  is  annually  imported  from  the  opposite  coast  of  India." 

Rice  does  not  invariably  require  the  marsh  or  the  irrigated  terrace  for  its  growth,  as 
there  is  a  variety  which  thrives  on  the  slopes  of  hills,  where  it  is  not  continuously 
watered.  In  the  mountain  regions  of  Sumatra,  rains  fall  at  almost  every  season  of 
the  year,  though  dry  weather  is  more  frequent  from  April  to  July.  In  August,  the 
rainy  days  are  as  three  to  one,  and  this  is  the  time  generally  chosen  for  the  sowing  of 
the  Ladang,  or  mountain  rice.  After  the  harvest,  the  field  is  sown  a  second  time 
with  maize;  it  then  lies  fallow  for  a  few  years,  and  is  soon  covered  with  a  thick  vege- 
tation of  wild  shrubbery,  generally  with  glagah,  a  species  of  grass  which  attains  a 
hight  of  twelve  feet.  When  the  field  is  again  to  be  cultivated,  fire  is  resorted  to,  to 
destroy  the  dense  jungle,  in  which  the  tiger  has  made  his  lair,  or  where  the  rhinoceros 
grazes.  At  night,  these  fires,  ascending  the  slopes  of  the  mountains,  present  a  fine 
sight ;  during  the  day  time,  they  cover  the  land  with  a  dun  mist.  The  rapidity  with 
which  the  dry  culms  of  the  glagah  take  fire  is  not  seldom  dangerous  to  the  traveler 
when  his  path  leads  him  across  the  slope  of  a  hill  at  whose  foot  the  grass-field  begins 
to  burn,  for  the  rustling  fire-columns  ascend  with  the  swiftness  of  the  wind,  and  soon 
wrap  the  side  of  the  mountain  in  a  sheet  of  flame.  The  ashes  of  the  glagah  afford  the 
richest  manure,  so  that  these  fields  are  only  surpassed  in  fertility  by  the  virgin  soil  of 
the  cleared  forest,  a  laborious  work,  which  is  seldom  undertaken  in  this  thinly-populated 
country. 

Sawa  is  the  general  Malay  name  for  artificially-irrigated  rice-fields.  In  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  the  sawa,  or  marsh  rice,  is  at  first  thickly  sown  in  small  beds,  and  trans- 
planted after  a  fortnight  into  the  fields,  the  soil  of  which  has  been  softened  by  water. 
As  the  plant  grows,  copious  irrigations  supply  it  with  the  necessary  moisture ;  but  as 
maturity  approaches,  the  field  is  laid  dry,  and  about  two  months  later  the  ears  assume 
the  rich  golden  color  so  pleasing  to  the  husbandman.  Each  field  could  easily  be 
made  to  produce  two  annual  harvests ;  but,  when  not  compelled  to  labor,  the  tropical 
peasant  never  thinks  of  taxing  his  industry  beyond  the  supply  of  his  immediate  wants. 
The  swamps  of  South  Carolina,  both  those  which  are  occasioned  by  the  periodical 
visits  of  the  tides,  and  those  which  are  caused  by  the  overflowing  of  the  rivers,  are 
admirably  adapted  to  the  production  of  rice ;  yet  the  culture  of  the  valuable  cereal  on 


RICE— MAIZE.  547 

this  congenial  soil  is  of  comparatively  modern  date.  About  the  beginning  of  the  last 
century,  a  brigantine  from  the  island  of  Madagascar  happened  to  put  in  at  Carolina, 
having  a  little  seed-rice  left,  which  the  captain  gave  to  a  gentleman  of  the  name  of 
Woodward.  From  part  of  this,  the  latter  had  a  very  good  crop,  but  was  ignorant  for 
some  years  how  to  clean  it.  It  was  soon  dispersed  over  the  colony,  and,  by  frequent 
experiments  and  observations,  the  planters  ultimately  raised  the  culture  to  its  present 
perfection.  By  the  introduction  of  this  water-loving  cereal,  various  swamps  which 
previously  had  only  afforded  food  to  frogs  and  water-birds,  have  been  changed  into 
the  most  fruitful  fields,  so  that  South  Carolina  not  merely  supplied  the  whole  of  the 
United  States  with  all  the  rice  they  require,  but  also  annually  exported  more  than  a 
hundred  thousand  large  casks  to  the  various  markets  of  Europe. 

Besides  the  devastations  which  the  atmosphere  of  the  rice-fields  causes  amono-  his 
laborers,  the  planter  frequently  suffers  heavy  losses  in  consequence  of  the  depredations 
of  the  rice-bunting  {Dolichonyx  oryzivorus),  a  species  of  ortolan,  known  familiarly  by 
the  name  of  bobolink.  This  bird  is  about  six  or  seven  inches  long ;  its  head  and  the 
under  part  of  its  body  are  black,  the  upper  part  is  a  mixture  of  black,  white,  and 
yellow,  and  the  legs  are  red.  It  migrates  over  the  continent  of  America  from  Labra- 
dor to  Mexico,  and  over  the  Great  Antilles,  appearing  in  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  States  about  the  end  of  March.  During  the  three  weeks  to  which  its  un- 
welcome visit  to  the  rice-fields  is  usually  limited,  it  grows  so  fat  upon  the  milky 
grains  of  its  favorite  cereal,  that  its  flesh  becomes  equal  in  flavor  to  that  of  the  Euro- 
pean ortolan.  As  long  as  the  female  is  sitting,  the  song  of  the  male  continues  with 
little  interruption :  it  is  singular  and  pleasant,  consisting  of  a  jingling  medley  of  short, 
■variable  notes,  oonfused,  rapid  and  continuous. 

Large  quantities  of  rice  are  supplied  to  Europe  from  Brazil,  Java,  Bengal,  and 
of  late  years  from  Arracan  and  Pegu.  Most  of  the  Arracan  rice  is  exported  in  the 
unshelled  state,  or  as  paddy,  and  cleaned  in  Europe,  where  the  operation  can  be  more 
effectually  and  cheaply  performed  than  in  the  country  of  production.  The  loss  by 
waste  is  also  found  to  be  less  on  the  transport  of  paddy  than  of  shelled  rice. 

Maize  is  no  less  important  to  the  rapidly  growing  nations  of  America  than  the  rice- 
plant  to  the  followers  of  Buddh  or  of  Brama;  and  when  hereafter  the  banks  of  the 
Mississippi,  of  the  Amazon,  and  of  the  Orinoco,  shall  be  covered  by  as  dense  a  popu- 
lation as  the  plains  of  Bengal,  the  number  of  maize  eaters  will  probably  be  greater 
than  that  of  the  consumers  of  any  other  species  of  grain.  Even  now  it  is  second  in 
this  respect  only  to  rice. 

The  time  when  the  cereals  of  the  old  world — wheat,  rye,  barley — were  first  trans- 
planted from  their  unknown  Asiatic  homes  to  other  parts  of  the  world  is  hidden  in 
legendary  obscurity;  but  the  epoch  when  maize  was  for  the  first  time  seen  and  tasted 
by  Europeans  lies  before  us  in  the  broad  daylight  of  authentic  history.  For,  when 
Columbus  discovered  Cuba,  in  the  year  11:92,  he  found  maize  cultivated  by  the 
Indians,  and  was  equally  pleased  with  the  taste  of  the  roasted  grains  and  astonished  at 
their  size.  In  the  following  year,  when  he  made  his  triumphant  entry  into  Barcelona, 
and  presented  his  royal  patrons — Ferdinand  and  Isabella — with  specimens  of  the 
various  productions  of  the  New  World,  the  maize  spikes  he  laid  down  before  their 
throne,  though  but  little  noticed,  were  in  reality  of  far  greater  importance  than  the 
heaps  of  gold  which  were  so  falsely  deemed  to  be  the  richest  prizes  of  his  grand 


548  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

discovery.  In  this  manner  maize,  which  is  found  growing  wild  from  the  Kooky 
Mountains  to  Paraguay,  and  had  been  cultivated  from  time  immemorial,  as  well  in  the 
Antilles  as  in  the  dominions  of  the  Mexican  Aztecs  and  of  the  Peruvian  Incas,  was 
first  conveyed  from  the  New  World  to  Spain,  whence  its  cultivation  gradually  extended 
over  the  tropical  and  temperate  zone  of  the  eastern  hemisphere.  Round  the  whole 
basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  maize  has  f(ftind  a  new  home,  and  its  grain  now  nourishes 
the  Lombard  and  the  Hungarian,  as  it  does  the  Egyptian  fellah  or  the  Syrian  peasant. 
While  other  cereals  only  produce  a  pleasing  effect  when  covering  extensive  fields, 
but  are  individually  too  insignificant  to  claim  attention,  the  maize  plant  almost  reminds 
the  spectator  of  the  lofty  Bambusaceas  of  the  tropical  world.  Dark  green,  lustrous 
leaves  spring  alternately  from  every  joint  of  this  cereal,  streaming  like  pennants  in  the 
wind.  The  top  produces  a  bunch  of  male  flowers  of  various  colors,  which  is  called 
the  tassel.  Each  plant  likewise  bears  one  or  more  spikes  or  ears,  the  usual  number 
being  three,  though  as  many  as  seven  have  been  seen  occasionally  on  one  stalk. 
These  ears  proceed  from  the  stem,  at  various  distances  from  the  ground,  and  are 
closely  enveloped  by  several  thin  leaves,  forming  a  sheath,  or  hush.  They  consist  of 
a  cylindrical  substance  of  the  nature  of  pith,  which  is  called  the  coh,  and  over  the 
entire  surface  of  which  the  seeds  are  ranged  and  fixed,  in  eight  or  more  straight  rows. 
Each  of  these  has  generally  as  many  as  thirty  or  more  seeds,  and  each  seed  weighs  at 
least  as  much  as  five  or  six  grains  of  wheat  or  barley.  Surely  a  cereal  like  this 
deserves  beyond  all  others  to  symbolize  abundance,  and,  had  it  been  known  to  the 
Greeks,  it  would  beyond  all  doubt  have  figured  conspicuously  in  the  teeming  horn  of 
Amalthea. 

While  the  British  farmer  is  satisfied  with  an  increase  of  twenty  for  one,  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  maize,  under  the  circumstances  most  favorable  to  its  growth,  is  such  as 
almost  to  surpass  belief.  In  the  low  and  sultry  districts  of  Mexico,  it  is  quite  a  com- 
mon thing,  in  situations  where  artificial  irrigation  is  practised,  to  gather  from  350  to 
■400  measures  of  grain  for  every  one  measure  that  has  been  sown ;  and  some  particu- 
larly favored  spots  have  even  been  known  to  yield  the  incredible  increase  of  800.  In 
other  situations,  where  reliance  is  placed  only  on  the  natural  supply  of  moisture  to  the 
soil  from  the  periodical  rains,  such  an  abundant  supply  is  not  expected ;  but  even 
then,  and  in  the  least  fertile  spots,  it  is  rare  for  the  cultivator  to  realize  less  than  from 
forty  to  sixty  bushels  for  each  one  sown.  The  productiveness  of  maize  diminishes  in 
the  more  temperate  climate  of  the  United  States;  but  even  there  it  yields  double  the  in- 
crease of  wheat ;  and  such  is  the  quantity  annually  grown  that,  in  spite  of  its  low  price, 
the  value  of  the  maize  harvest  more  than  twice  surpasses  that  of  all  the  other  cereals. 
Another  great  advantage  attending  the  cultivation  of  maize  is,  that  of  all  the  cereals 
it  is  the  least  subject  to  disease.  Blight,  mildew,  or  rust  are  unknown  to  it.  It  is 
never  liable  to  be  beaten  down  by  rain,  or  by  the  most  violent  storms  of  wind,  and  in 
climates  and  seasons  which  are  favorable  to  its  growth,  the  only  enemies  which  the 
maize  farmer  has  to  dread  are  insects  in  the  early  stages,  and  birds  in  the  later  periods, 
of  its  cultivation.  In  mountainous  countries,  and  the  farther  it  advances  beyond  the 
tropics,  maize — a  child  of  the  sun — naturally  suffers  from  the  ungenial  influence  of  a 
cold  and  wet  summer,  which  not  only  prevents  the  ripening  of  the  grain,  but  also 
develops  a  poisonous  ergot  in  its  ears,  similar  to  that  which  an  inclement  sky  is  apt  to 
engender  in  rye. 


FRANKLIN'S   DESCRIPTION    OF   MAIZE.  549 

When  we  consider  that  the  zone  of  cultivation  of  the  inaize  plant  extends  without 
interruption  from  49°  north  latitude  to  40°  south  latitude,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at 
that  there  are  numerous  varieties,  from  the  gigantic  Tlaouili  of  the  Mexicans,  whicli 
absolutely  requires  a  hot  sun,  and  bears  ears  ten  inches  in  length  and  five  or  six  inches 
in  circumference,  and  the  small  variety  with  ears  four  or  five  inches  long,  which  in 
ordinary  seasons  will  ripen  its  grain,  even  under  the  variable  and  weeping  sky  of 
England,  and  which,  with  ears  not  larger  than  one's  finger,  was  found  by  Squier 
growing  on  the  sacred  island  of  Titicaca,  at  an  altitude  of  1 2,800  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea. 

The  various  uses  to  which  the  maize  plant  and  grain  may  be  applied  cannot  be 
better  enumerated  than  in  the  words  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Franklin. 

•*  It  is  remarked  in  North  America  that  the  English  farmers,  when  they  first  arrived 
there,  finding  a  soil  and  climate  proper  for  the  husbandry  they  have  been  accustomed 
to,  and  particularly  suitable  for  raising  wheat,  they  despise  and  neglect  the  culture 
of  maize  or  Indian  corn ;  but,  observing  the  advantage  it  affords  their  neif^hbors,  the 
older  inhabitants,  they  by  degrees  get  more  and  more  into  the  practice  of  raising  it. 
and  the  face  of  the  country  shows  from  time  to  time  that  the  culture  of  that  grain  goes 
on  visibly  augmenting.  The  inducements  are  the  many  different  ways  in  which  it  may 
be  prepared  so  as  to  afford  a  wholesome  and  pleasing  nourishment  to  men  and  other 
animals.  First,  the  family  can  begin  to  make  use  of  it  before  the  time. of  full  harvest; 
for  the  tender  green  ears,  stripped  of  their  leaves  and  roasted  by  a  quick  fire  till  the 
grain  is  brown,  and  eaten  with  a  little  salt  or  butter,  are  a  delicacy.  Secondly,  when 
the  grain  is  riper  and  harder,  the  ears  boiled  in  their  leaves  and  eaten  with  butter  are 
also  good  and  agreeable  food.  The  tender  green  grain  dried  may  be  kept  all  the 
year,  and,  mixed  with  green  kidney  beans,  also  dried,  make  at  any  time  a  pleasing 
dish,  being  first  soaked  some  hours  in  water  and  then  boiled.  When  the  grain  is  ripe 
and  hard  there  are  also  several  ways  of  using  it.  One  is  to  soak  it  all  ni^ht  in  a 
lessive  or  lye,  and  then  pound  it  in  a  large  wooden  mortar  with  a  wooden  pestle ;  the 
skin  of  each  grain  is  by  that  means  skinned  off,  and  the  farinaceous  part  left  whole, 
which,  being  boiled,  swells  into  a  white,  soft  pulp,  and,  eaten  with  milk  or  with  butter 
and  sugar,  is  delicious.  The  dry  grain  is  also  sometimes  ground  loosely  so  as  to  be 
broken  into  pieces  of  the  size  of  rice,  and,  being  winnowed  to  separate  the  bran,  it  is 
then  boiled  and  eaten  with  turkeys  or  other  fowls  as  rice.  Ground  into  a  finer  meal, 
they  make  of  it  by  boiling  a  hasty-pudding  or  bouilli,  to  be  eaten  with  milk  or  with 
butter  and  sugar,  that  resembles  what  the  Italians  call  polenta.  Tliey  make  of  the 
same  meal  with  water  and  salt  a  hasty-cake,  which,  being  stuck  against  a  hoe  or  other 
flat  iron,  is  placed  erect  before  the  fire,  and  so  baked,  to  be  used  as  bread.  They 
also  parch  it  in  this  manner :  An  iron  pot  is  filled  with  sand,  and  set  on  the  fire  till 
the  sand  is  very  hot.  Two  or  three  pounds  of  the  grain  are  then  thrown  in,  and  well 
mixed  with  the  sand  by  stirring.  Each  grain  bursts  and  throws  out  a  white  substance 
of  twice  its  bigness.  The  sand  is  separated  by  a  wire  sieve,  and  returned  into  the  pot 
to  be  again  heated,  and  repeat  the  operation  with  fresh  grain.  That  which  is  parched 
is  pounded  to  a  powder  in  a  mortar.  This  being  sifted  will  keep  long  for  use.  An 
Indian  will  travel  far  and  subsist  long  on  a  small  bag  of  it,  taking  only  six  or  eight 
ounces  of  it  per  day  mixed  with  water.  The  flour  of  maize  mixed  with  that  of  wheat 
makes  excellent  bread,  sweeter  and  more  agreeable  than  that  of  wheat  alone.     To 


550  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

feed  horses  it  is  good  to  soak  the  grain  twelve  hours :  they  mash  it  easier  with  their 
teeth,  and  it  yields  them  more  nourishment.  The  leaves  stripped  off  the  stalks  after 
the  grain  is  ripe,  tied  up  in  bundles  when  dry,  are  excellent  forage  for  horses,  cows, 
etc.  The  stalks,  pressed  like  sugar-cane,  yield  a  sweet  juice,  which,  being  fermented 
and  distilled,  yields  an  excellent  spirit;  boiled  without  fermentation  it  affords  an 
excellent  syrup.  In  Mexico  fields  are  sown  with  it  thickly,  that  multitudes  of  small 
stalks  may  arise,  which,  being  cut  from  time  to  time,  like  asparagus,  are  served  in 
desserts,  their  thin  sweet  juice  being  extracted  in  the  mouth  by  chewing  them.  The 
meal  wetted  is  excellent  food  for  young  chickens  and  the  old  grain  for  grown  fowls." 

In  Europe,  as  well  as  in  the  United  States,  the  quantity  or  maize  grown  far  exceeds 
that  of  wheat  or  any  other  grain ;  but  so  little  is  the  value  of  this  noblest  of  cereals 
known  in  Great  Britain,  that  even  during  the  famine  in  Ireland  it  was  with  the  utmost 
difficulty  that  the  starving  peasants  could  be  induced  to  use  the  meal  sent  over  to  them 
from  America.  .  This  was  doubtless  in  a  great  measure  owing  to  their  unacquaintance 
with  the  proper  manner  of  cooking  it.  A  delegation  of  colored  "mammies"  from 
Virginia,  skilled  in  the  mysteries  of  "pone"  and  "hoe-cake,"  would  have  been  of 
inestimable  service. 

In  lio-ht  sandy  soils,  under  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  and  in  situations  where 
sufficient  moisture  cannot  be  obtained  for  the  production  of  rice,  numerous  varieties  of 
Millet  {Sorghum  vulgare)  are  successfully  cultivated  in  many  tropical  countries — in 
India,  Arabia,  the  West  Indies,  in  Central  Africa,  and  in  Nubia,  where  it  is  grown 
almost  to  the  exclusion  of  every  other  esculent  plant.  Though  the  seeds  are  by  much 
the  smallest  of  any  of  the  cereal  plants,  the  number  borne  upon  each  stalk  is  so  great 
as  to  counterbalance  this  disadvantage,  and  to  render  the  cultivation  of  millet  as  pro- 
ductive as  that  of  any  other  grain. 

The  Breadfruit  tree  (Artocarpus  incisa)  is  the  great  gift  of  Providence  to  the 
fairest  isles  of  Polynesia.  No  fruit  or  forest  tree  in  the  north  of  Europe,  with  the 
exception  of  the  oak  or  linden,  is  its  equal  in  regularity  of  growth  and  comeliness  of 
shape ;  it  far  surpasses  the  wild  chestnut,  which  somewhat  resembles  it  in  appearance. 
Its  large  oblong  leaves,  frequently  a  foot  and  a  half  long,  are  deeply  lobed  like  those 
of  the  fig  tree,  which  they  resemble  not  only  in  color  and  consistence,  but  also  in 
exuding  a  milky  juice  when  broken.  About  the  time  when  the  sun,  advancing 
towards  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  announces  to  the  Tahitians  that  summer  is  approach- 
ing, it  begins  to  produce  new  leaves  and  young  fruits,  which  commence  ripening  in 
October,  and  may  be  plucked  about  eight  months  long  in  luxuriant  succession.  The 
fruit  is  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  new-born  infant's  head ;  and  the  surface  is  reticu- 
lated, not  much  unlike  a  truffle ;  it  is  covered  with  a  thin  skin,  and  has  a  core  about 
as  big  as  the  handle  of  a  small  knife.  The  eatable  part  lies  between  the  skin  and  the 
core ;  it  is  as  white  as  snow,  and  somewhat  of  the  consistence  of  new  bread ;  it  must 
be  roasted  before  it  is  eaten,  being  first  divided  into  three  or  four  parts;  its  taste, 
according  to  some,  is  insipid,  with  a  slight  sweetness,  somewhat  resembling  that  of  the 
crumb  of  wheaten  bread  mixed  with  boiled  and  mealy  potatoes.  But  Wallace,  who 
met  with  it  in  the  island  of  Amboyna,  speaks  of  it  in  very  different  terms.  He  says : 
"  Here  I  enjoyed  a  luxury  I  have  never  met  with  either  before  or  since — the  true 
bread-fruit.  It  is  baked  entire  in  the  hot  embers,  and  the  inside  scooped  out  with  a 
spoon.     I  compared  it  to   Yorkshire   pudding;   others  thought  it  was  like  mashed 


BREAD   FRUIT— BANANA— PLANTAIN.  551 

potatoes  and  milk.  It  is  generally  about  the  size  of  a  melon,  a  little  fibrous  toward 
the  center,  but  everywhere  else  quite  smooth  and  puddingy,  something  between  yea.st- 
dumplings  and  batter-pudding.  We  sometimes  made  curry  or  stew  of  it,  or  fried  it  in 
slices;  but  it  is  in  no  way  so  good  as  simply  baked.  With  meat  and  gravy  it  i.s  a 
vegetable  superior  to  any  I  know  either  in  temperate  or  tropical  countries.  With 
sugar,  milk,  butter,  or  treacle,  it  is  a  delicious  pudding,  having  a  very  slight  and 
delicate  but  characteristic  flavor,  which,  like  that  of  good  bread  and  potatoes,  one 
never  gets  tired  of." 

When  the  season  draws  to  an  end,  the  last  fruits  are  gathered  just  before  they  are 
perfectly  ripe,  and,  being  laid  in  heaps,  are  closely  covered  with  leaves.  In  this  state 
they  undergo  a  fermentation  and  become  disagreeably  sweet;  the  core  is  then  taken 
out  entire,  which  is  done  by  gently  pulling  out  the  stalk,  and  tJie  rest  of  the  fruit  is 
thrown  into  a  hole,  which  is  dug  for  that  purpbse,  generally  in  the  house,  and  neatly 
lined  in  the  bottom  and  sides  with  grass ;  the  whole  is  then  covered  with  leaves,  and 
heavy  stones  laid  upon  them ;  in  this  state  it  undergoes  a  second  fermentation,  and 
becomes  sour,  after  which  it  will  suffer  no  change  for  many  months. 

It  is  taken  out  of  the  hole  as  it  is  wanted  for  use,  and,  being  made  into  balls,  it 
is  wrapped  up  in  leaves  and  baked :  after  it  is  dressed  it  will  keep  five  or  six  weeks. 
It  is  eaten  both  cold  and  hot,  and  the  natives  seldom  make  a  meal  without  it,  though 
to  Europeans  the  taste  is  as  disagreeable  as  that  of  a  pickled  olive  generally  is,  the  first 
time  it  is  eaten.  The  fruit  itself  is  in  season  eight  months  in  the  year,  and  the 
Mahei  or  sour  paste  formed  in  the  manner  above  described  fills  up  the  remaining 
cycle  of  the  year. 

To  procure  this  principle  article  of  their  food  costs  the  fortunate  South  Sea  Islanders 
no  more  trouble  than  plucking  and  preparing  it  in  the  manner  above  described;  for, 
though  the  tree  which  produces  it  does  not  grow  spontaneously,  yet,  if  a  man  plants 
but  ten  of  them  in  his  lifetime,  which  he  may  do  in  about  an  hour,  he  will,  as  Cook 
remarks,  "  as  completely  fulfil  his  duty  to  his  own  and  future  generations,  as  the  native 
of  our  less  genial  climate  by  plowing  in  the  cold  of  winter  and  reaping  in  the  summer's 
heat  as  often  as  the  seasons  return."  Though  it  has  a  far  extended  range  over  the 
islands  and  coasts  of  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Ocean,  yet  its  importance  as  an  article  of 
food  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  Tahitian,  Friendly,  Samoan,  Fiji,  and  Marquesan 
groups,  while  in  most  parts  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  it  is  either  neglected  or  only 
used  for  fuel. 

The  wonderful  luxuriance  of  tropical  vegetation  is  perhaps  nowhere  more  conspicu- 
ous and  surprising  than  in  the  magnifiqent  Musacece,  the  Banana  {Musa  sapientum), 
and  the  Plantain  {Musa  paradisiaca),  whose  fruits  most  probably  nourished  mankind 
long  before  the  gifts  of  Ceres  became  known.  A  succulent  shaft  or  stem,  rising  to 
the  hight  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet,  and  frequently  two  feet  in  diameter,  is  formed  of 
the  sheath-like  leaf-stalks  rolled  one  over  the  other,  and  terminating  in  enormous 
light  green  and  glossy  blades,  ten  feet  long  and  two  feet  broad,  of  so  delicate  a  tissue 
that  the  slightest  wind  suffices  to  tear  them  transversely  as  far  as  the  middle  rib.  A 
stout  foot-stalk,  arising  from  the  center  of  the  leaves,  and  reclining  over  one  side  of 
the  trunk,  supports  numerous  clusters  of  flowers,  and  subsequently  a  great  weight 
of  several  hundred  fruits  about  the  size  and  shape  of  full  grown  cucumbers.  On 
seeing  the  stately  plant,  one  might  suppose  that  many  years  had  been  required  for  its 


552 


THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 


growth;  and  yet  only  eight  or  ten  months  were  necessary  for  its  full  development. 
Each  shaft  produces  its  fruit  but  once,  when  it  withers  and  dies ;  but  new  shoots 
spring  forth  from  the  root,  and  before  the  year  has  elapsed  unfold  themselves  with  the 
same  luxuriance.  Thus,  without  any  other  labor  than  now  and  then  weeding  the 
field,  fruit  follows  upon  fruit  and  harvest  upon  harvest.  A  single  bunch  of  bananas 
often  weighs  from  sixty  to  seventy  pounds,  and  Humboldt  has  calculated  that  thirty- 
three  pounds  of  wheat  and  ninety-nine  pounds  of  potatoes  require  the  same  space  of 
ground  to  grow  upon  as  will  produce  4,000  pounds  of  bananas. 

This  prodigality  of  nature,  seemingly  so  favorable  to  the  human  race,  is,  however, 
attended  with  great  disadvantages;  for  where  the  life  of  man  is  rendered  too  easy,  his 
best  powers  remain  dormant,  and  he  almost  sinks  to  the  level  of  the  plant  which 
affords  him  subsistence  without  labor.  Exertion  awakens  our  faculties  as  it  increases 
our  enjoyments,  and  well  may  we  rejo!ce  that  wheat  and  maize,  and  not  the  banana, 
ripen  in  our  fields. 

As  the  seeds  of  the  cultivated  plantain  and  banana  never,  or  very  rarely,  ripen, 
they  can  only  be  propagated  by  suckers.  "In  both  hemispheres,"  says  Humboldt, 
"  as  far  as  tradition  or  history  reaches,  we  find  plantains  cultivated  in  the  tropical 
zone.  It  is  as  certain  that  African  slaves  have  introduced,  in  the  course  of  centuries, 
varieties  of  the  banana  into  America,  as  that  before  the  discovery  of  Columbus  the 
pisang  was  cultivated  by  the  aboriginal  Indians." 


MANUFACTURE   OF   SAGO. 


The  Sago-Palm  may  fairly  dispute  with  the  plantain  the  honor  of  producing  upon  a 
given  space  the  greatest  amount  of  human  food.  It  grows  all  over  the  islands  of  the 
Malayan  Archipelago,  the  most  productive  district  being  in  Coram,  whence  large 
quantities  are  exported.  The  tree,  says  Mr.  Wallace,*  is  a  palm  thicker  and  larger 
than  the  cocoa-nut  tree,  although  rarely  so  tall,  and  having  immense  pinnate  spiny 
leaves,  which  completely  cover  the  trunk  until  it  is  several  years  old.     When  it  is 

*  Malayan  Archipelago,  882-385. 


MANUFACTURE    OF   SAGO.  553 

about  ten  or  fifteen  years  old  it  sends  up  an  immense  terminal  spike  of  flowers,  after 
which  it  dies. 

For  making  sago  the  tree  must  be  used  just  before  it  is  going  to  flower.  It  is  cut 
down  close  to  the  ground,  which,  large  as  the  tree  is,  costs  no  great  labor,  for  the 
woodv  shell  is  only  half  an  inch  thick ;  the  rest  is  all  pith.  The  leaves  and  leaf- 
stalks are  cleared  away,  and  a  broad  strip  of  bark  taken  off  the  upper  side  of  the 
trunk,  laying  bare  the  pithy  matter,  which  is  of  a  rusty  color  near  the  bottom,  but 
higher  up  of  a  pure  white,  about  as  hard  as  a  mealy  apple,  with  woody  fibres  running 
through  it,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  apart.  This  pith  is  broken  up  into  a  coarse 
powder  by  a  heavy  wooden  club  or  pounder,  having  a  piece  of  hard  quartz  imbedded 
into  the  end.  By  means  of  this,  strips  of  the  pith  are  cut  away,  which  fall  down  into 
the  cylinder  formed  by  the  tough  bark,  until  the  whole  trunk  is  cleared  out,  leaving  a 
skin  of  not  more  than  half  an  inch  in  thickness.  This  material  is  carried  to  the 
washing  machine,  which  answers  the  purpose  of  a  grist-mill  for  preparing  the  flour. 
This  washing  machine  is  composed  wholly  from  the  tree  itself.  The  great  sheathing 
bases  of  the  leaves  make  excellent  troughs ;  and  their  ribs,  as  thick  as  a  man's  arm, 
and  lighter  and  tougher  than  a  bamboo,  furnish  the  supporting  props ;  while  the  fibrous 
covering  of  the  leaf-stalks  forms  the  strainer.  Water  is  poured  on  the  mass  of  pith, 
which  is  kneaded  and  pressed  against  the  strainer  until  the  starch  is  all  washed  out, 
when  the  fibrous  refuse  is  thrown  away.  The  water,  charged  with  the  starch,  passes 
into  another  deep  trough,  where  the  sediment  is  quickly  deposited,  the  water  running 
off.  This  mass  of  starch  is  made  up  into  packages  of  thirty  pounds,  covered  with  sago 
leaves.  This  constitutes  the  "raw  sago,"  and  will  keep  for  years.  Boiled  with  water, 
it  forms  a  thick  glutinous  mass,  which  is  eaten  with  salt,  limes,  or  Chili  peppers. 

More  frequently  it  is  used  for  making  bread.  The  raw  sago  is  broken  up,  dried  in 
the  sun,  and  powdered  into  a  coarse  meal.  The  oven  is  a  square  clay  pan,  divided 
into  compartments  six  or  eight  inches  square,  and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick. 
This  is  heated  over  a  clear  fire  of  embers,  filled  with  the  flour,  and  covered  with  a 
piece  of  sago  bark.  In  five  minutes  the  bread,  or  rather  batch  of  cakes,  is  baked. 
When  hot  they  are  very  palatable  with  butter ;  and  the  addition  of  a  little  sugar  and 
grated  cocoa  nut  forms. quite  a  delicacy.  They  are  soft,  and  not  unlike  our  "Johnny- 
cakes"  made  of  maize  flour,  but  have  a  slight  characteristic  flavor  which  is  wanting  in 
the  prepared  sago.  When  not  wanted  for  immediate  use,  the  cakes  are  dried  in  the 
sun  for  several  days  ;  they  will  then  keep  for  years.  They  are  hard,  rough,  and  dry; 
but  the  natives  do  not  mind  that,  and  it  is  a  common  sight  to  see  children  gnawing 
away  at  them,  as  our  children  do  at  a  crust  of  bread.  Dipped  in  water  and  toasted, 
they  become  almost  as  good  as  when  fresh;  soaked  and  boiled,  they  make  a  good 
pudding.  We  see  no  reason  why  these  sago  biscuit  should  not  form  a  welcome 
addition  to  ship-stores  in  tropical  regions. 

A  good-sized  tree  will  afford  900  pounds  of  raw  sago.  This  will  make  600  pounds 
of  bread.  Two  cakes,  weighing  three  to  the  pound,  are  as  much  as  a  man  can  well 
eat  at  a  meal ;  five  are  considered  a  full  day's  allowance.  One  tree  will  therefore 
supply  a  man  with  food  for  a  whole  year.  Two  men  will  easily  finish  a  tree  in  five 
days;  so  that  a  man  may  in  ten  days  raise  and  make  his  flour  for  a  year.*  If  be 
chooses  to  bake  his  year's  supply  of  bread  at  once,  another  ten  days  is  quite  enough; 
so  that  the  labor  of  twenty  days  will  give  him  food  for  a  year.     This  is  on  the  sup- 


554 


THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 


position  that  he  happens  to  own  sago  trees.  If  he  does  not,  he  can  buy  one  standing 
for  two  dollars.  As  the  price  of  a  man's  labor  in  this  region  is  estimated  at  ten  cents 
a  day,  the  cost  of  food  ready  cooked  for  a  man  is  four  dollars  a  year.  Yet,  unaccount- 
able as  it  seeras  to  us,  the  natives,  with  these  great  natural  flour-barrels,  (only  that 
each  contains  three  of  our  barrels,)  standing  around  them,  suffer  from  hunger. 
Agassiz  notices  the  same  thing  on  the  Amazon.  If  the  people  of  any  country  really 
prefer  to  go  hungry  rather  than  spend  three  weeks  of  the  year  in  weeding  a  plantain- 
field,  or  preparing  sago,  there  seems  no  good  reason  why  any  one  should  interfere 
with  their  way  of  enjoying  themselves.  By  all  means  let  them  take  their  siesta  and 
starve  afterwards. 


A   SIESTA    ON   THE    AMAZON. 

Life  and  death  are  strangely  blended  in  the  Cassava  or  Mandioca  root  {Tatropha 
manihot).  The  juice  a  rapidly  destructive  poison,  the  meal  a  nutritious  and  agreeable 
food,  which,  in  tropical  America,  and  chiefly  in  Brazil,  forms  a  great  part  of  the 
people's  sustenance.  The  hight  to  which  the  cassava  attains  varies  from  four  to  six 
feet.  It  rises  by  a  slender,  woody,  knotted  stalk,  furnished  with  alternate  palmated 
leaves,  and  springs  from  a  tough  branched  woody  root,  the  slender  collateral  fibres 
of  which  swell  into  those  farinaceous,  parsnip-like  masses,  for  which  alone  the  plant  is 
cultivated.  It  requires  a  dry  soil,  and  is  not  found  at  a  greater  elevation  than  2,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  propagated  by  cuttings,  which  very  quickly  take 
root,  and  in  about  eight  months  from  the  time  of  their  being  planted  the  tubers  will 
generally  be  in  a  fit  state  to  be  collected ;  they  may,  however,  be  left  in  the  ground 
for  many  months  without  sustaining  any  injury.  The  usual  mode  of  preparing  the 
cassava  is  to  grind  the  roots  after  pealing  off  the  dark-colored  rind,  to  draw  out  the 
poisonous  juice,  and  finally  to  bake  the  meal  into  thin  cakes  on  a  hot  iron  hearth. 


CASSAVA-YAM-SWEET  POTATO-ARROWROOT.  555 

Fortunately  the  deleterious  principle  is  so  volatile  as  to  be  entirely  dissipated  by 
exposure  to  heat;  for  when  the  root  has  been  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  exposed 
during  some  hours  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  cattle  may  be  fed  on  it  with  perfect 
safety.  If  the  recently  extracted  juice  be  drunk  by  cattle  or  poultry,  the  animals 
soon  die  in  convulsions;  but  if  this  same  liquid  is  boiled  with  meat  and  seasoned,  it 
forms  a  wholesome  and  nutritious  soup.  The  latropha  janipha,  or  Sweet  Cassava, 
though  very  similar  to  the  Manihot  or  bitter  variety,  and  wholly  innocuous,  is  far  less 
extensively  cultivated.  A  palatable  and  wholesome  bread  is  made  of  both  kinds;  and 
although  its  taste  may  be  thought  somewhat  harsh  by  persons  accustomed  to  soft  fer- 
mented bread  made  from  wheaten  flour,  yet  those  who  have  been  accustomed  to  its 
use  are  so  fond  of  it,  that  Creole  families  who  have  gone  to  live  in  Europe  frequently 
have  it  sent  to  them  from  the  West  Indies.  The  kind  of  starch  so  well  known  under 
the  name  of  tapioca  is  prepared  from  the  farina  of  cassava  roots.  A  large  quantity  is 
exported  from  Brazil  to  Europe,  and  may  well  be  considered  as  a  more  useful  produc- 
tion than  all  the  diamonds  of  Minas  Geraes. 

The  Yam  roots,  which  are  so  frequently  mentioned  in  narratives  of  travel  through 
the  tropical  regions,  are  the  produce  of  two  climbing  plants — the  Dioscorea  sativa  and 
Alata — with  tender  stems  of  from  eighteen  to  twenty  feet  in  length,  and  smooth,  sharp- 
pointed  leaves  on  long  foot-stalks,  from  the  base  of  which  arise  spikes  of  small  flowers. 
The  roots  of  the  Dioscorea  sativa  are  flat  and  palmated,  about  a  foot  in  breadth, 
white  within  and  externally  of  a  dark  brown  color,  almost  approaching  to  black;  those 
of  the  D.  alata  are  still  larger,  being  frequently  about  three  feet  long,  and  weighing 
about  thirty  pounds.  Both  kinds  are  cultivated  like  the  common  potato,  which  they 
resemble  in  taste,  though  of  a  closer  texture.  When  dug  out  of  the  earth,  the  roots 
are  placed  in  the  sun  to  dry,  and  are  then  put  into  sand  or  casks,  where,  if  guarded 
from  moisture,  they  may  be  preserved  for  a  long  time  without  being  in  any  way 
injured  in  their  quality.  The  Dioscoreae  are  natives  of  South  Asia,  and  are  supposed 
to  have  been  thence  transplanted  to  the  West  Indies,  as  they  have  never  been  found 
growing  wild  in  any  part  of  America;  while  in  the  island  of  Ceylon,  and  on  the  coast 
of  Malabar,  they  flourish  in  the  woods  with  spontaneous  and  luxuriant  growth.  They 
are  now  very  extensively  cultivated  in  Africa,  Asia,  and  America,  as  their  large  and 
nutritious  roots  amply  reward  the  labor  of  the  husbandman. 

The  Spanish  or  Sweet  Potato,  (  Convolvulus  batatas,)  commonly  cultivated  in  the 
tropical  climates  both  of  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  hemispheres,  is  an  herbaceous 
perennial,  which  sends  out  many  trailing  stalks,  extending  six  or  eight  feet  every  way, 
and  putting  forth  at  each  joint,  roots  which  in  a  genial  climate  grow  to  be  very  large 
tubers,  so  that  from  a  single  plant  forty  or  fifty  large  roots  are  produced.  The  leaves 
are  angular,  and  stand  on  long  petioles,  the  flowers  are  purple.  The  batata  is  propa- 
gated by  laying  down  the  young  shoots  in  the  spring ;  indeed  in  its  native  climate  it 
multiplies  almost  spontaneously,  for  if  the  branches  of  roots  that  have  been  pulled  up 
are  suffered  to  remain  on  the  ground,  and  a  shower  of  rain  falls  soon  after,  their  vege- 
tation will  recommence.  From  its  abundant  growth,  it  is  surprising  that  in  lirazil  the 
mandioc  should  be  cultivated  in  preference  as  food  for  the  negro,  the  batata  being 
raised  more  as  a  luxury  for  the  planter's  table. 

Arrowroot  is  chiefly  obtained  from  two  diiFerent  plants — the  Marantha  arundina- 
cca  and  the  Tacca  pinnatijida.     The  former,  a  native  of  South  America,  is  an  herba- 


556  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

ceous  perennial  and  is  propagated  by  parting  the  roots.  It  rises  to  the  height  of  two 
or  three  feet,  has  broad,  pointed  leaves,  and  is  crowned  by  a  spike  of  small,  white  flow- 
ers. It  is  much  cultivated,  both  for  domestic  use  and  for  exportation  in  the  West  In- 
dies, and  in  some  parts  of  Hindostan.  The  arrowroot  is  obtained  by  first  pounding  the 
long,  stalky  roots  iu  a  large,  wooden  mortar,  and  pouring  a  quantity  of  water  over  them. 
After  the  whole  has  been  agitated  for  some  time,  the  starch,  separated  from  the  fibres, 
collects  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  having  been  cleansed  by  repeated  washings  is 
dried  in  the  sun. 

The  Tacca  pinnatijida,  likewise  an  herbaceous  plant  with  pinnated  leaves,  an  um- 
belliform  blossom,  and  large  potato-like  roots,  is  scattered  over  most  of  the  South  Sea 
Islands.  It  is  not  cultivated  in  the  Hawaiian  group,  but  found  growing  wild  in 
abundance  in  the  more  elevated  districts,  where  it  is  satisfied  with  the  most  meagre 
soil,  and  sprouts  forth  among  the  lava  blocks  of  those  volcanic  islands.  Arrowroot  is 
prepared  from  it  in  the  same  manner  as  from  the  West  Indian  Marantha,  but,  as  the 
improvident  Polynesians  only  think  of  digging  it  out  of  the  earth,  and  never  give  them- 
selves the  trouble  of  replanting  the  small  and  useless  tubers,  its  quantity  has  very  much 
diminished. 

The  Caladium  esculentum,  an  aquatic  plant,  furnishes  the  large  Taro  roots  which 
form  the  chief  food  of  the  Sandwich  Islanders,  and  are  extensively  cultivated  in  many 
other  groups  of  the  South  Seas.  It  grows  like  rice  on  a  marshy  ground,  the  large, 
arrow-shaped  leaves  rise  on  high  foot-stalks,  immediately  springing  from  the  root,  and 
are  likewise  very  agreeable  to  the  taste,  but  are  more  seldom  eaten,  as  they  are  used 
for  propagation.  Severed  from  the  root,  they  merely  require  to  be  planted  in  the  mud 
to  produce  after  six  months  a  new  harvest  of  roots.  The  growth  is  so  abundant  that 
1,500  persons  can  live  upon  the  produce  of  a  single  square  mile.  The  South  Sea 
Islanders  make  a  thick  paste  out  of  the  root,  which,  under  the  name  of  poe,  forms  their 
Staple  diet. 

It  may  easily  be  imagined  that  the  tropical  sun,  which  distills  so  many  costly  juices 
and  fiery  spices  in  indescribable  multiplicity  and  abundance,  must  also  produce  a  variety 
of  fruits.  But  man  has  as  yet  done  but  little  to  improve  by  care  and  art  these  gifts 
of  nature,  and,  with  rare  exceptions,  the  delicious  flavor  for  which  our  native  fruits 
are  indebted  to  centuries  of  cultivation,  is  found  wanting  in  those  of  the  torrid  zone. 

Yet  there  are  exceptions  to  the  rule,  and  among  others  the  Peruvian  Chirimoya 
(Anona  tripetala)  is  vaunted  by  travelers  in  such  terms  of  admiration  that  it  can 
hardly  be  inferior  to,  and  probably  surpasses,  the  most  exquisite  fruits  of  European 
growth.  Hanke  calls  it  in  one  of  his  letters  a  masterpiece  of  nature,  and  Tschudi  says 
that  its  taste  is  quite  incomparable.  It  grows  to  perfection  at  Huanuco,  where  it  at- 
tains a  weight  of  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  pounds.  The  fruit  is  generally  heart-shaped, 
with  the  broad  base  attached  to  the  branch.  The  rind  is  green,  covered  with  small  tu- 
bercles and  scales,  and  encloses  a  snow-white,  juicy  pulp,  with  many  black  kernels. 
Both  the  fruit  and  the  blossoms  exhale  a  delightful  odor.  The  tree  is  about  twenty 
feet  high,  and  has  a  broad,  dull-green  crown. 

The  Litchi  (Nephelium  litchi,)  a  small  insignificant  tree,  with  lanceolate  leaves, 
and  small  greenish-white  flowers,  is  a  native  of  China  and  Cochin-China,  but  its  culti- 
vation has  spread  over  the  East  and  the  West  Indies.  The  plum-like,  scarlet  fruit  is 
generally  eaten  by  the  Chinese  with  their  tea,  but  it  is  also  dried  in  ovens  and  exported. 


THE   LITCHI-MANGOSTEEN-MANGO-DURION.  557 

In  order  to  obtain  the  fruit  in  perfection,  for  the  use  of  the  Imperial  Court,  the  trees, 
as  soon  as  they  blossom,  are  conveyed  from  Canton  to  Pekin  on  rafts,  at  a  very  great 
trouble  and  expense,  so  that  the  plum  may  just  be  ripe  on  their  arrival  in  the  northern 
capital. 

The  beautiful  Mangosteen  (  Garcinia  mangostana,)  a  native  of  the  Moluccas,  and 
thence  transplanted  to  Java,  Siam,  the  Philippines,  and  Ceylon,  resembles  at  a  dis- 
tance the  citron  tree,  and  bears  large  flowers  like  roses.  The  dark-brown  capsular 
fruit,  about  the  size  of  a  small  apple,  is  described  as  of  unequalled  flavor — ^juicy  and 
aromatic,  like  a  mixture  of  strawberries,  raspberries,  grapes,  and  orauo'es.  It  is  said 
that  the  patient  who  has  lost  an  appetite  for  every  thing  else  still  relishes  the  mango- 
steen, and  that  the  case  is  perfectly  hopeless  when  he  refuses  even  this. 

The  stately  Ma7igo,  ( Mangifera  indica,)  is  frequently  represented  on  the  silk 
tissues  (Jf  the  Hindoos,  who  venerate,  under  the  ugly  form  of  the  ape  Huniman,  the 
transformed  hero  who  first  robbed  the  gardens  of  a  Ceylonese  giant  of  its  sweet  fruit, 
and  presented  their  forefathers  with  this  inestimable  gift.  The  mango  bears  beautiful 
girandoles  of  flowers,  followed  by  large  plum-like  fruits,  of  which,  however,  but  four 
or  five  ripen  on  each  branch. 

In  Borneo  and  the  other  islands  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago  grows  the  Durion,  a 
fruit  utterly  unknown  in  Europe  and  America,  which  alone  of  all  vegetable  productions 
possesses  the  opposite  qualities  of  extreme  offensiveness  to  one  sense,  and  of  the  highest 
gratefulness  to  the  other  sense  most  closely  allied  to  it.  Its  smell  is  like  that  of 
rotten  onions,  while  its  taste  is  such  that  those  who  have  once  partaken  of  it  prefer  it 
to  all  other  fruit.     Wallace*  thus  describes  the  fruit : 

"  The  durion  grows  on  a  large  and  lofty  forest  tree,  somewhat  resembling  an  elm  in- 
its  general  character,  but  with  a  more  smooth  and  scaly  bark.  The  fruit  is  round,  or 
slightly  oval,  about  the  size  of  a  large  cocoa-nut,  of  a  green  color,  and  covered  all  over 
with  short,  stout  spines,  the  bases  of  which  touch  each  other,  and  are  consequently 
somewhat  hexagonal,  while  the  points  are  very  strong  and  sharp.  It  is  so  completely 
armed  that,  if  the  stalk  is  broken  off",  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  lift  one  from  the 
ground.  The  outer  rind  is  so  thick  and  tough  that  from  whatever  hight  it  may  fall  it 
is  never  broken.  From  the  base  to  the  apex  five  very  faint  lines  may  be  traced,  over 
which  the  spines  arch  a  little ;  these  are  the  sutures  of  the  carpels,  and  show  where 
the  fruit  may  be  divided  with  a  heavy  knife  and  a  strong  hand.  The  five  cells  arc 
white  within,  and  are  each  filled  with  an  oval  mass  of  cream-colored  pulp,  imbedded  in 
which  are  two  or  three  seeds  about  the  size  of  chestnuts.  The  pulp  is  the  eatable 
part,  and  its  consistenee  and  flavor  are  indescribable.  A  rich,  butter-like  custard, 
highly  flavored  with  almonds,  gives  the  best  general  idea  of  it ;  but  intermingled  with 
it  come  wafts  of  flavor  that  call  to  mind  cream-cheese,  onion-sauce,  brown  sherry,  and 
other  incongruities.  Then  there  is  a  rich  glutinous  smoothness  in  the  pulp  which 
nothing  else  possesses,  but  which  adds  to  its  delicacy.  It  is  neither  acid,  nor  sweet, 
nor  juicy ;  yet  one  feels  the  want  of  none  of  these  qualities,  for  it  is  perfect  as  it  is. 
It  produces  no  nausea,  or  other  bad  effect,  and  the  more  you  eat  of  it  the  less  you  feel 
inclined  to  stop.  In  fact,  to  eat  durions  is  a  new  sensation  worth  a  voyage  to  the 
East  to  experience. 

"  When  the  fruit  is  ripe  it  falls  of  itself,  and  the  only  way  to  eat  durions  in  perfec- 
*  Malay  Archipelago,  85. 


558  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

tion  is  to  get  them  as  they  fall,  and  the  smell  is  then  less  overpowering.  In  a  good 
fruit  season  large  quantities  are  preserved  salted,  and  kept  the  year  round,  when  it 
acquires  a  most  disgusting  odor  to  Europeans,  but  the  natives  appreciate  it  highly  as  a 
relish  with  their  rice.  It  would  not,  perhaps,  be  correct  to  say  that  the  durion  is  the 
best  of  all  fruits,  because  it  can  not  supply  the  place  of  the  sub-acid  juicy  kinds,  such 
as  the  orange,  grape,  mango,  and  mangosteen,  whose  refreshing  and  cooling  qualities 
are  so  wholesome  and  grateful;  but  as  producing  a  food  of  the  most  exquisite  flavor 
it  is  unsurpassed.  If  I  had  to  fix  on  two  only  as  representing  the  perfection  of  the 
two  classes,  I  should  certainly  choose  the  durion  and  the  orange  as  the  kino-  and 
queen  of  fruits. 

"  The  durion  is,  however,  sometimes  dangerous.  When  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen  it 
falls  daily  and  almost  hourly,  and  accidents  not  unfrequently  happen  to  persons  walk- 
ing or  working  under  the  trees.  When  it  strikes  a  man  in  the  fall,  it  produces  a 
dreadful  wound,  the  strong  spines  tearing  open  the  flesh,  while  the  blow  itself  is  very 
heavy.  Poets  and  moralists,  judging  from  the  European  trees  and  fruits,  have  said 
that  small  fruits  alone  grow  on  lofty  trees,  so  that  their  fall  should  be  harmless  to 
man,  while  the  larger  ones  trail  on  the  ground.  But  this  generalization  would  be 
much  modified  by  an  acquaintance  with  tropical  trees  and  fruits.  Three  of  the  largest, 
most  solid  and  heavy  fruits  that  exist — the  cocoa-nut,  the  Brazil-nut,  and  the  durion — 
grow  on  lofty  forest  trees,  from  which  they  fall  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe,  and  often 
wound  or  kill  the  inhabitants.  From  this  we  may  learn,  mortifying  as  it  is  to  our 
vanity,  that  trees  and  fruits,  as  well  as  many  species  of  the  animal  kingdom,  do  not 
appear  to  be  organized  with  exclusive  reference  to  the  use  and  convenience  of  man." 
'^  When  the  durion  is  brought  into  a  house,  its  odor  is  so  offensive  that  many  persons 
can  not  bring  themselves  to  taste  it.  This  was  the  case  with  Mr.  Wallace  for  a  long 
time.  Try  his  best  to  eat  it,  and  the  nose  put  in  its  absolute  veto.  But  one  day  he 
happened  when  out  of  doors  to  find  a  ripe  fruit,  and  eating  it  there,  he  thenceforward 
became  a  confirmed  durion-eater. 


CONDIMENTS   PRODUCED  IN   THE   TROPICAL   WORLD.  559 


CHAPTER  VII. 

SUGAR— COFFEE-CHOCOLATE— COCA— SPICES. 

Sugar:  Its  Importance — The  Home  of  the  Sugar-Cane — Ancient  Theories  about  Sugar The 

Introduction  of  the  Cane  into  Europe  and  America — Cliaracteristics  of  the  Plant — Mode  of 
Cultiyation. —  Coffee:  Its  Home — Introduction  into  Egypt  and  Europe,  and  elsewhere — 
Present  Coffee  Countries — Coffee  Culture  in  Brazil — Agassiz's  Description  of  a  Coffee 
Estate— The  West  Indies  and  Ceylon— The  Coffee-Plant — Methods  of  Preparing  the  Berries 
—The  Enemies  of  the  Plant— The  Golunda— The  Coffee  Bug— The  Coffee  Moth.— Corao. 
or  Chocolate:  Its  Culture  and  Preparation. — Coca:  Description  of  the  Plant — Mode  of  its  Use 
— Its  Effects — Indian  superstitions  connected  with  it. —  Cinnamon:  Known  to  the  Ancients — 
Cinnamon  in  Ceylon — Mode  of  Culture  and  Preparation — General  Account  of  this  Spice — 
Nutmegs  and  Cloves — Enormities  of  the  Dutch,  Monopoly — Pepper — Pimento — Ginger. 

THERE  is  a  class  of  products  of  which,  although  not  strictly  articles  of  food, 
enter  largely  into  human  consumption  either  as  furnishing  beverages,  or  as  con- 
diments to  give  flavor  to  food,  or  as  luxuries.  With  the  exception  of  tea,  which 
belongs  to  the  temperate  zone,  these  belong  almost  exclusively  to  the  Tropical  World ; 
and  they  rank  among  the  most  important  articles  of  commerce.  We  shall  enumerate 
the  principal  of  these,  viz. :  Sugar,  Coffee,  Cacao,  Coca,  Vanilla,  Cinnamon,  Nut- 
megs, Cloves,  Pepper,  and  Pimento. 

Next  after  the  great  cereals,  which  have  been  described,  sugar  will  rank  as  the 
most  valuable  product  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  is  produced  in  greater  or  less 
quantities  from  the  juices  of  most  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  the  sap  of  many  kinds  of 
trees.  We  shall,  however,  speak  only  of  that  derived  from  the  sugar-cane,  a  plant  so 
exclusively  tropical  that  its  cultivation  increases  greatly  in  cost  the  moment  we  enter 
the  confines  of  the  temperate  zones.  Even  in  the  great  sugar  region  of  Louisiana, 
with  all  the  advantages  of  capital  aided  by  science,  the  production  of  sugar  is  only 
rendered  profitable  by  the  imposition  of  protective  duties  upon  that  of  foreign  countries. 

The  original  home  of  this  plant — for  which,  doubtless,  the  lively  fancy  of  the 
ancient  Greeks,  had  they  been  better  acquainted  with  it,  would  have  invented  a 
peculiar  god,  as  for  the  vine  or  the  cereals — is  most  likely  to  be  sought  for  in  South- 
eastern Asia,  where  the  Chinese  seem  to  have  been  the  first  people  that  learnt  the  art 
to  multiply  it  by  culture,  and  to  extract  the  sugar  from  its  juice.  From  China  its 
cultivation  spread  westwards  to  India  and  Arabia,  at  a  time  unknown  to  history;  and 
the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great  first  made  Europe  acquainted  with  the  sweet- 
juiced  cane,  while  sugar  itself  had  long  before  been  imported  by  the  Phoenicians  as  a 
rare  production  of  the  Eastern  world.  At  a  later  period,  both  the  plant  and  its 
produce  are  mentioned  by  several  classical  authors.     They  were,  however,  ignorant 


660  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

of  the  manner  of  its  production,  and  set  forth  many  fanciful  theories  upon  the  subject. 
According  to  some  it  was  a  kind  of  honey,  which  formed  itself  without  the  assistance 
of  bees.  Others  thought  it,  like  the  manna  in  the  wilderness,  a  shower  from  heaven 
which  fell  upon  the  leaves  of  blessed  seed.  Others,  more  nearly  correct,  believed  it 
to  be  a  concretion  of  the  juices,  formed  by  the  plant  itself  in  the  manner  of  a  gum. 

During  the  dark  ages  which  followed  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  all  previous 
knowledge  of  the  Oriental  sugar-plant  became  lost,  until  the  Crusades,  and,  still  more, 
the  revival  of  commerce  in  Venice  and  Genoa  reopened  the  ancient  intercourse  between 
the  Eastern  and  the  Western  world.  From  Egypt,  where  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar- 
cane had,  meanwhile,  been  introduced,  it  now  extended  to  the  Morea,  to  Rhodes,  and 
Malta;  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  we  find  it  growing  in  Italy,  on  the 
sultry  plains  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Etna.  After  the  discovery  of  Madeira  by  the  Portu- 
guese, in  the  year  1419,  the  first  colonists  added  the  vine  of  Cyprus  and  the  Sicilian 
sugar-cane  to  the  indigenous  productions  of  that  lovely  island ;  and  both  succeeded  so 
well,  as  to  become  after  a  few  years  the  objects  of  a  lively  trade  with  the  mother  country. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  this  extension  of  its  culture,  the  importance  of  sugar  as  an  article  of 
international  trade  continued  to  be  very  limited,  until  the  discovery  of  tropical  America 
by  Columbus  opened  a  new  world  to  commerce.  As  early  as  the  year  1506  the  sugar- 
cane was  transplanted  from  the  Canary  Islands  to  Hispaniola,  where  its  culture, 
favored  by  the  fertility  of  a  virgin  soil  and  the  heat  of  a  tropical  sun,  was  soon  found 
to  be  so  profitable,  that  it  became  the  chief  occupation  of  the  European  settlers,  and 
the  principal  source  of  their  wealth.  The  Portuguese,  in  their  turn,  conveyed  the 
cane  to  Brazil ;  from  Hispaniola  it  spread  over  the  other  West  Indian  Islands ;  thence 
wandered  to  the  Spanish  main,  and  followed  Pedrarias  and  Pizarro  to  the  shores  of 
the  Pacific. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  the  Chinese  or  Oriental  Sugar-cane  had 
thus  multiplied  to  an  amazing  extent  over  both  hemispheres,  when  the  introduction  of 
the  Tahitian  variety,  which  was  found  to  attain  a  statelier  growth,  to  contain  more 
sugar,  and  to  ripen  in  a  shorter  time,  began  to  dispossess  it  of  its  old  domains.  This 
new  and  superior  plant  is  now  universally  cultivated  in  all  the  sugar  growing  European 
colonies ;  and  if  Cook's  voyages  had  produced  no  other  benefit  than  making  the  world 
acquainted  with  the  Tahitian  Sugar-cane,  they  would  for  this  alone  deserve  to  be  reck- 
oned by  the  political  economist  among  the  most  successful  and  important  ever  per- 
formed by  man. 

The  sugar-cane  bears  a  great  resemblance  to  the  common  reed,  but  the  blossom  is 
different.  It  has  a  knotty  stalk,  like  most  grasses,  frequently  rising  to  the  height  of 
fourteen  feet,  and  produces  at  each  joint  a  long,  pointed,  and  sharply  serrated  leaf  or 
blade.  The  joints  in  one  stalk  are  from  forty  to  sixty  in  number,  and  the  stalks  rising 
from  one  root  are  sometimes  very  numerous.  As  the  plant  grows  up,  the  lower  leaves 
fall  off.  A  field  of  canes,  when  agitated  by  a  light  breeze,  affords  one  of  the  most 
pleasing  sights,  particularly  when,  towards  the  period  of  their  maturity,  the  gold«n 
plants  appear  crowned  with  plumes  of  silvery  feathers,  delicately  fringed  with  a  lilac 
dye.  The  cane  has  this  peculiarity,  that  each  joint  while  contributing  its  share  to  the 
general  growth  and  nutriment,  is  at  the  same  time,  by  a  separate  system  of  vessels  and 
chambers,  providing  for  its  own  development.  Thus  every  joint  is  in  a  manner  a 
distinct  plant ;  and  if  placed  in  the  ground  will  send  up  a  perfect  cane.     This  is 


I 


THE   SUGAR   CANE.    AND   SUGAR.  rAil 

indeed  the  only  manner  in  which  it  is  now  propagated.  There  is  not  and  probably  has 
not  been  for  ages,  a  single  plant  raised  from  the  seed.  In  Louisiana,  a  third  of  the 
crop  is  required  for  seed.  In  Cuba,  much  less  is  required,  as  the  cane  requires 
planting  only  every  ten  or  twelve  years ;  while  in  Louisiana  it  must  be  renewed  every 
two  or  three  years.  To  this  is  mainly  due  the  advantage  as  a  sugar  country  of  Cuba 
over  Louisiana. 

As  the  cane  is  a  rank,  succulent  plant,  it  requires  a  strong,  deep  soil  to  bring  it  to 
perfection,  and  generally  grows  best  in  a  low,  moist  situation.  On  the  ea.stern,  well- 
watered  slopes  of  the  Andes,  however,  it  still  thrives  at  a  height  of  G,000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  In  preparing  a  field  for  planting  with  the  cuttings  of  oane — for 
the  cultivator  nowhere  resorts  to  the  sowing  of  seed,  which  in  America  at  least,  has 
never  been  known  to  vegetate — the  ground  is  marked  out  in  rows,  three  or  four  feet 
apart,  and  in  these  linos  holes  are  dug,  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  deep,  and  with  an 
interval  of  two  feet  between  the  holes.  In  these  the  cuttings  are  inserted,  which 
invariably  consist  of  the  top  joints  of  the  plant,  because  they  are  less  rich  in  saccharine 
juice  than  the  lower  parts  of  the  cane,  while  their  power  of  vegetation  is  equally  strong. 
While  the  shoots  are  growing  and  progressing  to  ripeness,  great  care  must  be  taken  to 
irrigate  and  weed  the  field.  The  canes  annually  yield  fresh  shoots,  or  rattoons,  but  as 
tbey  have  a  tendency  to  deteriorate — at  least  in  size — it  is  customary  in  all  well-man- 
aged estates  to  renew  every  year  one  sixth  part  of  the  plantation. 

The  manufacture  of  sugar  has  been  greatly  improved  by  the  introduction  of  steam- 
power,  which  thoroughly  presses  out  all  the  juice  of  the  canes  on  their  being  passed 
but  once  between  the  three  iron  rollers  which  the  crushing-machine  sets  in  motion. 
The  sap  is  collected  in  a  cistern,  and  must  be  immediately  heated,  to  prevent  its 
becoming  acid — an  effect  which  frequently  commences  in  less  than  an  hour  from  the 
time  of  its  being  expressed.  A  certain  quantity  of  lime  is  added  to  promote  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  feculent  matters  contained  in  the  juice,  and  these  being  removed,  the  cane 
liquor  is  then  subjected  to  a  very  rapid  boiling,  to  evaporate  the  watery  particles  and 
bring  the  syrup  to  such  a  consistency  that  it  will  granulate  on  cooling. 

In  order  to  separate  the  granulated  or  crystallized  sugar  from  the  molasses,  which 
are  incapable  of  crystallization  and  even  attract  the  moisture  of  the  air,  it  is  placed  in 
a  large  square  iron  and  aii'-tight  case,  divided  into  two  compartments  by  a  sieve-like 
bottom  of  wire  with  narrow  meshes.  The  sugar  is  placed  in  the  upper  compartment, 
and  the  lower  one  communicates  with  two  air-pumps,  which  are  set  in  motion  by  the 
same  engine  which  crushes  the  canes.  On  the  air  being  exhausted  in  this  lower  com- 
partment, the  liquid  molasses  come  pouring  in  to  fill  up  the  void,  while  the  crystallized 
mass  remains  almost  thoroughly  purified  at  the  top.  This  used  formerly  to  be  a  very 
tedious  operation  :  the  sugar  was  placed  in  large  casks  whose  bottoms  were  pierced 
with  holes,  and  though  left  to  drain  for  at  least  eight  days,  it  still  retained  a  quantity 
of  molasses,  while  by  the  new  process  the  cleansing  is  most  eftbctually  performed  in  a 
couple  of  hours,  and  the  sugar,  which  has  of  course  a  much  better  appearance,  can 
immediately  be  packed  in  hogsheads  and  cases  ready  for  shipment. 

Our  space  will  not  permit  us  to  give  a  full  description  of  the  entire  process  of  culti- 
vating the  cane  and  manufacturing  sugar.     In  harper's  Magazine  for  November, 
1853,  and  February,   1865,  will  be  found  fully  illustrated  articles  describing  these 
processes  as  carried  on  in  Louisiana  and  Cuba. 
86 


562  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

The  mountain  regions  of  Enarea  and  Caffa,  situated  to  the  south  of  Abyssinia,  aro 
most  probably  the  countries  where  the  Coffee-  Tree  was  first  planted  by  nature,  as  it 
has  here  not  only  been  cultivated  from  time  immemorial,  but  is  everywhere  found 
growing  wild  in  the  forests. 

Here  also  the  art  of  preparing  a  beverage  from  its  berries  seems  to  have  been  first 
discovered.  Arabic  authors  inform  us  that  about  four  hundred  years  ago  Gemaledie, 
a  learned  mufti  of  Aden,  having  become  acquainted  with  its  virtues  on  a  journey  to 
the  opposite  shore  of  Africa,  recommended  it  on  his  return  to  the  dervises  of  his 
convent  as  an  excellent  means  for  keeping  awake  during  their  devotional  exercises. 
The  example  of  these  holy  men  brought  coffee  into  vogue,  and  its  use  spreading  from 
tribe  to  tribe,  and  from  town  to  town,  finally  reached  Mecca  about  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  There  fanaticism  endeavored  to  oppose  its  progress,  and  in  1511  a 
council  of  theologians  condemned  it  as  being  contrary  to  the  law  of  Mahomet,  on 
account  of  its  intoxicating  like  wine.  The  Sultan  of  Egypt,  however,  who  happened 
to  be  a  great  coflFee-drinker  himself,  convoked  a  new  assembly  of  the  learned,  who  de- 
clared its  use  to  be  not  only  innocent,  but  healthy ;  and  thus,  coffee  advanced  rapidly 
from  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Nile  to  Syria,  and  from  Asia  Minor  to  Constantinople, 
where  the  first  coiFee-house  was  opened  in  1554,  and  soon  called  forth  a  number  of 
rival  establishments.  But  here  also  the  zealots  began  to  murmur  at  the  mosques  being 
neglected  for  the  attractions  of  the  ungodly  coffee  divans,  and  declaimed  against  it  from 
the  Koran,  which  positively  says  that  coal  is  not  of  the  number  of  things  created  by 
God  for  good.  Accordingly  the  mufti  ordered  the  coffee-houses  to  be  closed  ;  but  his 
successor  declaring  coffee  not  to  be  coal,  unless  when  over-roasted,  they  were  allowed 
to  re-open,  and  ever  since  the  most  pious  mussulman  drinks  his  coffee  without  any 
scruples  of  conscience.  The  commercial  intercourse  with  the  Levant  could  not  fail  to 
make  Europe  acquainted  with  this  new  source  of  enjoyment.  In  1652,  Pasqua,  a 
Greek,  opened  the  first  coffee  house  in  London,  and  twenty  years  later  the  first  French 
cafes  were  established  in  Paris  and  Marseilles. 

As  the  demand  for  coffee  continually  increased,  the  small  province  of  Yemen,  the 
only  country  which  at  that  time  supplied  the  market,  could  no  longer  produce  a  suffi- 
cient quantity,  and  the  high  price  of  the  article  naturally  prompted  the  European 
governments  to  introduce  the  cultivation  of  so  valuable  a  plant  into  their  colonies. 
The  islands  of  Mauritius  and  Bourbon  took  the  lead  in  1718,  and  Batavia  followed  in 
1723.  Some  years  before,  a  few  plants  had  been  sent  to  Amsterdam,  one  of  which 
found  its  way  to  Marly,  where  it  was  multiplied  by  seeds.  Captain  Descleux,  a 
French  naval  officer,  took  some  of  these  young  coffee-plants  with  him  to  IMartinique, 
desirous  of  adding  a  new  source  of  wealth  to  the  resources  of  the  colony.  The  passage 
was  very  tedious  and  stormy ;  water  began  to  fail,  and  all  the  gods  seemed  to  conspire 
ao-ainst  the  introduction  of  the  coffee-tree  into  the  new  world.  But  Descleux  patiently 
endured  the  extremity  of  thirst  that  his  tender  shoots  might  not  droop  for  want  of 
water,  and  succeeded  in  safely  bringing  over  one  single  plant,  the  parent  stock  whence 
all  the  vast  coffee-plantations  of  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil  are  said  to  have  derived 
their  origin. 

On  examining  the  present  state  of  coffee-production  throughout  the  world,  we  find 
that  it  has  undergone  great  revolutions  within  the  last  thirty  years,  as  some  of  the 
countries  that  were  formerly  prominent  in  this  respect  now  occupy  but  an  inferior 


COFFEE  AND  COFFEE  COUNTRIES.  5G3 

rank,  while  in  others  the  cultivation  of  coffee  has  rapidly  attained  gigantic  proportions. 
Thus  Brazil,  which  at  the  beginning  of  the  century  was  hardly  known  in  the  coffee 
market,  now  furnishes  nearly  as  much  as  all  the  rest  of  the  world  besides.  Its  expor- 
tation, which  in  1820  amounted  to  97,.500  sacks,  rose  to  a  million  in  1840,  and  attained 
in  1855  the  enormous  quantity  of  2,392,100  sacks,  or  more  than  350  millions  of 
pounds ! 

Java  ranks  next  to  Brazil  among  the  coffee-producing  countries,  for  though  slavery 
does  not  exist  in  this  splendid  colony,  yet  the  Dutch  have  introduced  a  system  which 
answers  the  purpose  fully  as  well.  Every  Javanese  peasant  is  obliged  to  work  sixty- 
six  days  out  of  the  year  for  government ;  and  the  residents  or  administrators  of  the 
various  districts  distribute  this  compulsory  labor  among  the  several  plantations,  which 
are  all  iu  the  hands  of  private  individuals.  Thus  the  latter  are  provided  with  the 
necessary  hands  at  a  very  cheap  rate ;  but  on  the  other  hand  they  are  compelled  to 
sell  their  whole  produce  to  the  Handels  Maatschappij,  or  Dutch  East  India  Company, 
at  a  price  fixed  by  the  government,  which  of  course  takes  care  to  secure  the  lion's 
share  of  the  profit. 

Within  the  last  forty  years  the  progress  of  coffee  cultivation  in  Ceylon  has  been  no 
less  remarkable  than  its  rapid  extension  in  Java  or  Brazil.  Though  the  plant  was 
found  growing  in  the  island  by  the  Portuguese,  and  is  even  supposed  by  some  to  be 
indigenous,  yet  it  was  only  after  the  subjugation  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Kandy  by 
the  English  in  1815,  and  the  opening  of  roads  in  the  hill  country,  that  it  began  to  be 
cultivated  on  a  more  extensive  scale ;  so  that  in  an  incredibly  short  time  the  mountain 
ranges  in  the  centre  of  the  island  became  covered  with  plantations,  and  rows  of  coffee- 
trees  began  to  bloom  upon  the  solitary  hills  around  the  very  base  of  Adam's  Peak. 

Brazil  is,  however,  the  great  coffee  country  of  the  world.  According  to  Agassiz* 
"  more  than  half  the  coffee  consumed  in  the  world  is  of  Brazilian  growth.  And  yet 
the  coffee  of  Brazil  has  little  reputation,  and  is  even  greatly  underrated,  simply  because 
a  great  deal  of  the  best  produce  of  the  Brazilian  plantations  is  sold  under  the  name  of 
Java  or  Mocha,  or  as  the  coffee  of  Martinique  or  Bourbon.  Martinique  produces  only 
600  sacks  of  coffee  annually ;  Guadaloupe,  whose  coffee  is  sold  under  the  name  of  the 
neighboring  island,  yields  6,000  sacks,  not  enough  to  provide  the  market  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro  for  twenty-four  hours ;  and  the  Isle  of  Bourbon  hardly  more.  A  great  part 
of  the  coffee  which  is  bought  under  these  names,  or  under  that  of  Java  coffee  is  Bra- 
zilian ;  while  the  so-called  Mocha  coffee  is  often  nothing  but  the  small  round  beans  of 
the  Brazilian  plant,  found  at  the  summit  of  the  branches,  and  very  carefully  selected." 
"If,"  continues  Agassiz,  "  the  provinces  adjacent  to  Bio  de  Janeiro  offer  naturally  the 
i  most  favorable  soil  for  the  production  of  coffee,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  coftoe  is 
planted  with  advantage  in  the  shade  of  the  Amazonian  forest,  and  even  yields  two 
annual  crops  wherever  pains  are  taken  to  plant  it.  In  the  province  of  Ccani,  where 
the  coffee  is  of  superior  quality,  it  is  not  planted  on  the  plains  or  in  the  low  grounds, 
or  in  the  shadow  of  the  forest,  as  in  the  valley  of  the  Amazon,  but  on  the  slopes  of 
the  hills  and  on  the  mountain  hights,  at  an  elevation  of  from  1,500  to  2,000  feet  and 
more  above  the  sea,  in  the  Serras  of  Aratanha  and  Baturit^  and  in  the  Scrra  Grande." 
"  A  thriving  coffee  plantation,"  says  Agassiz  elsewhere,t  "is  a  very  pretty  sight ; 
the  rounded  regular  outline  of  the  shrubs  gives  a  tufted  look  to  the  hill-sides  on  wliich 
*  Journey  in  Brazil,  606,  507.  t  Journey  in  Brazil,  71,  113,  114. 


564  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

they  grow,  and  their  glittering  foliage  contrasts  strikingly  with  their  bright  berries. 
One  often  passes,  however,  coffee  plantations  which  look  ragged  and  thin ;  and  in  this 
case  the  trees  are  either  suffering  from  the  peculiar  insect  so  injurious  to  them,  (a  kind 
of  tinea,)  or  have  run  out  and  become  exhausted.  The  ordinary  roads  on  the  coffee 
plantations  are  carried  straight  up  the  side  of  the  hills,  between  the  lines  of  the  shrubs, 
gullied  by  every  rain,  and  offering  besides  so  steep  an  ascent  that  even  with  eight  or 
ten  oxen  it  is  often  impossible  to  drive  the  clumsy,  old-fashioned  cart  up  the  slope,  and 
the  negroes  are  obliged  to  bring  a  great  part  of  the  harvest  down  on  their  heads.  •  They 
are  often  seen  bringing  enormous  bundles  on  their  heads  down  almost  vertical  slopes." 
Agassiz,  however,  describes  one  plantation  which  he  visited  which  appears  to  be  a 
model :  "  On  Senhor  Lage's  estate  all  these  old  roads  are  abandoned,  except  where 
they  are  planted  here  and  there  with  alleys  of  orange-trees  for  the  benefit  of  the 
negroes ;  and  he  has  substituted  for  them  winding  roads  in  the  sides  of  the  hill,  with  a 
very  gradual  ascent,  so  that  light  carts  dragged  by  a  single  mule  can  transport  all  the 
harvest  from  the  summit  of  the  plantation  to  the  drying-ground.  It  was  the  harvesting 
season,  and  the  sight  was  a  very  pretty  one.  The  negroes,  men  and  women,  were 
scattered  about  the  plantations,  with  broad  shallow  trays,  made  of  plaited  grass  or 
bamboo,  over  their  shoulders,  and  supported  at  their  waists.  Into  these  they  were 
gathering  the  coffee,  some  of  the  berries  being  brilliantly  red,  some  already  beginning 
to  dry  and  turn  brown ;  while  here  and  there  was  a  green  one  not  yet  quite  ripe  but 
soon  to  ripen  in  the  scorching  sun.  Little  black  children  were  sitting  on  the  ground, 
and  gathering  what  fell  under  the  bushes,  singing  at  their  work  a  monotonous  but 
rather  pretty  snatch  of  song,  in  which  some  took  the  first  and  others  the  second, 
making  a  not  inharmonious  music.  As  their  baskets  were  filled  they  came  to  the 
administrator  to  receive  a  little  metal  ticket  on  which  the  amount  of  their  work  was 
marked.  A  task  is  allotted  to  each  one — so  much  to  a  full-grown  man,  so  much  to  a 
woman  with  young  children,  so  much  to  a  child — and  each  one  is  paid  for  whatever 
he  may  do  over  and  above  it.  The  requisition  is  a  very  moderate  one,  so  that  the 
industrious  have  an  opportunity  of  making  a  little  money  independently.  At  night 
they  all  present  their  tickets,  and  are  paid  on  the  spot  for  any  extra  work.  From  the 
harvesting-ground  we  followed  the  carts  down  to  the  place  where  their  burden  is 
deposited.  On  their  return  from  the  plantation  the  negroes  divide  the  day's  harvest, 
and  dispose  it  in  little  mounds  on  the  drying-ground,  which  is  paved  in  a  dazzling 
white  cement,  from  the  glare  of  which  the  eye  turns  wearily  away,  longing  for  a  green 
spot  on  which  to  rest.  When  pretty  equally  dried,  the  coffee  is  spread  out  in  thin 
even  layers  over  the  whole  enclosure,  where  it  is  baked  in  the  sun  for  the  last  time. 
It  is  then  hulled  by  a  very  simple  machine,  in  use  on  almost  all  the  fazendas,  and  the 
process  is  complete. 

"  The  coffee  plantations  cover  all  the  hill-sides  for  miles  around.  The  seed  is 
planted  in  nurseries  especially  prepared,  where  it  undergoes  its  first  year's  growth.  It 
is  then  transplanted  to  its  permanent  home,  and  begins  to  bear  in  about  three  years, 
the  first  crop  being  a  very  light  one.  From  that  time  forward,  under  good  care  and 
with  favorable  soil,  it  will  continue  to  bear,  and  even  to  yield  two  crops  or  more 
annually  for  thirty  years  in  succession.  At  that  time  the  shrubs  and  the  soil  are  alike 
exhausted,  and  according  to  the  custom  of  the  country  the  fazendeiro  cuts  down  a  new 
forest  and  begins  a  new  plantation,  completely  abandoning  his  old    one,  without  a 


COFFEE   CULTURE   IN   BRAZIL   AND   ELSEWHERE.  505 

thought  of  redeeming  or  fertilizing  the  exhausted  land.  One  of  the  long-sighted 
reforms  undertaken  by  our  host,  however,  is  the  manuring  of  all  the  old  deserted  plan- 
tations on  his  estate.  He  has  already  a  number  of  vigorous  young  plantations  which 
promise  to  be  as  good  as  if  a  virgin  forest  had  been  sacrificed  to  produce  them.  He 
wishes  not  only  to  preserve  the  wood  on  his  own  estate,  and  to  show  that  agriculture 
need  not  be  pursued  at  the  expense  of  taste  and  beauty,  but  also  to  remind  his  coun- 
trymen that,  extensive  as  their  forests  are,  they  will  not  last  forever ;  and  that  it  will 
be  necessary  to  emigrate  before  long  to  find  new  coffee  grounds,  if  the  old  ones  are  to 
be  considered  worthless." 

In  the  West  Indies  the  culture  of  cofiee  has  greatly  diminished.  Hayti,  which 
before  the  revolution  of  1791  exported  to  France  76,000,000  pounds,  now  produces 
less  than  half  that  quantity.  The  British  West  Indies,  which  in  1827  exported  nearly 
30,000,000  pounds,  now  produce  but  4,000,000.  Cuba,  the  product  of  which  in  1833 
was  40,000,000  pounds,  now  produces  less  than  half  as  much.  This  is,  however, 
owing  to  the  fact,  that  it  is  found  that  under  their  system  of  slavedabor  the  cultivation 
of  sugar,  for  which  the  climate  is  so  favorable,  has  been  found  more  profitable  than 
that  of  coffee.  In  Ceylon  the  production  of  coffee  has  increased  enormously  within 
the  present  generation.  It  rose  from  less  than  2,000,000  pounds  in  1833  to  more 
than  67,000,000  pounds  in  1857 ;  since  which  time  it  has  still  further  increased. 

When  left  to  the  free  growth  of  nature,  the  coffee-tree  attains  a  hight  of  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  feet;  in  the  plantations,  however,  the  tops  are  generally  cut  off  in  order  to 
promote  the  growth  of  the  lower  branches,  and  to  facilitate  the  gathering  of  the  crop. 
Its  leaves  are  opposite,  evergreen,  and  not  unlike  those  of  the  bay  tree ;  its  blossoms 
are  white,  sitting  on  short  footstalks,  and  resembling  the  flower  of  the  jasmine.  The 
fruit  which  succeeds  is  a  green  berry,  ripening  into  red,  of  the  size  and  form  of  a  large 
cherry,  and  having  a  pale,  insipid,  and  somewhat  glutinous  pulp,  enclosing  two  hard 
and  oval  seeds  or  beans,  which  are  too  well  known  to  require  any  further  description. 
The  tree  is  in  full  bearing  from  its  fourth  or  fifth  year,  and  continues  during  a  long 
series  of  seasons  to  furnish  an  annual  produce  of  about  a  pound  and  a  half  of  beans. 
The  seeds  are  known  to  be  ripe  when  the  berries  assume  a  dark  red  color,  and  if  not 
then  gathered,  will  drop  from  the  trees. 

The  planters  in  Arabia  do  not  pluck  the  fruit,  but  place  cloths  for  its  reception 
beneath  the  trees,  which  they  shake,  and  the  ripened  berries  drop  readily.  These  arc 
afterwards  spread  upon  mats,  and  exposed  to  the  sun  until  perfectly  dry,  when  the 
husk  is  broken  with  large  heavy  rollers  made  either  of  wood  or  of  stone.  The  coffee, 
thus  cleared  of  its  husk,  is  again  dried  thoroughly  in  the  sun,  that  it  may  not  be  liable 
to  heat  when  packed  for  shipment.  This  method  may,  in  some  measure,  account  for 
the  superior  quality  of  the  Arabian  coffee;  but  in  the  large  plantations  of  Brazil,  Java, 
Ceylon,  and  other  European  colonies,  it  is  necessary  to  follow  a  more  expeditious 
plan,  to  pluck  the  berries  from  the  trees  as  soon  as  they  ripen,  and  immediately  to 
pass  them  through  a  pulping  mill,  consisting  of  a  horizontal  fluted  roller  turned  by  a 
crank,  and  acting  against  a  movable  breast-board,  so  placed  as  to  prevent  tlie  passage 
of  whole  berries  between  itself  and  the  roller.  The  pulp  is  then  separated  from  the 
seeds  by  washing  them,  and  the  latter  are  spread  out  in  the  sun  to  dry ;  after  which 
the  membranous  skin,  or  parchment,  which  immediately  covers  the  beans,  is  removed 
by  means  of  heavy  rollers  or  stamping. 


566  THE   TROPICAL  WORLD. 

To  be  cultivated  to  advantage,  the  coffee-tree  requires  a  climate  where  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  year  amounts  to  at  least  68°,  and  where  the  thermometer  never 
falls  below  55°.  It  is  by  nature  a  forest  tree  requiring  shade  and  moisture,  and  thus 
it  is  necessary  to  screen  it  from  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun  by  planting  rows  of  um- 
brageous trees  at  certain  intervals  throughout  the  field.  These  also  serve  to  protect 
it  from  the  sharp  winds  which  would  injure  the  blossoms.  It  cannot  bear  either 
excessive  heat  or  a  long-continued  drought ;  and  where  rain  does  not  fall  in  sufficient 
quantity,  artificial  irrigation  must  supply  it  with  the  necessary  moisture.  From  all 
these  circumstances  it  is  evident  that  the  best  situations  for  the  growth  of  coffee  are 
not  the  sultry  alluvial  plains  of  the  tropical  and  sub-tropical  lands,  but  the  mountain 
slopes  to  an  elevation  of  4,500  feet. 

Like  every  other  plant  cultivated  by  man,  the  coffee-tree  is  exposed  to  the  ravages 
of  many  enemies.  Wild  cats,  monkeys,  and  squirrels  prey  upon  the  ripening  berries, 
and  hosts  of  caterpillars  feed  upon  the  leaves.  Since  1847  the  Ceylon  plantations 
have  been  several  times  invaded  by  swarms  of  the  golunda,  a  species  of  rat  which 
inhabits  the  forests,  making  its  nest  among  the  roots  of  the  trees,  and,  like  the  lem- 
mings of  Norway  and  Lapland,  migrating  in  vast  numbers  when  the  seeds  of  the 
niUoo-shrub,  its  ordinary  food,  are  exhausted.  "  In  order  to  reach  the  buds  and 
blossoms  of  the  coffee,  the  golunda  eats  such  slender  branches  as  would  not  sustain  its 
weight,  and  feeds  as  they  fall  to  the  ground ;  and  so  delicate  and  sharp  are  its  incisors, 
that  the  twigs  thus  destroyed  are  detached  by  as  clean  a  cut  as  if  severed  with  a 
knife.  The  Malabar  coolies  are  so  fond  of  its  flesh  that  they  evince  a  preference  for 
those  districts  in  which  the  coffee  plantations  are  subject  to  its  incursions,  frying  the 
rats  in  oil  or  converting  them  into  curry." 

Another  great  plague  is  the  Lecanium  coffece,  known  to  planters  as  the  coffee  bug, 
but  in  reality  a  species  of  coccus,  which  establishes  itself  on  young  shoots  and  buds, 
covering  them  with  a  noisome  incrustation  of  scales,  from  the  influence  of  which  the 
fruit  shrivels  and  drops  off.  A  great  part  of  the  crop  is  sometimes  lost,  and  on  many 
trees  not  a  single  berry  forms  from  the  invasion  of  this  pest,  which  was  first  observed 
in  1843  on  an  estate  at  Lapalla  Galla,  and  thence  spreading  eastward  through  other 
plantations,  finally  reached  all  the  other  estates  in  the  island.  No  cheap  and  effectual 
remedy  has  as  yet  been  found  to  stay  its  ravages,  and  the  only  hope  is  that,  as  other 
blights  have  been  known  to  do,  it  may  wear  itself  out,  and  vanish  as  mysteriously  as 
it  came. 

Mrs.  Agassiz*  gives  an  interesting  description  of  the  larva  of  the  Brazilian  coffee  moth : 
"  For  some  time  Mr.  Agassiz  has  been  trying  to  get  living  specimens  of  the  insect  so 
injurious  to  the  coffee-tree,  the  larva  of  a  little  moth  akin  to  those  which  destroy  the 
vineyards  of  Europe.  At  last  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  some,  and  among  them  was 
one  just  spinning  his  cocoon  on  the  leaf.  We  watched  him  for  a  long  time  with  the 
lens  as  he  wove  his  filmy  tent.  He  had  arched  the  threads  upwards  in  the  center,  so 
as  to  leave  a  little  hollow  space  into  which  he  could  withdraw.  This  tiny  vault 
seemed  to  be  completed  at  the  moment  we  saw  him,  and  he  was  drawing  threads  for- 
ward and  fastening  them  at  a  short  distance  beyond,  thus  lashing  his  house  to  the  leaf, 
as  it  were.  The  exquisite  accuracy  of  the  work  was  amazing.  He  was  spinning  the 
thread  with  his  mouth,  and  with  every  new  stitch  he  turned  his  body  backward, 
*  Journey  in  Brazil,  118. 


THE   COFFEE   MOTH-CACAO— VANILLA.  567 

attached  his  thread  to  the  same  spot,  then  drew  it  forward  and  fastened  it  exactly  on  a 
line  with  the  last,  with  a  precision  and  rapidity  that  machinery  could  hardly  imitate. 
It  is  a  curious  question  how  far  this  perfection  of  workmanship  in  many  of  the  lower 
animals  is  simply  identical  with  their  organization,  and  therefore  to  be  considered  as  a 
function  as  inevitable  in  its  action  as  digestion  or  respiration,  rather  than  as  an  instinct. 
In  this  case  the  body  of  the  little  animal  was  his  measure.  It  was  amazing  to  see  him 
lay  down  his  threads  with  such  accuracy,  till  one  remembered  that  he  could  not  make 
them  longer  or  shorter;  for,  starting  from  the  center  of  his  house,  and  stretching  his 
body  to  its  full  length,  they  must  always  reach  the  same  point.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  so-called  '  mathematics  '  of  the  bee.  The  bees  stand  as  close  as  they  can  together 
in  their  hive,  for  the  economy  of  space;  and  each  one  deposits  his  wax  around  him, 
his  own  form  and  size  being  the  mould  for  the  cells,  the  regularity  of  which  when 
completed  excites  so  much  wonder  and  admiration.  The  '  mathematical '  secret  of  the 
bee  is  to  be  found  in  bis  structure,  not  in  his  instinct.  But  in  the  industrial  work  of 
some  of  the  lower  animals — the  ant,  for  instance, — there  is  a  power  of  adaptation 
which  is  not  susceptible  of  the  same  explanation.  Their  social  organization,  too  intelli- 
gent, it  seems,  to  be  the  work  of  any  reasoning  powers  of  their  own,  yet  does  not 
appear  to  be  directly  connected  with  their  structure.  While  we  were  watching  our 
little  insect,  a  breath  stirred  the  leaf,  and  he  instantly  contracted  himself  and  drew 
back  under  his  roof;  but  presently  came  out  again  and  returned  to  his  work." 

"Theobroma," — food  for  gods, — the  Greek  name  given  by  Linnaeus  to  the  Cacao 
or  Chocolate  tree,  sufficiently  proves  how  highly  he  valued  the  flavor  of  its  seeds. 
Indio'cnous  in  Mexico,  it  had  long  been  in  extensive  cultivation  before  the  arrival  of 
the  Spaniards,  who  found  the  beverage  which  the  Indians  prepared  from  its  beans  so 
agreeable,  that  they  reckoned  it  among  the  most  pleasing  fruits  of  their  conquest. 
From  Mexico  they  transplanted  it  into  their  other  dependencies,  so  that  in  America  its 
present  range  of  cultivation  extends  from  20°  North  latitude  to  Guayaquil  and  Bahia. 
It  has  even  been  introduced  into  Africa  and  Asia,  in  return  for  the  many  useful  trees 
that  have  been  imported  from  the  old  into  the  new  world. 

The  cacao-tree  seldom  rises  above  the  height  of  twenty  feet,  its  leaves  are  large, 
oblong,  and  pointed.  The  flowers,  which  are  of  a  pale  red  color,  spring  from  the  large 
branches,  and  even  from  the  trunk  and  roots.  The  fruits  are  large,  oval,  pointed  pods, 
about  five  or  six  inches  long,  and  containing  in  five  compartments  from  twenty  to  forty 
seeds — the  well-known  cacao  of  commerce — enveloped  in  a  white,  pithy  substance. 

The  trees  are  raised  from  seed,  generally  in  places  screened  from  the  wind.  As 
they  are  incapable  of  bearing  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  particularly  when  young, 
bananas,  maize,  manioc,  and  other  broad-leaved  plants  are  sown  between  their  rows, 
under  whose  shade  they  enjoy  the  damp  and  sultry  heat  which  is  indispensable  to  their 
growth,  for  the  Theohroma  Cacao  is  essentially  tropical,  and  requires  a  warmer 
climate  than  the  coffee-tree  or  the  sugar-cane.  Two  years  after  having  been  sown,  the 
plant  attains  a  height  of  three  feet,  and  sends  forth  many  branches,  of  which,  however, 
but  four  or  five  are  allowed  to  remain.  The  first  fruits  appear  in  the  third  year,  but 
the  tree  does  not  come  into  full  bearing  before  it  is  six  or  seven  years  old,  and  from 
that  time  forward  it  continues  to  yield  abundant  crops  of  beans  during  more  than 
twenty  years.     At  first  the  tender  plants  must  be  carefully  protected  from  weeds  and 


568  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

insects,  but  in  after  years  they  demand  but  little  attention  and  labor,  so  that  one  negro 
sufBces  for  keeping  a  thousand  trees  in  order  and  collecting  their  produce.  Accordiuo- 
to  Herndon,*  the  annual  produce  of  a  thousand  full-grown  trees,  in  the  plantations 
along  the  lower  banks  of  the  monarch  of  streams,  amounts  to  fifty  arrobes,  that  sell  in 
Peru  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  milrees  the  arrobe  ;  and  Wagner  informs  us  that  in 
Costa  Rica  a  thousand  trees  yield  about  1,250  pounds,  worth  twenty  dollars  the 
hundred  weight. 

The  beans  when  first  collected  from  the  tree  are  possessed  of  an  acrimony,  which 
requires  a  slight  fermentation  to  change  into  the  aromatic  principle,  to  which  they  are 
indebted  for  their  agreeable  flavor.  For  this  purpose  they  are  thrown  into  pits,  where 
they  remain  three  or  four  days  covered  with  a  light  layer  of  sand,  care  being  taken  to 
stir  them  from  time  to  time.  They  are  then  taken  out,  cleaned,  and  laid  out  upon 
mats  to  dry  in  the  sun.  The  management  of  the  beans  requires  some  caution,  for  if 
the  fermentation  is  allowed  to  continue  too  long,  they  acquire  a  mouldy  taste  and  smell, 
which  they  only  lose  on  being  roasted.  When  thoroughly  dried  (which  is  known  by 
their  hollow  sound  when  shaken,  and  by  the  husk  easily  separating  from  the  seed  when 
pressed) ,  they  are  packed  in  sacks  or  cases,  and  sent  as  soon  as  possible  to  the  market, 
a  rapid  sale  being  extremely  desirable,  as  it  is  very  diflacult  to  preserve  them  from 
insects,  more  particularly  from  the  cockroaches.  Cacao  is  chiefly  used  under  the  form 
of  chocolate.  The  beans  are  roasted,  finely  ground,  so  as  to  convert  them  into  a  per- 
fectly smooth  paste,  and  improved  in  flavor  by  the  addition  of  spices,  such  as  the  sweet- 
scented  vanilla,  a  short  notice  of  which  will  not  be  out  of  place. 

Like  our  parasitical  ivy,  the  Vanilla  aromatica,  a  native  of  torrid  America,  climbs 
the  summits  of  the  highest  forest-trees,  or  creeps  along  the  moist  rock  crevices  on  the 
banks  of  rivulets.  The  stalk,  which  is  about  as  thick  as  a  finger,  bears  at  each  joint 
a  lanceolate  and  ribbed  leaf,  twelve  inches  long  and  three  inches  broad.  The  large 
flowers,  which  fill  the  forest  with  their  delicious  odors,  are  white  intermixed  with  stripes 
of  red  and  yellow,  and  are  succeeded  by  long  and  slender  pods  containing  many  seeds 
imbedded  in  a  thick  oily  and  balsamic  pulp.  These  pods  seldom  ripen  in  the  wild 
state,  for  the  dainty  monkey  knows  no  greater  delicacy,  and  his  agility  in  climbing 
almost  always  enables  him  to  anticipate  man.  At  present  the  vanilla  is  cultivated  not 
only  in  Mexico,  where  the  villages  Papantla  and  Misantla  annually  produce  about 
19,000  pounds  or  two  millions  of  pods  (worth  at  Vera  Cruz  a  shilling  the  pod),  but 
in  Java,  where  the  industrious  Dutch  have  acclimatized  it  since  1819.  It  is  planted 
under  shady  trees  on  a  damp  ground,  and  grows  luxuriantly ;  but  as  a  thousand  blos- 
soms on  an  average  produce  but  one  pod,  it  must  always  remain  a  rare  and  costly  spice. 
Had  the  ancients  known  vanilla  they  would,  no  doubt,  have  deemed  it  more  worthy  to 
be  the  food  of  the  Olympic  gods  than  their  fabled  ambrosia. 

Although  but  little  known  beyond  the  confines  of  its  native  country,  Coca  (to  be 
carefully  distinguished  from  Cocoa  and  Cacao),  is  beyond  all  doubt  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  productions  of  the  tropical  zone,  and  deserves  the  more  to  be  noticed  as  the 
time  is,  perhaps,  not  far  distant,  when  it  will  assume  a  conspicuous  rank  in  the  markets 
of  the  world. 

*  Valley  of  the  Amazons. 


COCA-ITS   USES   AND   ABUSES. 


0(39 


The  sultry  valleyg  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  Andes  are 
the  seat  of  the  Erythroxylon  Coca,  which  like  the  cofFec-tree  bears  a  lustrous  green 
foliage,  and  white  blossoms  ripening  into  small,  scarlet  berries.  These,  however,  are 
not  used,  but  the  leaves,  which  when  brittle  enough  to  break  on  bein"-  bent,  are 
stripped  from  the  plant,  dried  in  the  sun,  and  closely  packed  in  sacks.  The  naked 
shrub  soon  gets  covered  with  new  foliage,  and  after  three  or  four  months  its  leaves  are 
ready  for  a  second  plucking,  though  in  some  of  the  higher  mountain-valleys  it  can 
only  be  stripped  once  a  year.  Every  eight  or  ten  years  the  plantations  require  to  be 
renewed,  as  the  leaves  of  the  old  shrubs  are  less  juicy,  and  consequently  of  inferior 
quality.  Like  the  coffee-tree,  the  coca  shrub  thrives  only  in  a  damp  situation,  under 
shelter  from  the  sun  ;  and  for  this  reason  maize,  which  rapidly  shoots  up,  is  "-enerally 
sown  between  the  rows  of  the  young  plants.  At  a  later  period,  when  they  no  longer 
need  this  protection,  care  must  be  taken  to  weed  the  plantation,  and  to  loosen  the  soil 
every  two  or  three  months. 

The  local  consumption  of  coca  is  immense,  as  the  Peruvian  Indian  reckons  its  habitual 
use  among  the  prime  necessaries  of  life,  and  is  never  seen  without  his  leathern  pouch 
or  chuspa,  filled  with  a  provision  of  the  leaves,  and  containing  besides  a  small  box  of 
powdered  unslaked  lime.  At  least  three  times  a  day  he  rests  from  his  work  to  chew 
his  indispensable  coca.  Carefully  taking  a  few  leaves  out  of  the  bag,  and  removino- 
their  midribs,  he  first  masticates  them  into  the  shape  of  a  small  ball,  which  is  called  an 
acullico ;  then  repeatedly  inserting  a  thin  piece  of  moistened  wood  like  a  toothpick 
into  the  bos  of  unslaked  lime,  he  introduces  the  powder  which  remains  attached  to  it 
into  the  acullico  until  the  latter  has  acquired  the  requisite  flavor.,  The  saliva,  which 
is  abundantly  secreted  while  chewing  the  pungent  mixture,  is  mostly  swallowed  along 
with  the  green  juice  of  the  plant.  When  the  acullico  is  exhausted,  another  is  imme- 
diately prepared,  for  one  seldom  suffices.  The  corrosive  sharpness  of  the  unslaked 
lime  requires  some  caution,  and  an  unskilled  cocachewer  runs  the  risk  of  burning 
his  lips,  as,  for  instance,  the  celebrated  traveler  Tschudi,  who,  by  the  advice  of  his 
muleteer,  while  crossing  the  high  mountain-passes  of  the  Andes,  attempted  to  make  an 
acullico,  and  instead  of  strengthening  himself  as  he  expected,  merely  added  excru- 
ciating pain  to  the  fatigues  of  the  journey.  The  taste  of  coca  is  slightly  bitter  and 
aromatic,  like  that  of  bad  green  tea,  but  the  addition  of  lime  or  of  the  sharp  ashes  of 
the  quinoa,  renders  it  less  disagreeable  to  the  European  palate. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  Indians  who  regularly  use  coca  require  but  little 
food,  and  when  the  dose  is  augmented  are  able  to  undergo  the  greatest  fatigues,  without 
tasting  almost  anything  else.  Poppig  ascribes  this  astonishing  increase  of  endurance 
to  a  momentary  excitement,  which  must  necessarily  be  succeeded  by  a  corresponding 
collapse,  and  therefore  considers  the  use  of  coca  absolutely  hurtful.  Tschudi,  however, 
is  of  opinion  that  its  moderate  consumption  far  from  being  injurious,  is,  on  the  con- 
trary, extremely  wholesome,  and  cites  the  examples  of  several  Indians  who,  never 
allowing  a  day  to  pass  without  chewing  their  coca,  attained  the  truly  patriarchal  age 
of  one  hundred  and  thirty  years.  The  ordinary  food  of  these  people  consists  almost 
exclusively  of  roasted  maize  or  barley,  which  is  eaten  dry  without  any  other  addition  : 
and  the  obstinate  obstructions  caused  by  these  mealy  aliments  are  obviated  by  the  tonic 
effects  of  the  coca,  which  thus  removes  the  cause  of  many  maladies.  It  may  be 
remarked,  that  a  similar  reason  is  assigned  for  the  custom  of  areka  and  betel  chewing 


570  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

in  Southern  Asia.  As  an  instance  of  the  wonderful  strengthening  properties  of  the 
coca,  Tschudi  mentions  the  case  of  an  Indian  called  Hatun  Huamang  or  the  *'  Great 
Vulture,"  whom  he  employed  during  five  consecutive  days  and  nights  in  making  the 
most  laborious  excavations,  and  who  never  ate  anything  all  the  time,  or  slept  more  than 
two  hours  a  night.  But  every  three  hours  he  chewed  about  half  an  ounce  of  the  leaves, 
and  constantly  kept  his  acuUico  in  his  mouth.  When  the  work  was  finished,  this  Indian 
accompanied  Tschudi  during  a  ride  of  twenty-three  leagues,  over  the  high  mountain- 
plains,  constantly  running  alongside  of  the  nimbly-pacing  mule,  and  never  resting  but 
for  the  purpose  of  preparing  an  acullico.  When  they  separated,  the  "  Great  Vulture  " 
told  Tschudi  that  he  would  willingly  do  the  same  work  over  again,  provided  only  he 
had  a  plentiful  allowance  of  coca.  He  was  sixty-two  years  old,  according  to  the  testi- 
mony of  the  village  priest,  and  had  never  been  ill  all  his  life. 

Tschudi  often  found  that  coca  is  the  best  preservative  against  the  asthmatic  symp- 
toms which  are  produced  by  the  rapid  ascension  of  high  mountains.  While  hunting 
in  the  Puna,  at  an  elevation  of  14,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  he  always 
drank  a  strong  infusion  of  coca  before  starting,  and  was  then  able  to  climb  among  the 
rocks,  and  to  pursue  his  game,  without  any  greater  difficulty  in  breathing  than  would 
have  been  the  case  upon  the  coast.  Even  after  drinking  a  very  strong  infusion,  he 
never  experienced  any  symptoms  of  cerebral  excitement,  but  a  feeling  of  satiety,  and 
though  he  took  nothing  else  at  the  time,  his  appetite  returned  only  after  a  longer 
interval  than  usual. 

If  the  moderate  use  of  coca  is  thus  beneficial  in  many  respects,  its  abuse  is  attended 
with  the  same  deplorable  consequences  as  those  which  are  observed  in  the  oriental 
opium-eaters  and  smokers,  or  in  our  own  incorrigible  drunkards.  The  confirmed  coca- 
chewer,  or  coquero,  is  known  at  once  by  his  uncertain  step,  his  sallow  complexion,  his 
hollow,  lack-lustre  black-rimmed  eyes,  deeply  sunk  in  the  head,  his  trembling  lips,  his 
incoherent  speech,  and  his  stolid  apathy.  His  character  is  irresolute,  suspicious,  and 
false  ;  in  the  prime  of  life  he  has  all  the  appearances  of  senility,  and  in  later  years 
sinks  into  complete  idiocy.  Avoiding  the  society  of  man,  he  seeks  the  dark  forest,  or 
some  solitary  ruin,  and  there,  for  days  together,  indulges  in  his  pernicious  habit. 
While  under  the  influence  of  coca,  his  excited  fancy  riots  in  the  strangest  visions,  now 
revelling  in  pictures  of  ideal  beauty,  and  then  haunted  by  dreadful  apparitions. 
Secure  from  intrusion,  he  crouches  in  an  obscure  corner,  his  eyes  immovably  fixed  upon 
one  spot ;  and  the  almost  automatic  motion  of  the  hand  raising  the  coca  to  the  mouth, 
and  its  mechanical  chewing,  are  the  only  signs  of  consciousness  which  he  exhibits. 
Sometimes  a  deep  groan  escapes  from  his  breast,  most  likely  when  the  dismal  solitude 
around  him  inspires  his  imagination  with  some  terrific  vision,  which  he  is  as  little  able 
to  banish  as  voluntarily  to  dismiss  his  dreams  of  ideal  felicity.  How  the  coquero 
finally  awakens  from  his  trance,  Tschudi  was  never  able  to  ascertain,  though  most 
likely  the  complete  exhaustion  of  his  supply  at  length  forces  him  to  return  to  his 
miserable  hut. 

No  historical  record  informs  us  when  the  use  of  the  coca  was  introduced,  or  who 
first  discovered  the  hidden  virtues  of  its  leaves.  When  Pizarro  destroyed  the  empire 
of  Atahualpa  he  found  that  it  played  an  important  part  in  the  religious  rites  of  ihQ 
Incas,  and  that  it  was  used  in  all  public  ceremonies,  either  foj  fumigation  or  as  an 
offering  to  the  gods.     The  priests  chewed  coca  while  performing  their  rites,  and  the 


USES   AND   ABUSES   OF   COCA-CINNAMON.  r.71 

favor  of  the  invisible  powers  was  only  to  be  obtained  by  a  present  of  these  highly 
valued  leaves.  No  work  begun  witliout  coca  could  come  to  a  happy  termination,  and 
divine  honors  were  paid  to  the  shrub  itself. 

After  a  period  of  more  than  three  centuries,  Christianity  has  not  yet  been  able  to 
eradicate  these  deeply  rooted  superstitious  feelings,  and  everywhere  the  traveler  still 
meets  with  traces  of  the  ancient  belief  in  its  mysterious  powers.  To  the  present  day, 
the  miners  of  Cerro  de  Pasco  throw  chewed  coca  against  the  hard  veins  of  the  ore,  and 
affirm  that  they  can  then  be  more  easily  worked, — a  custom  transmitted  to  them  from 
their  forefathers,  who  were  fully  persuaded  that  the  Coyas,  or  subterranean  divinities, 
rendered  the  mountains  impenetrable  unless  previously  propitiated  by  an  offerin"  of 
coca.  Even  now  the  Indians  put  coca  into  the  mouths  of  their  dead,  to  insure  them  a 
welcome  on  their  passage  to  another  world;  and  whenever  they  find  one  of  their 
ancestral  mummies,  they  never  fail  to  offer  it  some  of  the  leaves. 

During  the  first  period  after  the  conquest  of  Peru,  the  Spaniards  endeavored  to 
extirpate  by  all  possible  means  the  use  of  coca,  from  its  being  so  closely  interwoven 
with  the  Indian  superstitions;  but  the  proprietors  of  the  mines  soon  became  aware 
how  necessary  it  was  for  the  successful  prosecution  of  their  undertakings ;  the  planters 
also  found  after  a  time  that  the  Indians  would  not  work  without  it.  Private  interest 
prevailed,  as  it  always  does  in  the  long  run,  over  religious  zeal  and  despotic  interdic- 
tions, and  in  the  last  century  we  even  find  a  Jesuit,  Don  Antonio  Julian,  regretting 
that  the  use  of  coca  had  not  been  introduced  into  Europe  instead  of  tea  or  coffee. 
When  we  consider  its  remarkable  properties,  it  is  indeed  astonishing  that  it  has  so 
long  remained  unnoticed.  Were  it  concealed  in  the  interior  of  Africa,  or  extremely 
difficult  to  procure,  this  neglect  could  be  more  easily  accounted  for ;  but  hundreds  of 
vessels  annually  frequent  the  harbors  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  where  it  may  be  obtained 
in  large  quantities,  and  yet  it  has  only  been  rarely  and  in  small  quantities  imported 
into  Europe,  and,  as  far  as  I  can  learn,  never  into  the  United  States. 

Although  the  Cinnamon  tree,  that  beautiful  laurel,  whose  bark  furnishes  the  most 
exquisite  of  all  the  spices  of  the  East,  is  indigenous  in  the  forests  of  Ceylon ;  yet  as  no 
author  previous  to  the  fourteenth  century  mentions  its  aromatic  rind  among  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  island,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  cinnamon,  which  in 
the  earlier  ages  was  imported  into  Europe  through  Arabia,  was  obtained  first  from 
Africa,  and  afterwards  from  India.  Cinnamon  figures  largely  among  the  ingredients 
used  by  the  Hebrews  for  the  holy  anointing  oil  and  sacred  perfumes.  Some,  indeed, 
but  with  no  good  reason,  have  supposed  that  the  substance  so  designated  was  the 
gum  of  a  species  of  the  aloe,  and  aver  that  cinnamon  itself  was  unknown  to  the 
Hebrews,  Greeks  and  Romans.  That  the  Portuguese,  who  had  been  mainly  attracted 
to  tlie  East  by  the  fame  of  its  spices,  were  nearly  twenty  years  in  India  before  they 
took  steps  to  obtain  a  footing  at  Colombo,  proves  that  there  can  have  been  nothing 
very  remarkable  in  the  quality  of  the  spice  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  that  the  high  reputation  of  the  Ceylon  cinnamon  is  comparatively  modern,  and 
attributable  to  the  attention  bestowed  upon  its  preparation  for  market  by  the  Portu- 
guese, and  afterwards  on  its  cultivation  by  the  Dutch.  Long  after  the  appearance  of 
Europeans  in  Ceylon,  cinnamon  was  only  found  in  the  forests  of  the  interior,  where  it 
was  cut  and  brought  away  by  the  Chalias,  an  emigrant  tribe,  which,  in  consideration 


572  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

of  its  location  in  villages,  was  bound  to  go  into  the  woods  to  cut  and  deliver,  at  certain 
prices,  a  given  quantity  of  cinnamon  properly  peeled  and  ready  for  exportation.  This 
system  remained  unchanged  so  long  as  Portugal  was  master  of  the  country ;  but  the 
forests  in  which  the  spice  was  found  being  exposed  to  constant  incursions  from  the 
Kandyans,  who  sought  every  opportunity  to  obstruct  and  harass  the  Chalias  and 
peelers,  the  Dutch  were  compelled  to  form  enclosed  plantations  of  their  own  within 
range  of  their  fortresses.  The  native  chieftains,  fearful  of  losing  the  profits  derived 
from  the  labor  of  the  Chalias,  who  were  attached  as  serfs  to  their  domains,  and  whose 
work  they  let  out  to  the  Dutch,  were  at  first  extremely  opposed  to  this  innovation,  and 
endeavored  to  persuade  the  Hollanders  that  the  cinnamon  would  degenerate  as  soon  as 
it  was  artificially  planted.  The  withering  of  many  of  the  young  trees  seemed  to  justify 
the  assertion ;  but  on  a  closer  examination  it  was  found  that  boiling  water  had  been 
poured  upon  the  roots.  A  law  was  now  passed  declaring  the  wilful  injury  of  a  cinna- 
mon plant  a  crime  punishable  with  death,  and  by  this  severity  the  project  was  saved. 

The  extent  of  the  trade  during  the  time  of  the  Dutch  may  be  inferred  from  the 
fact,  that  the  five  principal  cinnamon-gardens  around  Nejombo,  Colombo,  Barberyn, 
Galle,  and  Maduro  were  each  from  fifteen  to  twenty  miles  in  circumference.  Although 
they  were  only  first  planted  in  the  year  1770,  yet  before  1796,  when  Colombo__  was 
taken  by  the  English,  their  annual  produce  amounted  to  more  than  400,000  lbs.  of 
cinnamon,  as  much  as  the  demands  of  the  market  required.  The  profits  must  have 
been  enormous,  for  cinnamon  was  then  at  least  ten  times  dearer  than  at  present,  the 
trade  being  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  East  Indian  Company,  which,  in 
order  to  keep  up  the  price,  restricted  the  production  to  a  certain  quantity,  and  watched 
over  its  monopoly  with  the  most  jealous  tyranny.  No  one  was  allowed  to  plant  cinna- 
mon or  to  peel  it,  and  the  selling  or  importing  of  a  single  stick  was  punished  as  a 
capital*ofFence. 

When  the  English  took  possession  of  the  island,  the  monopoly  was  ceded  to  the 
East  India  Company  for  an  annual  sum  of  £60,000  until  1823,  when  the  colonial 
government  undertook  the  administration  of  the  cinnamon-gardens  for  its  own  account. 
In  1831  the  produce  sank  to  £16,000  sterling,  and  in  the  following  year  the  ancient 
monopoly  was  abandoned ;  the  government  ceased  to  be  the  sole  exporters  of  cinnamon, 
and  thenceforward  the  merchants  of  Colombo  and  Galle  were  permitted  to  take  a 
share  in  the  trade,  on  paying  to  the  crown  an  export  duty  of  three  shillings  a  pound. 
This  was  afterwards  reduced  to  one  shilling,  and  ultimately  totally  abolished ;  as  not 
alone  India  and  Java,  but  also  Martinique,  Guiana,  and  Mauritius,  where  the  cinnamon 
tree  had  been  introduced,  were  found  capable  of  producing  the  spice ;  and  the  cheap 
substitute  of  Cassia,  a  still  more  formidable  competitor,  was  arriving  in  Europe  in  large 
quantities  from  South  China  and  the  Trans-Gangetic  peninsula.  In  Java  alone  the 
export  of  cinnamon,  which  in  the  year  1835  amounted  only  to  2,200  lbs.,  increased  so 
rapidly  that  in  1845  it  had  already  risen  to  134,000  lbs.,  and  as  it  can  there  be  more 
cheaply  produced,  and  the  Dutch  government  was  wise  enough  to  limit  the  export 
duty  to  one  half-penny  a  pound,  an  unrestricted  free  trade  was  evidently  the  only 
means  for  preventing  Ceylon  from  being  entirely  supplanted  in  the  markets  of  the 
world.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  Singhalese  cinnamon  has  lost  its  ancient 
excellence,  less  care  has  been  given  of  late  years  to  the  production  of  the  finest 
qualities  for  the  European  market,  and  the  coarser  and  less  valuable  shoots  have  been 


\ 


CINNAMON   GARDENS   OF   CEYLON.  r,!^ 

cut  and  peeled  in  larger  proportions  than  formerly.     Hence  the  gross  quantity  exported 
from  Ceylon  in  1857  (887,959  lbs.)  was  nearly  double  that  of  1841. 

The  cinnamon  gardens,  whose  beauty  and  luxuriance  has  been  so  often  vaunted  by 
travelers,  have  partly  been  sold,  partly  leased  to  private  individuals ;   and  though  less 
:    than  a  century  has  elapsed  since  they  were  formed  by  the  Dutch,  they  are  already 
I    becoming  a  wilderness.     Those  which  surround  Colombo  on  the  land  side  exhibit  the 
I    effects  of  a  quarter  of  a  century  of  neglect,  and  produce  a  feeling  of  disappointment 
j    and  melancholy.     The  beautiful  shrubs  which  furnish  this  spice  have  been  left  to 
the  wild  growth  of  nature,  and  in  some  places  are  entirely  supplanted  by  an  under- 
i    growth  of  jungle,  while  in  others  a  thick   cover  of  climbing  plants  conceals  them 
j    under   heaps  of  verdure   and  blossom.      It  would,   however,  be   erroneous  to  sup- 
j    pose  that  the  cinnamon-gardens  have  been  universally  doomed  to  the  same  neglect, 
and  many  beautiful  gardens  still  exist.     The  aspect  of  a  well-conditioned  cinnamon- 
garden  is  rath.er  monotonous ;  for,  though  the  trees  when  left  to  their  full  growth 
attain  a  hight  of  forty  or  fifty  feet,    and   a  thickness  of  from  eighteen  to  twenty 
inches,  yet,  as  the  best  spice  is  furnished  by  the  shoots  that  spring  from  the  roots  after 
the  chief  stem  has  been  removed,  they  are  kept  as  a  kind  of  coppice,  and  not  allowed 
to  rise  higher  than  ten  feet.     The  shrubs  planted  in  regular  rows,  four  or  five  feet 
apart,  consist  of  four  or  five  shoots  whose  slender  stems,  very  much  resembling  those 
of  the  hazel  tree,  are  leafed  from  top  to  bottom.     The  leaf  when  first  developed  is 
partly  of  a  bright  red,  and  partly  of  a  pale  yellow ;  it  soon,  however,  assumes  a  greea 
hue,  and  when  at  its  full  growth  is  on  the  upper  surface  of  a  dark  olive  color,  and  on 
the  under  side  of  a  lighter  green  ;  it  somewhat  resembles  that  of  the  bay,  but  is  longer 
and  narrower.     The  flowers  bloom  in  January,  and  grow  on  foot-stalks  rising  from  the 
axillfB  of  the  leaves  and  the  extremities  of  the  branches,  clustering  in  bunches,  which 
resemble  in  size  and  shape  those  of  the  lilac,  but  they  are  white  with  a  brownish  tinge 
in  the  center.     Though  their  smell  has  been  frequently  extolled  as  very  fragrant,  yet 
it  is  weak,  and  by  no  means  agreeable,  resembling  that  of  animal  albuminous  liquids. 
The  flowers  are  followed  by  one-seeded  berries,  of  the  shape  of  an  acorn,  but  not  so 
large  as  a  common  pea. 

The  plants  are  propagated  by  seeds  or  saplings.  In  two  years  the  shoots  are  fit  for 
cutting,  being  then  about  half  an  inch  thick ;  but  as  the  shoots  arc  continually  cut  as 
soon  as  they  have  obtained  the  proper  size,  a  full-grown  trunk  never  forms,  so  that  the 
more  or  less  voluminous  root-stalk  is  the  only  criterion  of  age.  The  peeling  of  the 
rind  takes  place  twice  a  year,  from  May  to  June,  and  in  November,  as  at  that  time,  in 
consequence  of  the  heavier  rains,  and  the  increase  of  sap,  it  can  be  more  easily 
detached  from  the  wood.  The  epidermis  having  been  scraped  oflf,  the  bark  is  placed 
on  mats  to  dry  in  the  sun,  when  it  curls  up,  and  acquires  a  darker  tint.  The  smaller 
pieces  are  then  put  inside  the  larger,  and  the  whole  closes  together  into  the  tubular 
form,  in  which  it  is  sold  in  the  shops.  The  finer  sort  is  as  thin  as  parchment,  light 
brown,  and  extremely  aromatic. 

From  the  American  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Biblical  Literature"  we  abridge  an  admirable 
account  of  this  plant:  "Cinnamon  was  probably  an  article  of  commerce  in  ancient 
Babylon.  The  Hebrews  received  it  through  the  3Iidianites  and  Nabath:\eans,  who 
brought  it  from  the  Arabian  Gulf.  It  seems  that  the  Arabians  at  an  early  period  had 
commercial  intercourse  with  Ceylon  and  Continental  India.     The  terra  itself  occurs  in 


574  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

many  Greek  authors.  Herodotus,  writing  400  years  before  the  Christian  era,  describes 
Arabia  as  the  last  inhabited  country  toward  the  south,  and  the  only  region  which 
produces  frankincense,  myrrh,  cinnamon,  cassia,  and  ledanum.  He  states  that  the 
Arabians,  however,  were  ignorant  of  the  particular  spot  where  cinnamon  grew.  It  was 
not  till  the  time  of  Dioscorides,  Galen,  and  the  circumnavigation  of  the  Erythraean 
Sea  (B.  C.  200,)  that  we  get  any  definite  information.  Galen  says  that  cinnamon  and 
cassia  are  so  much  alike  that  it  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other. 
Cinnamon  of  the  best  quality  is  imported  at  the  present  day  from  Ceylon  and  the 
Malabar  coast.  It  comes  in  bales  and  chests,  the  bundles  weighing  about  a  pound 
each.  The  pieces  consist  of  slender  compound  quills  about  three  feet  long,  each 
enclosing  several  smaller  quills.  These  are  thin,  smooth,  and  of  a  brownish  color;  of 
a  warm,  sweetish,  and  agreeable  taste,  and  fragrant  odor;  but  several  kinds  are  known 
in  modern  markets,  as  they  were  in  ancient  times.  The  best  kinds  of  cinnamon  are 
obtained  from  twigs  and  shoots;  those  of  less  than  half  an  inch,  or  more  than  three 
inches  in  diameter,  are  not  peeled.  When  the  bark  is  partially  dry  the  smaller  quills 
are  introduced  into  the  larger  ones,  and  in  this  way  congeries  of  quills  are  formed, 
often  measuring  forty  inches  in  length.  The  quills  are  then  thoroughly  dried  in  the 
sun,  and  made  into  bundles  with  pieces  of  split  bamboo  twigs. 

"  An  oil  of  cinnamon  is  prepared  by  macerating  the  coarser  pieces  of  the  bark,  after 
being  reduced  to  a  coarse  powder,  in  sea-water  for  two  days,  and  then  distilling  it.  A 
fatty  substance  is  also  obtained  by  bruising  and  boiling  the  ripened  fruit,  when  an 
oily  substance  floats  on  the  surface,  which  on  cooling  concretes  into  a  whitish,  rather 
hard,  fatty  matter.  As  the  oil  burns  with  a  delightful  fragrance,  the  kings  of  Kaudy 
used  to  burn  it  in  their  audience  chambers  when  receiving  foreign  ambassadors.  The 
wood  also  is  pervaded  with  the  same  grateful  perfume,  and  walking-sticks  and  small 
articles  of  furniture  made  from  it  are  highly  prized. 

"  Cassia  bark  is  with  difficulty  distinguished  from  Cinnamon,  except  by  experts. 
During  the  palmy  Dutch  days  there  were  professional  tasters  who  were  able  to  dis- 
criminate between  half  a  score  of  different  qualities  of  cinnamon;  and  they  were 
required  when  on  duty  to  live  wholly  on  rice,  bread,  and  fruits,  so  as  not  to  impair 
the  keenness  of  their  gustatory  sensibilities.  They,  of  course,  were  quite  able  to  dis- 
tinguish between  cinnamon  and  cassia;  the  more  readily  because  the  latter  left  a  bitter 
taste  in  the  mouth.  Chemistry  distinguishes  them  still  more  readily ;  for  a  decoction 
of  cassia,  when  treated  with  a  tincture  of  iodine,  gives  a  blue  color,  which  cinnamon 
does  not.  At  the  present  day,  cinnamon  has  to  a  great  extent  lost  its  favor  as  a  con- 
diment. The  principal  consumers  of  it  are  the  chocolate-makers  of  France,  Spain, 
Italy  and  Mexico.  The  Germans,  Turks  and  Russians  prefer  cassia,  on  account  of  its 
stronger  flavor.  Not  very  long  since  a  large  quantity  of  cinnamon,  worth  a  dollar  a 
pound,  was  sent  by  mistake  to  Constantinople,  where  it  could  not  be  sold  even  at  the 
price  of  cassia,  worth  only  a  seventh  as  much,  which  was  in  great  demand." 

Nutmegs  and  Cloves,  the  costly  productions  of  the  remotest  isles  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,  were  known  in  Europe  for  centuries  before  the  countries  where  they  grow  had 
ever  been  heard  of.  Arabian  navigators  brought  them  to  Egypt,  where  they  were 
purchased  by  the  Venetians  and  sold  at  an  enormous  profit  to  the  nations  of  the  west. 
But,  as  is  well   known,  the   commercial   grandeur  of  the  city  of  the   Lagunes  was 


CINNAMON— NUTMEGS— CLOVES.  575 

suddenly  eclipsed  after  Vasco  de  Gama  discovered  the  new  maritime  road  to  the  East 
Indies,  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (1498);  and  when,  a  few  years  later,  the 
countrymen  of  the  great  navigator  conquered  the  Moluccas  (loll),  they  for  a  short 
time  monopolized  the  whole  spice  trade  much  more  than  their  predecessors  had  ever 
done  before.  But  here  also  as  in  Ceylon  the  Portuguese  were  soon  obliged  to  yield  to 
a  stronger  rival ;  for  the  Dutch  now  appeared  upon  the  scene,  and  by  dint  of  enter- 
prise and  courage  soon  made  themselves  masters  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  In  1(505  they 
drove  the  Portuguese  from  Amboyna,  and  before  1621  had  elapsed,  the  whole  of  the 
Moluccas  were  in  their  possession.  Five-and-twenty  years  later,  Ceylon  also  fell  into 
their  hands,  and  thus  they  became  the  sole  purveyors  of  Europe  with  cinnamon,  cloves 
and  nutmegs.  Unfortunately,  the  scandalous  manner  in  which  they  misused  their 
power  throws  a  dark  shade  over  their  exploits.  For  the  better  to  secure  the  monopoly 
of  the  spice  trade,  they  declared  war  against  nature  itself,  allowed  the  trees  to  grow 
only  in  particular  places,  and  extirpated  them  everywhere  else.  Thus  the  planting  of 
the  nutmeg  tree  was  confined  to  the  small  islands  of  Banda,  Lonthoir,  and  Pulo  Aij, 
and  that  of  the  clove  to  Amboyna.  Wherever  the  trees  were  seen  to  grow  in  a  wild 
state,  they  were  unsparingly  rooted  out,  and  the  remainder  of  the  Moluccas  were  occu- 
pied and  subjugated  for  no  other  reason. 

The  natives  were  treated  with  unmerciful  cruelty,  and  blood  flowed  in  torrents  to 
keep  up  the  prices  of  cloves  and  nutmegs  at  an  usurious  hight.  When  these  spices 
accumulated  in  too  large  a  quantity  for  the  market,  they  were  thrown  into  the  sea  or 
destroyed  by  fire.  Thus  M.  Beaumare,  a  French  traveler,  relates  that  on  June  10, 
1760,  he  beheld  near  the  Admiralty  at  Amsterdam  a  blazing  pile  of  these  aromatics, 
valued  at  four  millions  of  florins,  and  an  equal  quantity  was  to  be  burnt  the  next  day. 
The  air  was  perfumed  with  their  delicious  fragrance,  the  essential  oils  freed  from  their 
confinement  distilled  over,  mixing  in  one  spicy  stream,  which  flowed  at  the  feet  of  the 
spectators ;  but  no  one  was  suffered  to  collect  any  of  this,  or,  on  pain  of  heavy  punish- 
ment, to  rescue  the  smallest  quantity  of  the  spice  from  the  flames.  But  the  reign 
of  monopoly  has  ceased  even  in  the  remote  Moluccas,  and  their  ports  are  now,  at 
length,  thrown  open  to  the  commerce  of  all  nations ;  for  the  spice  trees  having  been 
transplanted  into  countries  beyond  the  control  of  the  Dutch,  the  ancient  system  could 
not  possibly  be  maintained  any  longer. 

The  clove  tree  belongs  to  the  far-spread  family  of  the  myrtles ;  the  small  lanceolate 
evergreen  leaves  resemble  those  of  the  laurel,  the  flowers  growing  in  bunches  at  the 
extremity  of  the  branches.  When  they  first  appear,  which  is  at  the  beginning  of  the 
rainy  season,  they  are  in  the  form  of  elongated  greenish  buds,  from  the  extremity 
of  which  the  corolla  is  expanded,  which  is  of  a  delicate  peach-blossom  color.  When 
the  corolla  begins  to  fade,  the  calyx  turns  yellow,  and  then  red ;  the  calyces  with 
their  embryo-seed  are  in  this  stage  of  their  growth  beaten  from  the  tree,  and,  after 
being  dried  in  the  sun,  are  known  as  the  cloves  of  commerce.  If  the  fruit  be  allowed 
to  remain  on  the  tree  after  arriving  at  this  period,  the  calyx  gradually  swells,  the  seed 
enlarges,  and  the  pungent  properties  of  the  clove  are  in  great  part  dissipated.  Tho 
whole  tree  is  hio-hlv  aromatic,  and  the  foot-stalks  of  the  leaves  have  nearly  tho  same 
pungent  quality  as  the  calyx  of  the  flowers.  Clove  trees  as  an  avenue  to  a  resiclence 
are  perhaps?  unrivalled;  their  noble  hight,  the  beauty  of  their  form,  the  luxuriance 
of  their  foliage,  and,  above  all,  the  spicy  fragrance  with  which  they  perfume  the  air, 


576  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

produce,  on  driving  through  a  long  line  of  theni;  a  degree  of  exquisite  pleasure  only 
to  be  enjoyed  in  the  clear,  light  atmosphere  of  these  latitudes. 

Cloves  contain  a  very  large  proportion  of  essential  oil,  which  combined  with  a  pecu- 
liar resin  gives  them  their  pungent  aroma.  It  seems,  however,  to  require  a  combina- 
tion of  favorable  circumstances  of  climate  and  soil  for  the  full  development  of  their 
virtues ;  for,  though  the  tree  is  found  in  the  larger  islands  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  in 
Cochin  China,  it  has  there  little  or  no  flavor,  and  the  Moluccas  seem  to  be  the  only 
place  where  the  clove  comes  to  perfection  without  being  cultivated.  Though  it  is  at 
present  planted  in  Zanzibar,  Cayenne,  Bourbon,  Trinidad,  and  other  places,  yet 
Amboyna  still  furnishes  the  best  quality  and  the  largest  quantity,  exporting  annually 
about  a  million  of  pounds. 

In  spite  of  the  endeavors  of  the  Dutch  to  confine  the  Nutmeg  tree  to  the  narrow 
precincts  of  Banda,  it  has  likewise  extended  its  range  not  only  over  Sumatra,  Mau- 
ritius, Bourbon,  and  Ceylon,  but  even  over  the  western  hemisphere.  It  is  of  a  more 
majestic  growth  than  the  clove,  as  it  attains  a  bight  of  fifty  feet,  and  the  leaves,  of  a 
fine  green  on  the  upper  surface,  and  gray  beneath,  are  more  handsome  in  the  outline, 
and  broader  in  proportion  to  the  length.  When  the  trees  are  about  nine  years  old, 
they  begin  to  bear.  They  are  dioecious,  having  male  or  barren  flowers  upon  one  tree, 
and  female  or  fertile  upon  another.  The  flowers  of  both  are  small,  white,  bell-shaped, 
without  any  calyx ;  the  embryo-fruit  appearing  at  the  bottom  of  the  female  flowers  in 
the  form  of  a  little  reddish  knob.  When  ripa,  it  resembles  in  appearance  and  size 
a  small  peach,  and  then  the  outer  rind,  which  is  about  half  an  inch  thick,  bursts  at 
the  side,  and  discloses  a  shining  black  nut,  which  seems  the  darker  from  the  contrast 
of  the  leafy  network  of  a  fine  red  color  with  which  it  is  enveloped.  The  latter  forms 
the  Mace  of  commerce,  and  having  been  laid  to  dry  in  the  shade  for  a  short  time,  is 
packed  in  bags  and  pressed  together  very  tightly.  The  shell  of  the  nut  is  larger  and 
harder  than  that  of  the  filbert,  and  could  not,  in  the  state  in  which  it  is  gathered,  be 
broken  without  injuring  the  nut.  On  that  account  the  nuts  are  successively  dried  in 
the  sun  and  then  by  fire-heat,  till  the  kernel  shrinks  so  much  as  to  rattle  in  the  shell, 
which  is  then  easily  broken.  After  this  the  nuts  are  three  times  soaked  in  sea-water 
and  lime  ;  they  are  then  laid  in  a  heap,  where  they  heat  and  get  rid  of  their  super- 
fluous moisture  by  evaporation.  This  process  is  pursued  to  preserve  the  substance 
and  flavor  of  the  nut,  as  well  as  to  destroy  its  vegetative  power.  The  kernel  con- 
tains both  a  fixed  oil,  which  is  obtained  by  pressure,  a  pound  generally  yielding  three 
ounces,  and  a  transparent  volatile  oil,  which  may  be  obtained  by  distillation  in  the 
proportion  of  one  thirty-second  part  of  the  weight  of  nutmeg  used.  The  outer  rinds 
are  likewise  not  without  use  to  the  natives."  They  are  laid  in  large  heaps,  and  al- 
lowed to  putrefy,  when  they  get  covered  with  a  blackish  mushroom,  which  is  esteemed 
as  a  great  delicacy. 

Pepper,  although  not  so  costly  as  cloves  or  cinnamon,  is  of  a  much  greater  com- 
mercial value,  as  its  consumption  is  at  least  a  hundred  times  greater.  It  grows  on 
a  beautiful  vine,  which,  incapable  of  supporting  itself,  twines  round  poles  prepared 
for  it ;  or,  as  is  more  common  in  the  Travancore  plantations,  the  pepper  vines  are 
planted  near  mango  and  other  trees  of  straight  high  stems.     As  these  are  stripped  of 


PEPPER— PIMENTO— GINGER.  r>77 

the  lower  branches,  the  vine  embraces  the  trunk,  covering  it  with  elegant  festoons  and 
rich  ^bunches  of  fruit  in  the  style  of  the  Italian  vineyards.  The  leaf  of  the  pepper 
plant  is  large,  resembling  that  of  the  ivy,  and  of  a  bright  green  ;  the  blossoms  appear 
in  June,  soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  rains  ;  they  are  small,  of  a  greenish 
white,  and  are  followed  by  the  pungent  berries,  which  hang  in  large  bunches,  resem- 
bling in  shape  those  of  grapes,  but  the  fruit  grows  distinct  on  little  stalks  like  cur- 
rants. This  valuable  spice  grows  chiefly  on  the  Malabar  coast,  in  Sumatra,  Borneo, 
Java,  Singapore ;  its  cultivation  has  also  been  introduced  in  Cayenne  and  the  West 
Indies.  The  black  and  white  sorts  of  pepper  are  both  the  produce  of  the  same  plant. 
The  best  white  peppers  are  supposed  to  be  the  finest  berries  which  have  dropped  from 
the  tree,  and,  lying  under  it,  become  somewhat  bleached  by  exposure  to  weather;  the 
greater  part  of  the  white  pepper  used  as  a  condiinent  is,  however,  the  black  merely 
steeped  in  water,  and  decorticated,  by  which  means  the  pungency  and  real  value  of 
the  spice  are  diminished ;  but  having  a  fairer  and  more  uniform  appearance  when 
thus  prepared,  it  fetches  a  higher  price. 

Jamaica  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  magnificent  myrtle  {Myrtiis  pimento),  which  fur- 
nishes the  Pimento — commonly  called,  by  way  of  eminence,  "  Spice,"  or  "Allspice" 
—of  commerce.  This  beautiful  tree  grows  to  the  height  of  about  thirty  feet,  with  a 
smooth,  brown  trunk,  and  shining  green  leaves  resembling  those  of  the  bay.  In  July 
and  August  a  profusion  of  white  flowers,  filling  the  air  with  their  delicious  olors, 
forms  a  very  pleasing  contrast  to  the  dark  foliage  of  its  wide-spreading  branches.  It 
grows  spontaneously  in  many  parts  of  the  island,  particularly  on  the  nortliern  side, 
in  high  spots  near  the  coast.  When  a  new  plantation  is  to  be  formed,  no  regular 
planting  or  sowing  takes  place,  for,  as  Edwards  observes,  "  the  pimento  tree  is  purely 
a  child  of  nature,  and  seems  to  mock  all  the  labors  of  man  in  his  endeavors  to  extend 
or  improve  its  growth  ;  not  one  attempt  in  fifty  to  propagate  the  young  plants,  or  to 
raise  them  from  the  seeds  in  parts  of  the  country  where  it  is  not  found  growing  spon- 
taneously, having  succeeded.  For  this  reason,  a  piece  of  land  is  chosen,  either  in  the 
neighborhood  of  a  plantatation  already  formed,  or  in  a  part  of  the  woodland  where 
the  pimento-myrtles  are  scattered  in  a  native  state.  The  land  is  then  cleared  of  all 
wood  but  these  trees,  which  are  left  standing,  and  the  felled  timber  is  allowed  to  re- 
main, where  it  falls  to  decay,  and  perishes.  In  the  course  of  a  year,  young  pimento 
plants  are  found  springing  up  on  all  parts  of  the  land,  produced,  it  is  supposed,  in 
consequence  of  the  ripe  berries  having  been  scattered  there  by  the  birds,  while  the 
prostrate  trees  protect  and  shade  the  tender  seedlings.  At  the  end  of  two  years  the 
land  is  thoroughly  cleared,  and  none  but  the  most  vigorous  plants,  which  come  to 
maturity  in  about  seven  years,  are  left  standing."  The  berries  are  carefully  picked 
while  yet  green,  since,  when  suffered  to  ripen,  they  lose  their  pungency.  One  person 
on  the  tree  gathers  the  small  branches,  and  three  others,  usually  women  and  children, 
find  full  employment  in  picking  the  berries  from  them.  The  produce  is  then  expo-'^ed 
to  the  sun  for  about  a  week,  when  the  berries  lose  their  green  hue  and  become  of  a 
reddish  brown.  When  perfectly  dry,  they  are  in  a  fit  state  for  exportation.  In  favor- 
able seasons,  which,  however,  seldom  occur  above  once  in  five  years,  the  pimento 
crop  is  enormous,  a  single  tree  having  been  known  to  yield  one  hundred  weight  of  the 
dried  spice.     From  its  combining  the  flavor  and  properties  of  many  of  the  oriental 


578  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

aromatics,  pimento   has  derived   its   popular  name   of  allspice,  and,  from   its  being 
cheaper  than  black  pepper,  its  consumption  is  very  great. 

Though  but  a  lowly  root,  Ginger  almost  vies  in  commercial  importance  with  the 
aromatic  rind  of  the  cinnamon-laurel,  or  the  pungent  fruit  of  the  nutmeg-myrtle. 
The  plant  which  produces  this  valuable  condiment  belongs  to  the  tropical  family  of 
the  Scitaminete,  or  spice-lilies,  which  also  reckons  among  its  members  the  Cardomum 
and  the  Curcuma.  Its  jointed  tubers  creep  and  increase  under  ground,  and  from 
each  of  them  springs  up  an  annual  stem  about  two  feet  and  a  half  high,  with  narrow 
and  lanceolate  leaves.  The  flowering  stalk  rises  directly  from  the  root,  ending  in  an 
oblong,  scaly  spike ;  from  each  of  these  scales  a  single  white  and  blue  flower  is  pro- 
duced. Ginger  is  imported  into  tBis  country,  under  the  form  of  dried  roots  and  as 
a  preserve.  We  receive  it  both  from  the  East  and  West  Indies,  but  that  from  the 
latter  is  much  superior  in  quality  to  the  former. 


I 


THE    ROl'Hl  R    CK^B — M\IV^      MKIIIlLLVtrO 


TROPICAL  INSECTS.  531 


ANIMALS  OF  THE  TROPICAL  WORLD. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

INSECTS. 

Multitude  of  Tropical  Insects— Beetles— Dragon  Flies— Leaf  Moths— The  Leaf  Butterfly- 
Fire  Wies.— Insect  Plagues:  Mosquitoes— Chigoes,  or  Jiggers— The  Filaria  Medinensis— 
The  Bete  Rouge— Ticks— Land-Leeches— The  Tsetse  Fly— Tlie  Tsalt-Salya  Locusts- 
Cockroaches— Enemies  of  the  Cockroach.— Useful  Insects:  The  Silk-Worm— The  Cochineal 
Insect— The  Gum-Lac  Insect— Edible  and  Ornamental  Beetles. 

HAVING  thus  passed  in  rapid  survey  over  the  characteristic  forms  of  the  Vege- 
table World  of  the  Tropics,  we  now  proceed  to  the  Animal  Kingdom,  com- 
mencing with  Insects,  and  proceeding  to  Reptiles,  Birds  and  Beasts. 

On  advancing  from  the  temperate  regions  to  the  pole,  we  find  that  insect  life 
gradually  diminishes  in  the  same  ratio  as  vegetable  life  declines.  The  reverse  takes 
place  on  advancing  towards  the  equator ;  for,  as  the  s-un  rises  more  and  more  to  the 
zenith,  we  find  the  insects  gradually  increasing  with  the  multiplicity  of  plants,  and  at 
length  attaining  the  greatest  variety  of  form,  and  the  highest  development  of  number, 
in  those  tropical  lands  where  moisture  combines  with  heat  in  covering  the  ground  with 
a  dense  and  everlasting  vegetation.  Thus  while  not  a  single  species  of  beetle  is  found 
on  Melville  Island,  Greenland  boasts  of  11 ;  Lapland  of  813;  Sweden  of  2,083.  In 
the  milder  climate  of  England  their  number  increases  to  2,2G3 ;  in  France  it  rises  to 
4,200 ;  and  the  hothouse  temperature  of  Brazil,  from  Rio  Janeiro  to  Bahia,  fosters  no 
less  than  7,500  specific  forms  of  beetle  life.  In  Borneo  Mr.  Wallace  collected  2,000 
distinct  species  of  beetles  within  the  space  of  a  single  square  mile ;  some  of  them  of 
forms  to  the  oddity  of  which  no  parallel  can  be  found  elsewhere.  Thus,  also,  while 
the  whole  of  Europe  and  Siberia  hardly  possess  more  than  250  butterflies,  the  ex- 
plored parts  of  Brazil,  which  are  very  inferior  in  extent,  have  already  furnished  the 
naturalist  with  no  less  than  600  species,  and  no  doubt  contain  many  more. 

In  the  countries  which,  from  the  never  failing  abundance  of  food,  and  constant 
warmth,  are  most  favorable  to  the  multiplication  of  insects,  these  creatures  may 
naturally  be  expected  to  attain  the  greatest  size.  Thus  the  European  rhinoceros 
beetle,  though  an  inch  and  a  quarter  long,  is  far  surpassed  by  the  Megasominac 
of  torrid  America.  The  colossal  Hercules  beetle  attains  a  length  of  five  or  even  six 
inches,  and  is  distinguished,  like  the  other  species  of  the  genus,  by  the  singular  horn- 
shaped  processes  rising  from  the  head  and  thorax,  which  give  it  a  very  grotesque  and 
even  formidable  appearance.  Though  but  little  is  yet  known  of  its  economy,  it  most 
likely  subsists  upon  putrescent  wood,  and  evidently  leads  a  tree  life,  like  the  other 


582  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

members  of  the  family — the  Elephant,  the  Neptune,  the  Typhon,  the  Hector,  the 
Mars — whose  very  names  indicate  that  they  are  giants  in  the  insect  world.  These 
beetles  excavate  burrows  in  the  earth,  where  they  conceal  themselves  during  the  day, 
or  live  in  the  decomposed  trunks  of  trees,  and  are  generally  of  a  dark,  rich  brown,  or 
chestnut  color.  On  the  approach  of  night  they  run  about  the  footpaths  in  woods,  or 
fly  around  the  trees  to  a  great  hight  with  a  loud  humming  noise.  Resembling  the 
large  herbivorous  quadrupeds  by  their  comparative  size  and  horn-like  processes,  they 
are  still  further  like  them  in  their  harmless  nature,  and  thus  deserve  in  more  than  one 
respect  to  be  called  the  elephants  among  the  insect  tribes. 

The  Goliaths  of  the  coast  of  Guinea  are  nearly  as  large  as  the  American  giant 
beetles,  and  surpass  them  in  brilliancy  of  coloring.  Some  years  ago  these  huge 
beetles,  which  live  exclusively  on  the  juice  of  trees,  were  very  rare,  and  brought 
extravagant  prices.  Thus,  Mr.  Swainson  mentions  £30  having  been  offered  and 
refused  for  a  single  specimen,  the  proprietor  demanding  £50.  The  South  American 
Inoa  beetles  greatly  resemble  the  African  Goliaths,  equalling  them  in  size  and  beauty. 

Many  of  the  tropical  dragon-flies,  grasshoppers,  butterflies,  and  moths,  are  of  no  less 
colossal  dimensions  in  their  several  orders  than  the  giants  among  the  beetles.  The 
Libellula  lucretia,  a  South  American  dragon-fly,  measures  five  inches  and  a  half  in 
length;  the  giant  Phasma  is  a  span  long;  and  the  cinnamon-eating  Atlas-moth  of 
Ceylon  often  reaches  the  dimensions  of  nearly  a  foot  in  the  stretch  of  its  superior 
wings. 

In  the  tropical  zone,  where  the  prodigality  of  life  multiplies  the  enemies  which  every 
creature  has  to  encounter,  we  may  naturally  expect  to  find  the  insects  extremely  well 
provided  with  both  passive  and  active  means  of  defence.  "  Many  so  closely  resemble 
in  color  the  soil  or  object  on  which  they  are  generally  found,  as  to  escape  even  the  eye 
of  a  hungry  enemy.  The  wings  of  several  Brazilian  moths  appear  like  withered 
leaves  that  have  been  gnawed  round  their  margins  by  insects;  and  when  these  moths 
are  disturbed,  instead  of  flying  away,  they  fall  upon  the  ground  like  the  leaf  which 
they  resemble,  so  that  it  is  difiicult,  if  not  impossible,  on  such  occasions  to  know  what 
they  really  are. 

The  illusion  is  still  more  complete  when  the  likeness  of  form  is  joined  to  that  of 
color,  as  in  the  walking  leaf  and  walking-stick  insects.  Some,  of  an  enormous  length, 
look  so  exactly  like  slender  dead  twigs  covered  with  bark,  that  their  insect  nature  can 
only  be  discovered  by  mere  accident.  Upon  being  handled  they  feign  death,  and  their 
legs  are  often  knobbed,  like  the  withered  buds  of  trees.  Some  resemble  living  twigs, 
and  are  green;  others  such  as  are  decayed,  and  are  therefore  colored  brown.  The 
wings  of  many  put  on  the  resemblance  of  dry  and  crumpled  leaves,  while  those  of 
others  are  vivid  green,  in  exact  accordance  with  the  plants  they  respectively  inhabit. 
Mr.  Wallace  describes  the  Kallima  paralekta,  a  larg«  beautifully  colored  butterfly 
when  flying,  but  which,  when  alighted,  can  not  be  distinguished  from  a  dead  leaf, 
except  upon  the  closest  scrutiny.  He  had  often  seen  it  flying,  but  had  never  been 
able  to  capture  one.  At  last  actually  saw  one  alight  close  by  where  he  was  standing; 
but  it  disappeared  as  if  by  magic.  At  last  he  detected  it ;  and  having  secured  it,  was 
able  to  perceive  how  it  was  able  to  hide  itself,  when  in  plain  view.  The  upper  end 
of  the  wings  terminates  in  a  fine  point,  while  the  lower  wings  are  lengthened  out  into 
a  short  thick  tail ;  between  these  points  runs  a  dark  line  like  the  midrib  of  a  leaf, 


THE  LEAF  BUTTERFLY-THE  SOOTHSAYER. 


o83 


with  marks  on  each  side  resembling  leaf-veins.  When  the  wings  are  closely  pressed 
together,  the  whole  outline  is  exactly  like  that  of  a  half-shrivelled  leaf,  which  it  then 
resembles  in  color.  The  tail  of  the  hind  wings  forms  a  perfect  stalk,  and  rests  upon 
the  twig,  while  the  insect  is  supported  by  the  middle  pair  of  legs,  which  are  hardly  to 
be  distinguished  from  the  twigs  around.  The  head  is  drawn  back  between  the  wings, 
at  whose  base  is  anotch  to  let  it  in.  Knowing' all  this,  one  must  look  closely  at  the 
picture  which  he  gives  in  order  to  distinguish  the  alighted  butterfly  from  a  leaf. 


LEAF    IHTTERriA-. 


Another  singular  insect  is  the  Mantis,  or  "  Soothsayer,"  notable  for  its  apparently 
feeble  structure  and  voracious  appetite.  It  is  of  slow  movement,  yet  flies  constitute  a 
great  part  of  its  food.  It  steals  cautiously  upon  its  prey,  and,  when  near  enough, 
flings  out  its  long  fore-legs  and  gtasps  its  prey.  These  legs  are  curiously  constructed  ; 
the  tibia  can  be  shut  upon  the  sharp  edge  of  the  thigh,  like  a  pair  of  shears,  with 
which  it  can  cut  any  slender  substance,  and  even  give  a  decidedly  unpleasant  nip  upon 
the  finger  of  the  naturalist  who  incautiously  seizes  it. 

The  Mantis,  by  the  attitude  it  assumes  when  lurking  for  its  prey  or  advancing  upon 
it — which  is  done  by  the  support  of  the  four  posterior  legs  only,  whilst  the  head  and 


584  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

prothorax-  are  raised  perpendicularly  from  the  body,  and  the  exterior  legs  are  folded  in 
front — greatly  resembles  a  person  praying.  Hence,  in  France  it  is  called  Le  Pre- 
cheur  or  Le  Prie  Dieu ;  the  Turk  says  it  points  to  Mecca;  and  several  African  tribes 
pay  it  religious  observances.  In  reality,  however,  its  ferocity  is  great;  and  the 
strono-er,  preying  on  the  weaker  of  their  own  species,  unmercifully  cut  them  to  pieces. 
Thus,  two  Mantes  which  Sir  E.  Tennent  enclosed  in  a  box  were  both  found  dead  a 
few  hours  after,  severed  limb  from  limb  in  their  deadly  fight.  Within  the  space  of  a 
week,  Burmeister  saw  a  Mantis  devour  daily  some  dozens  of  flies,  and  occasionally 
large  grasshoppers  and  young  frogs,  consuming,  now  and  then,  lizards  three  times  its 
own  length,  as  well  as  many  large  fat  caterpillars.  Hence  it  may  be  judged  what 
ravages  these  strangely  formed  creatures  must  cause  among  all  weaker  beings  which 
incautiously  approach  them,  and  that,  far  from  being  the  saints,  they  are,  in  reality, 
the  tigers  of  the  insect  world. 

Though  the  great  majority  of  luminous  animals  are  marine,  frequently  lighting  up 
the  breaking  wave  with  millions  of  moving  atoms,  or  spreading  over  the  beach  like  a 
sheet  of  fire,  yet  several  insects  are  also  endowed  with  the  same  wonderful  property. 
Our  own  fire-flies  afford  a  charming  spectacle.  But  this  brilliancy  is  far  surpassed  by 
that  of  the  phosphorescent  beetles  of  the  torrid  zone.  Thus  the  Cocujas  of  South 
America  glows  with  such  intensity,  that  if  eight  or  ten  of  them  are  put  into  a  vial  the 
light  will  be  sufficiently  good  to  admit  of  writing  by  it.  In  Cuba  is  a  magnificent 
fire-fly,  which  ladies  often  enclose  in  gauze  nets,  and  wear  as  ornaments  in  the  ball- 
room. When  the  Spaniards  first  visited  Mexico,  the  wandering  sparks  of  fire-flies 
were  once  mistaken  for  an  army  approaching  with  matchlocks;  and  in  the  West  Indies 
the  English,  under  Cavendish  and  Dudley,  seeing  an  innumerable  body  of  these  insects, 
fancied  that  the  Spaniards  were  advancing  upon  them  in  force,  and  fled  to  the  vessels 
from  which  they  had  just  landed. 

The  insect  tribes  hold  a  kind  of  universal  empire  over  the  earth  and  its  inhabit- 
ants, for  nothing  that  possesses,  or  has  possessed,  life  is  secure  from  their  attacks.' 
To  secure  himself  from  their  attacks,  man  must  wage  a  perpetual  warfare,  and  main- 
tain an  ever-wakeful  vigilance,  for,  though  destroyed  by  thousands,  new  legions  ever 
make  their  appearance,  and  to  repose  after  a  victory  is  equivalent  to  a  defeat.  In  our 
temperate  zone,  where  a  higher  cultivation  of  the  ground  tends  to  keep  down  the 
number  of  the  lower  animals,  their  persecutions,  though  frequently  annoying,  may 
still  be  borne  with  patience ;  but  in  the  tropical  regions,  where  man  is  generally  either 
too  indolent  or  not  sufiiciently  numerous  to  set  bounds  to  their  increase,  the  insects 
constitute  one  of  the  great  plagues  of  life.  We  will  first  speak  of  some  of  these 
insect  plagues  : 

Along  the  low  river-banks,  and  everywhere  on  hot  and  swampy  grounds,  the  blood- 
thirsty mosquitoes  appear  periodically  in  countless  multitudes,  the  dread  of  all  who 
live  in  warm  climates.  Scarcely  has  the  sun  descended  below  the  horizon,  when  these 
insects  arise  from  the  morass  to  disturb  the  rest  of  man  and  to  render  existence  a  tor- 
ment. Not  satisfied  with  piercing  the  flesh  with  their  sharp  proboscis,  which  at  the 
same  time  forms  a  kind  of  syphon  through  which  the  blood  flows,  these  malignant 
gnats,  of  which  there  are  many  species,  inject  a  poison  into  the  wound,  which  causes 
inflammation,  and  prolongs  the  pain. 


MOSQUITOES— JIGGERS. 


585 


In  Angola,  Livingstone  found  the  banks  of  the  river  Seuza  infested  by  legions  of 
the  most  ferocious  mosquitoes  he  ever  met  with  during  the  course  of  his  long  travels. 
The  torment  which  they  inflicted  was,  he  says,  "  at  least  equal  to  a  nail  throufrh  the 
heel  of  one's  boot,  or  the  toothache."  Edwards,  on  his  voyage  up  the  Amazon,  was 
no  less  tormented  by  these  troublesome  pests.  "  Nets  were  of  no  avail,  even  if  the 
oppressive  heat  would  have  allowed  them ;  for  those  which  could  not  creep  throuf^h 
the  meshes  would  in  some  other  way  find  entrance  in  spite  of  every  precaution. 
Thick  breeches  they  laughed  at,  and  the  interior  of  the  cabin  seemed  a  bee-hive. 
This  would  not  do,  so  we  tried  the  deck,  but  fresh  swarms  continually  poured  over  us, 


THE   MOSQUITO — NATURAL   SIZE,    AND   MAGNIFIED. 


and  all  night  long  we  were  foaming  with  vexation  and  rage."  During  his  sojourn  in 
the  Peruvian  forests,  Tschudi  lay  for  several  days  almost  motionless,  with  a  swollen 
head  and  limbs,  in  consequence  of  the  bite  of  these  intolerable  flies ;  and  although  by 
degrees  the  skin  became  more  accustomed  to  the  nuisance,  and  swelling  no  longer  fol- 
lowed, yet  their  sting  never  failed  to  cause  great  pain.  During  three  months  of  the 
year  they  infest  the  province  of  Maynas  to  such  a  degree,  that  even  the  stoical  Indians 
utter  loud  complaints,  and  the  dogs  endeavor  to  escape  them  by  burying  themselves  in 
the  sand. 

The  Chegoe,  Pique,  or  Jigger  of  the  West  Indies  {Pulex  penetrans),  is  another 
great  torment  of  the  hot  countries  of  America.     It  looks  exactly  like  a  small  flea,  and 


586 


THE  TROPICAL  WORLD. 


a  stranger  would  take  it  for  one.  However,  in  about  four  and  twenty  hours  he  would 
have  several  broad  hints  that  he  had  made  a  mistake  in  his  ideas  of  the  animal.  It 
attacks  different  parts  of  the  body,  but  chiefly  the  feet,  betwixt  the  toe-nails  and  the 
flesh.  There  it  buries  itself  and  causes  an  itching,  which  at  first  is  not  unpleasant, 
but  after  a  few  days  gradually  increases  to  a  violent  pain.  At  the  same  time  a  small 
white  tumor,  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  with  a  dark  spot  in  the  centre,  rises  under 
the  skin.  The  tumor  is  the  rapidly  growing  nest  of  the  chegoe,  the  spot  the  little 
plague  itself.  And  now  it  is  high  time  to  think  of  its  extirpation,  an  operation  in 
which  the  negro  women  are  very  expert.  Gently  removing  with  a  pin  the  skin  from 
the  little  round  white  ball  or  nest,  precisely  as  we  should  peel  an  orange,  and  pressing 
the  flesh  all  round,  they  generally  succeed  in  squeezing  it  out  without  breaking,  and 
then  fill  the  cavity  with  snuff  or  tobacco,  to  guard  against  the  possibility  of  a  fresh 
colony  being  formed  by  some  of  the  eggs  remaining  in  the  wound.  New  comers  are 
particularly  subject  to  these  creatures.  "  Every  evening,"  says  Waterton,  "  before 
sundown,  it  was  part  of  my  toilet  to  examine  my  feet  and  see  that  they  were  clear 
of  chegoes.  Now  and  then  a  nest  would  escape  the  scrutiny,  and  then  I  had  to  smart 
for  it  a  day  or  two  after."  If  the  prompt  extraction  of  the  chegoe's  nests  is  neglected, 
the  worm-like  larvfe  creep  out,  continue  the  mining  operations  of  their  parent,  and 
produce  a  violent  inflammation,  which  may  end  in  the  mortification  of  a  limb.  It  not 
unfrequently  happens  that  negroes  from  sheer  idleness  or  negligence  in  the  first  in- 
stance have  been  lamed  for  life  and  become  loathsome  to  the  sight.  In  such  a  state, 
these  miserable  objects  are  incurable,  and  death  only  puts  an  end  to  their  sufferings. 

A  still  more  dangerous  plague,  peculiar  to  the  coast  of  Guinea  and  the  interior  of 
tropical  Africa,  to  Arabia,  and  the  adjacent  countries,  is  the  Filaria  medinensis  of 
Linn^us.  This  dreadful  worm  comes  to  the  herbage  in  the  morning  dew,  from  whence 
it  pierces  the  skin,  and  enters  the  feet  of  such  as  walk  without  shoes,  causing  the  most 
painful  irritations,  succeeded  by  violent  inflammation  and  fever.  The  natives  extract 
it  with  the  greatest  caution  by  twisting  a  piece  of  silk  round  one  extremity  of  the 
body  and  withdrawing  it  very  gently.  When  we  consider  that  this  insidious  worm  is 
frequently  twelve  feet  long,  although  not  thicker  than  a  horse-hair,  we  can  readily 
imao-ine  the  difiiculty  of  the  operation.  If,  unfortunately,  the  animal  should  break, 
the  part  remaining  under  the  skin  grows  with  redoubled  vigor,  and  frequently  occa- 
sions a  fatal  inflammation. 

Among  the  plagues  of  Guiana  and  the  West  Indies  is  a  little  insect  in  the  grass 
and  on  the  shrubs,  which  the  French  call  Bete-rouge.  It  is  of  a  beautiful  scarlet 
color,  and  so  minute  that  you  must  bring  your  eye  close  to  it  before  you  can  perceive 
it.  It  abounds  most  in  the  rainy  season.  Its  bite  causes  an  intolerable  itching,  which, 
according  to  Schomburgk,  who  writes  from  personal  experience,  drives  by  day  the 
perspiration  of  anguish  from  every  pore,  and  at  night  makes  one's  hammock  resemble 
the  gridiron  on  which  Saint  Lawrence  was  roasted.  The  best  way  to  get  rid  of  the 
plague  is  to  rub  the  part  affected  with  lemon-juice  or  rum.  "You  must  be  careful  not 
to  scratch  it,"  says  Waterton.  "  If  you  do  so  and  break  the  skin,  you  expose  your- 
self to  a  sore.  The  first  year  I  was  in  Guiana  the  bete-rouge  and  my  own  want  of 
knowledge,  and,  I  may  add,  the  little  attention  I  paid  to  it,  created  an  ulcer  above 
the  ankle  which  annoyed  me  for  six  months." 

The  blood-sucking  Ticks  are  also  to  be  classed  among  the  intolerable  nuisances  of 


LAND-LEECHES-TIIE   TSETSE.  537 

many  tropical  regions.  A  large  American  species  called  Garapata  {Ixodes  sanguisuyn) 
fixes  on  the  legs  of  travelers,  and  gradually  buries  its  whole  head  in  the  skin,  which 
the  body,  disgustingly  distended  with  blood,  is  unable  to  follow.  On  being  violently 
removed,  the  former  remains  in  the  wound,  and  often  produces  painful  sores.  The 
Indians  returning  in  the  evening  from  the  forest  or  from  their  field  labor  generally 
bring  some  of  these  creatures  along  with  them,  swollen  to  the  size  of  hazel-nuts. 
These  ticks  seem  to  have  no  predilection  for  any  particular  animal,  but  indiscrimi- 
nately fasten  on  all,  not  even  sparing  the  toad  or  the  lizard. 

Though  countless  hosts  of  ticks  infest  the  Ceylonese  jungle,  though  musquitoes 
without  number  swarm  over  the  lower  country,  yet  the  Land- Leeches  which  beset  the 
traveler  in  the  rising  grounds  are  a  still  more  detested  plague.  In  size  they  are  about 
an  inch  in  length,  and  as  fine  as  a  common  knitting-needle,  but  capable  of  distention 
till  they  equal  a  quill  in  thickness  and  attain  a  length  of  nearly  two  inches.  Their 
structure  is  so  flexible  that  they  can  insinuate  themselves  through  the  meshes  of  the 
finest  stocking,  not  only  seizing  on  the  feet  and  ankles,  but  ascending  to  the  back  and 
throat,  and  fastening  on  the  tenderest  parts  of  the  body.  The  coffee  planters  who 
live  among  these  pests  are  obliged,  in  order  to  exclude  them,  to  envelop  their  legs  in 
"leech-gaiters,"  made  of  closely  woven  cloth.  "In  moving,  they  have  the  power  of 
planting  one  extremity  on  the  earth  and  raising  the  other  perpendicularly  to  watch  for 
their  victim.  Such  is  their  vigilance  and  instinct  that,  on  the  approach  of  a  passer-by 
to  a  spot  which  they  infest,  they  may  be  seen  amongst  the  grass  and  follen  leaves,  on 
the  edge  of  a  native  path,  poised  erect,  and  preparing  for  their  attack  on  man  and 
horse.  On  descrying  their  prey,  they  advance  rapidly  by  semicircular  strides,  fixing 
one  end  firmly  and  arching  the  other  forwards,  till  by  successive  advances  they  can  lay 
hold  of  the  traveler's  foot,  when  they  disengage  themselves  from  the  ground  and 
ascend  his  dress  in  search  of  an  aperture  to  enter.  In  these  encounters  the  individuals 
in  the  rear  of  a  party  of  travelers  in  the  jungle  invariably  fare  worst,  as  the  leeches, 
once  warned  of  their  approach,  congregate  with  singular  celerity.  Their  size  is  so 
insignificant,  and  the  wound  they  make  so  skilfully  punctured,  that  both  are  certainly 
imperceptible,  and  the  first  intimation  of  their  onslaught  is  the  trickling  of  the  blood, 
or  a  chill  feeling  of  the  leech  when  it  begins  to  hang  heavily  on  the  skin  from  beino' 
distended  by  its  repast.  Horses  are  driven  wild  by  them,  and  stamp  the  ground  in 
fury  to  shake  them  from  their  fetlocks,  to  which  they  hang  in  bloody  tassels.  The 
bare  legs  of  the  palankin-bearers  and  coolies  are  a  favorite  resort,  and  their  hands  being 
too  much  engaged  to  be  spared  to  pull  them  off,  the  leeches  hang  like  bunches  of 
grapes  round  their  ankles ;  and  I  have  seen  the  blood  literally  flowing  over  the  edge 
of  a  European's  shoe  from  their  innumerable  bites.  In  healthy  constitutions  the 
wounds,  if  not  irritated,  generally  heal,  occasioning  no  other  inconvenience  tlian  a 
slight  inflammation  and  itching;  but  in  those  with  a  bad  state  of  body,  the  punctures, 
if  rubbed,  are  liable  to  degenerate  into  ulcers,  which  may  lead  to  the  loss  of  limb  or 
of  life.  During  the  march  of  the  troops  in  the  mountains,  when  the  Kandyans  were 
in  rebellion,  in  1818,  the  soldiers,  and  especially  the  Madras  Sepoys,  with  the  pioneers 
and  coolies,  suffered  so  severely  from  this  cause  that  numbers  of  them  perished." 

Among  the  many  noxious  insects  destructive  to  the  property  of  man,  there  is, 
perhaps,  none  more  remarkable  than  the  South  African  Tsetse-fly  (  Glossina  morsi- 
tans),  whose  peculiar  buzz,  when  once  heard,  can  never  be  forgotten  by  the  traveler 


588  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

whose  means  of  locomotion  are  domestic  animals ;  for  it  is  well  known  that  the  bite 
of  this  poisonous  insect  is  certain  death  to  the  ox,  horse,  and  dog.  Fortunately  it  is 
limited  to  particular  districts,  frequently  infesting  one  bank  of  a  river  while  the  other 
contains  not  a  single  specimen,  or  else  traveling  in  South  Africa  would  be  utterly 
impossible,  and  we  should  now  know  no  more  of  Lake  Ngami  or  the  Zambesi  than  we 
did  thirty  years  since.  In  one  journey  Livingstone  lost  no  less  than  forty-three  fine 
oxen  by  the  bite  of  the  tsetse.  A  party  of  Englishmen  once  attempted  to  reach 
Libebe,  but  they  had  only  proceeded  seven  or  eight  days'  journey  to  the  north  of  the 
No-ami,  when  both  horses  and  cattle  were  bitten  by  the  fly,  and  the  party  were  in 
consequence  compelled  to  make  a  hasty  retreat.  One  of  the  number  was  thus  deprived 
of  as  many  as  thirty-six  horses,  excellent  hunters,  and  all  sustained  heavy  losses  iu 

cattle. 

A  most  remarkable  feature  in  the  bite  of  the  tsetse  is  its  perfect  harmlessness  in 
man  and  wild  animals,  and  even  calves,  so  long  as  they  continue  to  suck  the  cow. 
The  mule,  ass,  and  goat  enjoy  likewise  the  same  immunity,  and  many  large  tribes  on 
the  Zambesi  can  keep  no  domestic  animals  except  the  latter,  in  consequence  of  the 
scourge  existing  in  their  country.  Dr.  Livingstone's  children  were  frequently  bitten, 
yet  sufiered  no  harm  ;  and  he  saw  around  him  numbers  of  zebras,  buffaloes,  pigs, 
pallahs  and  other  antelopes,  feeding  quietly  in  the  very  habitat  of  the  tsetse,  yet  as 
undisturbed  by  its  bite  as  oxen  are  when  they  first  receive  the  fatal  poison,  which  acts 
in  the  following  manner:  After  a  few  days  the  eyes  and  nose  begin  to  run,  the  coat 
stares  as  if  the  animal  were  cold,  a  swelling  appears  under  the  jaw,  and,  though  the 
animal  continues  to  graze,  emaciation  commences,  accompanied  with  a  peculiar  flac- 
cidity  of  the  muscles ;  and  this  proceeds  unchecked  until,  perhaps  months  afterwards, 
purf^inw  comes  on,  and  the  animal,  no  longer  able  to  graze,  perishes  in  a  state  of 
extreme  exhaustion.  Those  which  are  in  good  condition  often  perish,  soon  after  the 
wound  is  inflicted,  with  staggering  and  blindness,  as  if  the  brain  were  affected  by  it. 
Sudden  changes  of  temperature,  produced  by  falls  of  rain,  seem  to  hasten  the  progress 
of  the  complaint,  but  in  general  the  emaciation  goes  on  uninterruptedly  for  months ; 
and,  do  what  one  may,  the  poor  animals  perish  miserably,  as  there  is  no  cure  yet 
known  for  the  disease. 

The  Abyssinian  Tsalt-salya,  or  Zimb,  described  by  Bruce,  seems  identical  with  the 
tsetse,  or  produces  at  least  similar  symptoms.  At  the  season  when  this  plague  makes 
its  appearance,  all  the  inhabitants  along  the  sea-coast,  from  Melinde  to  Cape  Gardafui, 
and  to  the  south  of  the  Red  Sea,  are  obliged  to  retire  with  their  cattle  to  the  sandy 
plains  to  preserve  them  from  destruction. 

The  French  traveler,  D'Escayrac,  tells  us  of  a  fly  in  Soudan  which  leaves  the  ox 
uninjured,  but  destroys  the  dromedary.  On  account  of  this  plague  the  camel  is  con- 
fined to  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Soudan,  while  the  oxen  graze  in  safety  through- 
out the  whole  country.  This  fly  has  caused  more  migrations  among  the  x\rabs  of  the 
Soudan  than  all  their  wars;  and  in  the  dry  season  it  even  drives  the  elephant  from 
Lake  Tsad  by  flying  into  its  ears. 

Though  Locusts  not  seldom  extend  their  ravages  to  the  steppes  of  southern  Russia, 
though  they  have  been  known  to  burst  like  a  cloud  of  desolation  over  Transylvania 
and  Hungary,  and  stray  stragglers  now  and  then  even  find  their  way  to  England,  yet 
their  chief  habitat  and  birthplace  is  the  torrid  zone.     They  wander  forth  in  countless 


LOCUSTS— COCKROACHES.  589 

multitudes,  and  at  very  irregular  periods;  but  how  it  comes  that  they  are  multijjlied 
to  such  an  excess  in  particular  years,  and  not  in  others,  has  never  yet  been  ascertained, 
and  perhaps  never  will  be.  They  are  armed  with  two  pairs  of  strong  mandibles ;  their 
stomach  is  of  extraordinary  capacity  and  power ;  they  make  prodigious  leaps  by  means 
of  their  muscular  and  long  hind  legs ;  and  their  wings  even  carry  them  far  across  the 
sea.  On  viewing  a  single  locust,  one  can  hardly  conceive  how  they  can  cause  such 
devastations,  but  we  cease  to  wonder  on  hearing  of  their  numbers. 

From  1778  to  1780  the  whole  empire  of  Morocco  was  so  laid  waste  by  swarms 
of  these  insects,  that  a  dreadful  famine  ensued.  Mr.  Barrow,  in  his  travels,  states 
that  in  the  southern  parts  of  Africa  the  whole  surface  of  the  ground  might  literally  be 
said  to  be  covered  with  them  for  an  area  of  nearly  2,000  square  miles.  When  driven 
into  the  sea  by  a  north-west  wind,  they  formed  upon  the  shore,  for  fifty  miles,  a  bank 
three  or  four  feet  high  ;  and  when  the  wind  was  southeast,  the  stench  was  such  as  to 
be  smelt  at  the  distance  of  150  miles.  Major  Moore  observed  at  Poonah  an  army  of 
locusts,  which  devastated  the  whole  country  of  the  Mahrattas,  and  most  likely  came 
from  Arabia.  Their  columns  extended  in  a  width  of  500  miles,  and  were  so  dense  as 
to  darken  the  light  of  the  sun.  It  was  a  red  species  (not  the  common  Gryllus  migra- 
tortus),  whose  bloody  color  added  to  the  terror  of  their  appearance. 

In  Central  Africa,  Anderson  met  with  vast  numbers  of  the  larvae  of  the  locust 
commonly  called  by  the  Boers  "  Voet-gangers,"  or  pedestrians.  In  some  places  they 
might  be  seen  packed  in  layers  several  inches  in  thickness,  and  myriads  were  crushed 
and  maimed  by  the  wagon  and  cattle.  Towards  nightfall  they  crawled  on  the  bushes 
and  shrubs,  many  of  which,  owing  to  their  weight  and  numbers,  were  either  bowed 
down  or  broken  short  off.  They  were  of  a  reddish  color,  with  dark  markings ;  and 
as  they  hung  thus  suspended,  they  looked  like  clusters  of  rich  fruit.  These  larvne 
are  justly  dreaded  by  the  colonists,  as  nothing  seems  capable  of  staying  their  progress. 
Even  rivers  form  no  barrier  to  their  march,  as  the  drowning  multitudes  afford  the 
survivors  a  temporary  bridge;  endeavors  to  diminish  their  numbers  would  appear  like 
attempting  to  drain  the  ocean  by  a  pump.  On  traveling  on,  next  morning,  the  locust 
itself  was  encountered,  and  in  such  masses  as  literally  to  darken  the  air.  The  wagon, 
or  any  other  equally  conspicuous  object,  could  not  be  distinguished  at  the  distance  of 
one  hundred  paces.  The  noise  of  their  wings  was  not  unlike  that  caused  by  a  gale 
of  wind  whistling  through  the  shrouds  of  a  ship  at  anchor.  During  their  flight  num- 
bers were  constantly  alighting — an  action  which  has  not  inaptly  been  compared  to  the 
falling  of  large  snow-flakes.  It  is,  however,  not  until  the  approach  of  night  that  the 
locusts  encamp.  Woe  to  the  spot  they  select  as  a  resting-place  !  The  sun  sets  on  a 
landscape  green  with  all  the  luxuriance  of  tropical  vegetation ;  it  rises  in  the  morning 
over  a  region  naked  as  the  waste  of  the  Sahara. 

We  are  not  wholly  unacquainted  with  Cockroaches.  The  tropical  plague  of  the 
cockroaches  has  been  introduced  into  the  temperate  zone;  but,  fortunately,  the  giant 
of  the  family,  the  Blatta  gigantea,  a  native  of  many  of  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia, 
Africa,  and  South  America,  is  a  stranger  to  our  land;  and  the  following  truthful 
description  of  this  disgusting  insect  at  home  gives  us  every  reason  to  be  thankful  for 
its  absence: — "  They  plunder  and  erode  all  kinds  of  victuals,  dressed  and  undressed, 
and  damage  all  sorts  of  clothes,  especially  such  as  are  touched  with  powder,  pomatum, 
and  similar  substances;  everything  made  of  leather;  books,  paper,  and  various  other 


590  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

articles,  which  if  they  do  fiot  destroy,  at  least  they  soil,  as  they  frequently  deposit  a 
drop  of  their  excrement  where  they  settle,  and,  some  way  or  other,  by  that  means 
damage  what  they  cannot  devour.  They  fly  into  the  flame  of  candles,  and  sometimes 
into  the  dishes;  are  very  fond  of  ink  and  of  oil,  into  which  they  are  apt  to  fall  and 
perish,  in  which  case  they  soon  turn  most  offensively  putrid — so  that  a  man  might  as 
well  sit  over  the  cadaverous  body  of  a  large  animal  as  write  with  the  ink  in  which 
they  have  died.  They  often  fly  into  persons'  faces  or  bosoms,  and  their  legs  being 
armed  with  sharp  spines,  the  pricking  excites  a  sudden  horror  not  easily  described. 
In  old  houses  they  swarm  by  myriads,  making  every  part  filthy  beyond  description 
wherever  they  harbor,  which  in  the  daytime  is  in  dark  corners,  behind  clothes,  in 
trnuks,  boxes,  and,  in  short,  every  place  where  they  can  lie  concealed.  In  old  timber 
and  deal  houses,  when  the  family  is  retired  at  night  to  sleep,  this  insect,  among  other 
disagreeable  properties,  has  the  power  of  making  a  noise  which  very  much  resembles 
a  pretty  smart  knocking  with  the  knuckle  upon  the  wainscoting.  The  Malta  gigantea 
in  the  West  Indies  is,  therefore,  frequently  known  by  the  name  of  the  'Drummer.' 
Three  or  four  of  these  noisy  creatures  will  sometimes  be  impelled  to  answer  one 
another,  and  cause  such  a  drumming  noise  that  none  but  those  who  are  very  good 
sleepers  can  rest  for  them.  What  is  most  disagreeable,  those  who  have  not  gauze 
curtains  are  sometimes  attacked  by  them  in  their  sleep ;  the  sick  and  dying  have  their 
extremities  attacked ;  and  the  ends  of  the  toes  and  fingers  of  the  dead  are  frequently 
stripped  both  of  the  skin  and  flesh." 

According  to  Tschudi,  the  Cucaracha  and  Chilicabra — two  large  species  of  the 
cockroach — infest  Peru  in  such  numbers  as  almost  to  reduce  the  inhabitants  to  despair. 
Greedy,  bold,  cunning,  they  force  their  way  into  every  hut,  devour  the  stores,  destroy 
the  clothes,  intrude  into  the  beds  and  dishes,  and  defy  every  means  that  is  resorted  to 
for  their  destruction.  Fortunately,  they  are  held  in  check  by  many  formidable 
enemies,  particularly  by  a  small  ant,  and  a  pretty  little  bird  {Troglodytes  audax) 
belonging  to  the  wagtail  family,  which  has  some  difficulty  in  mastering  the  larger 
cockroaches.  It  first  of  all  bites  off  their  head,  and  then  devours  their  body,  with  the 
exception  of  their  membranaceous  wings.  After  having  finished  his  repast,  the  bird 
hops  upon  the  nearest  bush,  and  there  begins  his  song  of  triumph. 

Many  other  insect  plagues  might  be  added  to  the  list,  but  those  I  have  already 
enumerated  suffice  to  reconcile  us  to  our  misty  climate,  and  to  diminish  our  longing 
for  the  palm  groves  of  the  torrid  zone. 

After  having  described  the  miseries  which  the  tropical  insects  inflict  upon  man- 
how  they  suck  his  blood,  destroy  his  rest,  exterminate  his  cattle,  devour  the  fruits  of 
his  fields  and  orchards,  ransack  his  chests  and  wardrobes,  feast  on  his  provisions,  and 
plague  and  worry  him  wherever  they  can — I  turn  to  the  more  agreeable  task  of  re- 
counting their  services,  and  relating  the  benefits  for  which  he  is  indebted  to  them. 

Among  the  insects  which  are  of  direct  use  to  us,  the  silk-worm  {Bomhyx  mart)  is 
by  far  the  most  important.  Originally  a  native  of  tropical  or  sub-tropical  China, 
where  the  art  of  making  use  of  its  filaments  seems  to  have  been  discovered  at  a  very 
early  period,  it  is  now  reared  in  countless  numbers  far  and  wide  over  the  western 
world,  so  as  to  form  a  most  important  feature  in  the  industrial  resources  of  Europe. 
Thousands  of  skilful  workmen  are  employed   in  spinning  and  weaving  its  lustrous 


THE   SILK-WORM-THE   COCHINEAL  INSECT.  591 

threads,  and  thousands  upon  thousands,  enjoying  the  fruits  of  their  labors,  now  clothe 
themselves,  at  a  moderate  price,  in  silken  tissues  which  but  a  few  centuries  back  were 
the  exclusive  luxury  of  the  richest  and  noblest  of  the  land. 

Besides  the  silk-worm,  we  find  many  other  moths  in  the  tropical  zone  whose  cocoons 
might  advantageously  be  spun,  and  only  require  to  be  better  known  to  become  con- 
siderable articles  of  commerce.  The  tusseh-worm  {Bomhyx  mylitta)  of  Hindostau, 
which  lives  upon  the  leaves  of  the  Rhamnus  jujuba,  furnishes  a  dark-colored,  coarse^ 
but  durable  silk  ;  while  the  Arandi  {B.  cyntkia),  which  feeds  upon  the  foliage  of  the 
castor-oil  plant  {Ricinus  communis),  spins  remarkably  soft  threads,  which  serve  the 
Hindoos  to  weave  tissues  of  uncommon  strength.  In  America  there  are  also  many 
indigenous  moths  whose  filaments  might  be  rendered  serviceable  to  man,  and  which 
seem  destined  to  great  future  importance,  when  trade,  quitting  her  usual  routine,  shall 
have  learnt  to  pry  more  closely  into  the  resources  of  Nature.  While  the  Cocci,  or 
plant-bugs,  are  in  our  country  deservedly  detested  as  a  nuisance,  destroying  the 
beauty  of  many  of  our  garden  plants  by  their  blighting  presence;  while,  in  1843,  the 
Coccus  of  the  orange  trees  proved  so  destructive  in  the  Azores  that  the  island  of 
Fayal,  which  annually  exported  12,000  chests  of  fruit,  lost  its  entire  produce  from 
this  cause  alone,  two  tropical  members  of  the  family,  as  if  to  make  up  for  the  mis- 
deeds of  their  relations,  furnish  us — the  one  with  the  most  splendid  of  all  scarlet 
dyes,  and  the  other  with  gum-lac,  a  substance  of  hardly  inferior  value. 

Our  gardeners  spare  no  trouble  to  protect  their  hot  and  greenhouse  plants  from  the 
invasion  of  the  Coccus  hesperidum  ;  but  the  Mexican  haciendero  purposely  lays  out 
his  Nopal  plantations  that  they  may  be  preyed  upon  by  the  Coccus  cacti,  and  rejoices 
when  he  sees  the  leaves  of  his  opuntias  thickly  strewn  with  this  valuable  parasite. 
The  female,  who  from  her  form  and  habits  might  not  unaptly  be  called  the  tortoise  of 
the  insect  world,  is  much  larger  than  the  winged  male,  and  of  a  dark-brown  color, 
with  two  light  spots  on  the  back,  covered  with  white  powder.  She  uses  her  little  legs 
only  during  her  first  youth,  but  soon  she  sucks  herself  fast,  and  henceforward  remains 
immovably  attached  to  the  spot  she  has  chosen,  while  her  mate  continues  to  lead  a  wan- 
dering life.  While  thus  fixed  like  an  oyster,  she  swells  or  grows  to  such  a  size  that 
she  looks  more  like  a  seed  or  berry  than  an  insect ;  and  her  legs,  antennae,  and  pro- 
boscis, concealed  by  the  expanding  body,  can  hardly  be  distinguished  by  the  naked 
eye.  Great  care  is  taken  to  kill  the  insects  before  the  young  escape  from  the  eggs,  as 
they  have  then  the  greatest  weight,  and  are  most  impregnated  with  coloring  matter. 
They  are  detached  by  a  blunt  knife  dipped  in  boiling  water  to  kill  them,  and  then 
dried  in  the  sun,  when  they  have  the  appearance  of  small,  dry,  shriveled  berries,  of  a 
deep-brown  purple  or  mulberry  color,  with  a  white  matter  between  the  wrinkles.  The 
collecting  takes  place  three  times  a  year  in  the  plantations,  where  the  insect,  improved 
by  human  care,  is  nearly  twice  as  large  as  the  wild  coccus,  which  in  Mexico  is  gath- 
ered six  times  in  the  same  period.  Although  the  collecting  of  the  cochineal  is  exceed- 
ingly tedious — about  70,000  insects  going  to  a  single  pound — yet,  considering  the 
high  price  of  the  article,  its  rearing  would  be  very  lucrative,  if  both  the  insect  and  the 
plant  it  feeds  upon  were  not  liable  to  the  ravages  of  many  diseases,  and  the  attacks  of 
numerous  enemies.  The  conquest  of  Mexico  by  Cortez  first  made  the  Spaniards  ac- 
quainted with  cochineal.  They  soon  learnt  to  value  it  as  one  of  the  most  important 
products  of  their  new  empire;  and  in  order  to  secure  its  monopoly,  prohibited,  under 


592  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

pain  of  death,  the  exportation  of  the  insect,  and  of  the  equally  indigenous  Nopal,  or 
Gactm  cochinellifer.  Cochineal  is  now  produced  in  the  Canary  Islands,  Java,  and 
Brazil ;  but  Mexico  still  furnishes  the  greater  part  produced. 

The  Coccus  which  produces  lac,  or  gum-lac,  is  a  native  of  India,  and  thrives  and 
multiplies  best  on  several  species  of  the  fig-tree.  A  cheap  method  having  been  dis- 
covered within  the  last  years  of  separating  the  coloring  matter  which  it  contains  from 
the  resinous  part,  it  has  greatly  increased  in  commercial  importance. 

In  the  tropical  zone  we  find  that  not  only  many  birds  and  several  four-footed  ani- 
mals live  chiefly,  or  even  exclusively,  on  insects,  but  that  they  are  even  consumed  in 
large  quantities,  or  eaten  as  delicacies,  by  man  himself.  The  locust-swarms  are  wel- 
comed with  delight  by  the  Arab  of  the  Sahara  and  the  South  African  Bushman.  After 
being  partially  roasted,  they  are  either  eaten  fresh,  or  dried  in  hot  ashes  and  stored 
away.  The  natives  reduce  them  also  to  powder  or  meal,  which,  eaten  with  a  little 
salt,  is  palatable  even  to  Europeans ;  so  that  Livingstone,  who,  during  his  residence 
among  the  Bakwains,  was  often  obliged  to  put  up  with  a  dish  of  locusts,  says  he 
should  much  prefer  them  to  shrimps,  though  he  would  avoid  both  if  possible.  They 
evidently  contain  a  great  deal  of  nourishment,  as  the  Bushmen  thrive  wonderfully  on 
them,  and  hail  their  appearance  as  a  season  of  plenty  and  good  living.  The  food  of 
John  the  Baptist  was  locusts  and  wild  honey. 

Several  of  the  large  African  caterpillars  are  edible,  and  considered  as  a  great  deli- 
cacy by  the  natives.  On  the  leaves  of  the  Mopane  tree,  in  the  Bushman  country,  the 
small  larvae  of  a  winged  insect,  a  species  of  Psylla,  appear  covered  over  with  a  sweet 
gummy  substance,  which  is  collected  by  the  people  in  great  quantities,  and  used  as 
food.  Another  species  in  New  Holland,  found  on  the  leaves  of  the  Eucalyptus,  emits 
a  similar  secretion,  which,  along  with  its  insect  originator,  is  scraped  off  the  leaves  and 
eaten  by  the  aborigines  as  a  saccharine  dainty. 

The  chirping  Cicadce,  or  frog-hoppers,  which  Aristotle  mentions  as  delicious  food, 
though  maccaroni  has  long  supplanted  them  in  the  estimation  both  of  the  modern 
Greeks  and  of  the  Italians,  are  still  in  high  repute  among  the  American  Indians. 
With  the  exception  of  one  species  ( Cicada  Anglica),  these  insects,  equally  remark- 
able for  the  rapidity  of  their  flight  and  their  faculty  of  emitting  a  loud  noise,  are  un 
known  in  temperate  zones.  Several  of  the  exotic  species,  when  their  wings  are  ex- 
panded, measure  six  inches  in  extreme  length— a  size  superior  to  that  of  many  of  the 
humming-birds.  The  Goliath  beetles  of  the  coast  of  Guinea  are  roasted  and  eaten  by 
the  natives,  who  doubtless,  like  many  other  savages,  not  knowing  the  value  of  that 
which  they  are  eating,  often  make  a  honne  louche  of  what  an  entomologist  would 
most  eagerly  desire  to  preserve. 

The  Chinese,  who  allow  nothing  edible  to  go  to  waste,  after  unraveling  the  cocoon 
of  the  silk-worm,  make  a  dish  of  the  pupae,  which  the  Europeans  reject  with  scorn; 
and  the  grubs  of  several  insects  which  thrive  and  increase  in  the  Sago-tree,  the  Areca, 
and  the  Cocoa,  are  considered  as  great  delicacies ;  and  many  similar  examples  might 
be  cited. 

Several  of  the  more  brilliant  tropical  beetles  are  made  use  of  as  ornaments,  not  only 
by  the  savage  tribes,  but  among  nations  which  are  able  to  command  the  costliest  gems 
of  the  East.  The  golden  elytra  of  the  Sternocera  chrysis  and  Sternocera  sternicomis 
serve  to  enrich  the  embroidery  of  the  Indian  zenana,  while  the  joints  of  the  legs  are 


ORNAMENTAL  INSECTS 

593 

strung  on  silken  threads,  and  form  bracelet,  of  singular  Irillianey.     The  ladies  in 
Brazil  wear  neeklaces  eo.posed  of  the  azure  green  and  golden  win.,  of    u     ons 
Chrysomehd^and  Curcul.on.d.,  partienlarly  of  ehe  Diamond  beetle  («J,V,„ lilH 
and  .n  Jan,a,ea,   he  elytra  of  the  &,pres,.  „;,,  ,,,  ,^,  ;„  ,^„,  "  °*  j^  . 

brilliancy  rivals  the  rare  and  costly  Ohrysopras  in  beauty.  *      ^ 

The  House-building  Insects,  Ants,  Termites,  Spiders  etc    form  «.  n„.,l,l       r    . 
of  the  Insect  World  of  the  Tropics,  that  they  keslrve  i  ctptlr  ryThrt:  '""" 


38 


594  THE   TKOPICAL   WOKLD. 


CHAPTER   IX. 

ANTS— TERMITES— ANT-EATERS— SPIDERS— SCORPIONS. 

Ants:  Vast  Numbers  of  Ants  in  the  Tropical  World- Pain  caused  by  their  Bites— The  Ponera 
Clavata— The  Black  Eire-Ant— The  Dimiya  of  Ceylon— The  Red  Ant  of  Angola— The 
Vivagua  of  the  West  Indies— The  Umbrella  Ant— Household  Plagues— Troubles  of  Natu- 
ralists—The Ranger  Ants— The  Bashikouay  of  Western  Africa— House-Building  Ants 
— Slaveholding  Ants— Aphides,  or  Plant-Lice— Insect  Cow-Keepers.— rerm/to ;  Their 
Ravages  among  Books  and  Furniture— Their  Citadels— Domestic  Economy— Defensive 
Warfare— American  Termites — The  Enemies  of  the  Termites— How  to  Catch,  Cook,  and 
Eat  them— The  Marching  Termite.— Ant-Eaiers :  The  Great  Ant-Bear— His  Mode  of 
Hunting— Mode  of  Defense— Anatomical  Structure— Lesser  Ant-Bears— Manides  and  Pan- 
golins—The Aard-Vark— Armadillos— The  Porcupine  Ant-Ea.ter.— Spiders:  Their  Physical 
Structure— Their  Webs— Means  of  Protection— Mode  of  Catching  their  Prey— Maternal 
Instinct— Their  Enemies— Uses  of  Spiders.— 5cor/jjons ;  Their  Aspects  and  Habits— Their 
Venom. 

THE  family  of  Ants  is  undoubtedly  the  most  numerous  of  any  in  the  whole  circle 
of  winged  insects,  as  its  colonies  are  not  confined  to  one  particular  region,  but 
are  thickly  planted  over  the  greatest  part  of  the  habitable  world.  There  is  with  us 
scarcely  a  field  that  does  not  contain  millions ;  we  cannot  rest  upon  a  bank  without 
reclining  upon  the  walls  of  their  cities ;  their  chief  quarters,  however,  are  established 
in  the  torrid  zone,  where  they  may  truly  be  said  to  hold  a  despotic  sway  over  the 
forest  and  the  savanna,  over  the  thicket  and  the  field.  It  is  hardly  possible  to  pene- 
trate into  a  tropical  wood  without  being  reminded,  by  their  stings  and  bites,  that  they 
consider  the  visit  as  an  intrusion,  while  they  themselves  unceremoniously  invade  the 
dwellino-s  of  man,  and  lay  ruinous  contributions  on  his  stores.  The  inconceivable 
number  of  their  species  defies  the  memory  of  the  naturalist,  to  whom  many  are  even 
still  entirely  unknown.  From  almost  microscopical  size  to  an  inch  in  length,  of  all 
colors  and  shades  between  yellow,  red,  brown,  and  black,  of  the  most  various  habits 
and  stations,  the  ants  of  a  single  tropical  land  would  furnish  study  for  years  to  a 
zealous  entomologist.  Every  family  of  plants  has  its  peculiar  species,  and  many  trees 
are  even  the  exclusive  dwelling-place  of  some  ant  nowhere  else  to  be  found.  In  the 
scathes  of  leaves,  in  the  corollas  of  flowers,  in  buds  and  blossoms,  over  and  under  the 
earth,  in  and  out  of  doors,  one  meets  these  ubiquitous  little  creatures,  which  are  un- 
doubtedly one  of  the  great  plagues  of  the  torrid  zone. 

While  the  ants  of  the  temperate  zones  cause  a  disagreeable  burning  on  the  skin,  by 
the  secretion  of  a  corrosive  acid  peculiar  to  the  race,  the  sting  or  bite  of  many  tropical 
species  causes  the  most  excruciating  tortures.  "I  have  no  words,"  says  Schomburgk, 
"to  describe  the  pain  inflicted  upon  me  by  the  mandibles  of  the  Ponera  clavata,  a 


ANTS   AND   THEIR  BITES. 


595 


large,  and,  fortunately,  not  very  common  ant,  whose  long  black  body  is  besot  with 
single  hairs.  Like  an  electric  shock  the  pain  instantly  shot  through  my  whole  body, 
and  soon  after  acquired  the  greatest  intensity  in  the  breast,  and  over  and  under  the 
arm-pits.  After  a  few  minutes  I  felt  almost  completely  paralyzed,  so  that  I  could  only 
with  the  greatest  difficulty,  and  under  the  most  excruciating  tortures,  totter  towards 
the  plantation,  which,  however,  it  was  impossible  for  me  to  reach.  I  was  found  sense- 
less on  the  ground,  and  the  following  day  a  violent  wound  fever  ensued."  The  Trip- 
laris  Americana,  a  South  American  tree,  about  sixty  or  eighty  feet  high,  the  branches 
of  which  are  completely  hollow  and  transversely  partitioned  at  regular  intervals,  like 
the  stems  of  the  bamboo,  is  the  retreat  of  one  of  the  most  terocious  ants.  Woe  to  the 
naturalist  who,  ignorant  of  the  fact,  endeavors  to  break  off  a  shoot  of.  the  Triplaris,  or 
only  knocks  against  the  tree,  for  thousands  will  instantly  issue  from  small  round 
lateral  openings  in  the  plant,  and  fall  upon  him  with  inconceivable  fury.  The  touch 
of  a  hot  iron  is  not  more  painful  than  their  bite,  and  the  inflammation  and  pain  last 
for  several  days  after. 

The  black  fire-ant  of  Guiana,  though  very  small,  is  capable  of  inflicting  excessive 
pain.  "These  insects,"  says  Stedman,  "live  in  such  amazing  multitudes  together, 
that  their  hillocks  have  sometimes  obstructed  our  passage  by  their  size,  over  which, 
if  one  chances  to  pass,  the  feet  and  legs  are  instantly  covered  with  innumerable  hosts 
of  these  creatures,  which  seize  the  skin  with  such  violence  in  their  pincers,  that  they 
will  sooner  suffer  the  head  to  be  parted  from  the  body  than  let  go  their  hold.  The 
burning  pain  which  they  occasion  cannot,  in  my  opinion,  proceed  from  the  sharpness 
of  the  pincers  only,  but  must  be  owing  to  some  venomous  fluid,  which  they  infuse,  or 
which  the  wound  imbibes  from  them.  I  can  aver  that  I  have  seen  them  make  a  whole 
company  hop  about  as  if  they  had  been  scalded  with  boiling  water." 

Of  the  more  than  seventy  species  of  ants  which  occur  in  Ceylon  alone,  Sir  E.  Ten- 
nent  describes  the  Dimiya,  or  great  red  ant,  as  the  most  formidable.  "  Like  all  their 
race,  these  ants  are  in  perpetual  motion,  forming  lines  on  the  ground,  alono-  which 
they  pass  in  continual  procession  to  and  from  the  trees  on  which  they  reside.  They 
are  the  most  irritable  of  the  whole  order  in  Ceylon,  biting  with  such  intense  ferocity 
as  to  render  it  difficult  for  the  unclad  native  to  collect  the  fruit  from  the  mango-trees, 
which  the  red  ants  especially  frequent.  They  drop  from  the  branches  upon  travelers 
in  the  jungle,  attacking  them  with  venom  and  fury,  and  inflicting  intolerable  pain 
both  upon  animals  and  man.  On  examining  the  structure  of  the  head  through  a  micro- 
scope, I  found  that  the  mandibles,  instead  of  meeting  in  contact,  are  so  hooked  as  to 
cross  each  other  at  the  points,  whilst  the  inner  line  is  sharply  serrated  throughout  its 
entire  length,  thus  occasioning  the  intense  pain  of  their  bite,  as  compared  with  that  of 
the  ordinary  ant." 

"  Having,  while  in  Angola,  accidentally  stepped  upon  a  nest  of  red  ants,"  says 
Livingstone,  "  not  an  instant  seemed  to  elapse  before  a  simultaneous  attack  was  made 
on  various  unprotected  parts,  up  the  trousers  from  below,  and  on  my  neck  and  breast 
above.  The  bites  of  these  furies  were  like  sparks  of  fire,  and  there  was  no  retreat. 
It  is  really  astonishing  how  such  small  bodies  can  contain  so  large  an  amount  of  ill- 
nature.  They  not  only  bite,  but  twist  themselves  round  after  the  mandibles  are  in- 
serted, to  produce  laceration  and  pain  more  than  would  be  effected  by  the  single  wound." 

But  however  formidable  the  weapons  of  the  ants  may  be,  yet  the  injuries  they  in- 


596  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

flict  upon  the  property  of  man,  pouring  over  his  plantations  like  a  flood,  and  sweeping 
away  the  fruits  of  his  labors,  are  of  a  much  more  lasting  and  serious  nature  than  their 
painful  bite  or  venomous  sting. 

In  the  West  Indies,  the  brown-black  Viviagua,  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  and 
with  a  prickly  thorax,  is  the  greatest  enemy  of  the  coftee  plantations.  In  one  day  it 
will  rob  a  full  grown  tree  of  all  its  leaves.  It  digs  deep  subterranean  passages  of  con- 
siderable dimensions  and  irregular  forms,  with  a  great  number  of  hand-high  galleries 
branching  out  from  the  sides,  and  does  even  more  harm  to  the  cofFee-plants  by  its  mining 
operations,  than  by  robbing  them  of  their  foliage.  Attacked  in  their  roots,  they  fall 
into  what  may  be  called  a  consumptive  state,  bear  no  fruit,  and  die  after  a  few  months' 
lingering.  The  complete  extirpation  of  the  nest,  and  keeping  up  for  some  time  a  strong 
fire  in  the  excavation,  is  the  only  means  to  subdue  the  evil,  which  leads  to  incalculable 
losses,  when,  through  negligence,  the  Viviagua  has  once  been  allowed  to  multiply  its 
numbers. 

Other  species  are  no  less  destructive  to  the  sugar  plantations,  either  by  settling  in 
the  interior  of  the  stalks  (like  the  Formica  analis),  or  by  undermining  the  roots 
(like  the  Formica  saccharivora),  so  that  the  plant  becomes  sickly  and  dies.  About 
eighty  years  ago  the  island  of  Grenada  was  overrun  by  hosts  of  these  devastating  in- 
sects. Many  household  animals  died  from  their  attacks,  and  they  effectually  cleared 
the  land  of  rats,  mice,  and  reptiles.  Streams  of  running  water  failed  to  interrupt 
their  progress,  and  fire  was  vainly  used  to  stop  them,  for  millions  rushed  into  the 
flames,  and  served  as  a  bridge  for  the  myriads  that  followed.  All  the  means  employed 
to  save  the  sugar  plantations  from  their  fury  proved  ineffectual,  until  in  the  year  1780 
the  plague  was  swept  away  at  once  by  a  dreadful  tornado,  accompanied  by  a  deluge  of 
rain. 

The  Atta  cephalotes,  a  species  of  ant  distinguished  by  its  large  head,  is  the  most 
formidable  enemy  of  the  banana  and  cassava  fields.  It  lies  in  the  ground  and  multi- 
plies amazingly ;  in  a  very  short  time  it  will  strip  off"  the  leaves  of  an  entire  field,  and 
carry  them  to  its  subterranean  abodes.  Even  where  their  nest  is  a  mile  distant  from 
a  plantation,  these  arch-depredators  know  how  to  find  it,  and  soon  form  a  highway,  about 
half  a  foot  broad,  on  which  they  keep  up  the  most  active  communications  with  the 
object  of  their  attack.  In  masterly  order,  side  by  side,  one  army  is  seen  to  move  onwards 
towards  the  field,  while  the  other  is  returning  to  the  nest.  In  the  last  column  each  indi- 
vidual carries  a  round  piece  of  leaf,  about  the  size  of  a  sixpence,  horizontally  over  its 
head — a  circumstance  from  which  the  insect  has  also  been  named  the  Umbrella  Ant. 
If  the  distance  is  too  great,  a  party  meets  the  weary  carriers  half  way,  and  relieves 
them  of  their  load.  Although  innumerable  ants  may  thus  be  moving  along,  yet  none 
of  them  will  ever  be  seen  to  be  in  the  other's  way ;  and  all  goes  on  with  the  regularity 
of  clockwork.  A  third  party  is  no  less  actively  employed  on  the  scene  of  destruction, 
cutting  out  circular  pieces  of  the  leaves,  which,  as  soon  as  they  drop  upon  the  ground, 
are  immediately  seized  by  the  attentive  and  indefatigable  carriers.  Neither  fire  nor 
water  can  prevent  them  from  proceeding  with  their  work.  Though  thousands  may  be 
killed,  yet  in  less  than  an  hour  all  the  bodies  will  have  been  removed.  Should  the 
highway  be  closed  by  an  insurmountable  obstacle,  another  is  soon  laid  out,  and  after  a 
few  hours  the  operations,  momentarily  disturbed,  resume  their  former  activity.  The 
ants  themselves,  particularly  the  winged  females,  are  considered  a  great  delicacy  by 


HOUSE   ANTS— TRIALS    OF   NATURALISTS.  597 

the  Indians,  who  eat  the  abdomen,  either  raw  or  roasted.     The  taste  is  said  to  be 
agreeably  saccharine. 

Not  satisfied  with  devouring  his  harvests,  the  tropical  ants,  as  I  have  already  men- 
tioned, leave  man  no  rest  even  within  doors,  and  trespass  upon  his  household  comforts 
in  a  thousand  various  ways.  In  Mainas,  a  province  on  the  Upper  Amazon,  Professor 
Poppig  counted  no  less  than  seven  different  species  of  ants  among  the  tormenting 
inmates  of  his  hut.  The  diminutive  red  Amache  was  particularly  fond  of  sweets. 
Favored  by  its  sraallness,  it  penetrates  through  the  imperceptible  openings  of  a  cork, 
and  the  traveler  was  often  obliged  to  throw  away  the  syrup  which  in  that  humid  and 
sultry  country  replaces  the  use  of  crystallized  sugar,  from  i-ts  having  been  changed 
into  an  ant-corafit.  This  troublesome  lover  of  sweets  lives  under  the  corner-posts  of 
the  hut,  so  tha-t  it  is  quite  impossible  to  dislodge  him.  The  number  of  the  Paca  ticse, 
a  red  ant,  of  the  ordinary  size,  was  still  greater ;  the  trunks  and  papers  were  swarming 
with  it,  in  spite  of  every  precaution,  so  that  it  was  quite  incomprehensible  how  it  found 
means  to  overcome  all  the  obstacles  that  had  been  devised  against  it. 

"The  only  possible  way,"  says  Stedman,  "of  keeping  the  ants  from  the  refined 
sugar  is  by  hanging  the  loaf  to  the  ceiling  by  a  nail,  and  making  a  ring  of  dry  chalk 
around  it,  very  thick,  which  crumbles  down  the  moment  the  ants  attempt  fo  pass  it. 
I  imagined  that  placing  my  sugar-boxes  in  the  middle  of  a  tub,  and  on  stone  surrounded 
by  deep  water,  would  have  kept  back  this  formidable  enemy  ;  but  to  no  purpose  : 
whole  armies  of  the  lighter  sort,  to  my  astonishment,  marched  over  the  surface,  an  I 
but  very  few  of  them  were  drowned.  The  main  body  constantly  scaled  the  rock,  and, 
in  spite  of  all  my  efforts,  made  their  entry  through  tho  keyholes,  after  which,  the  only 
way  to  clear  the  garrison  is,  to  expose  it  to  a  hot  sun,  which  the  invaders  can  not  bear, 
and  all  march  off  in  a  few  minutes," 

The  devastations  of  the  house-ants  are  peculiarly  hateful  to  the  naturalist,  whose 
collections,  often  gathered  with  so  much  danger  and  trouble,  they  pitilessly  destroy. 
Schoraburgk  suspended  boxes  with  insects  from  the  ceiling  by  threads  strongly  rubbed 
over  with  arsenic  soap ;  but  when,  on  the  following  morning,  he  wished  to  examine  his 
treasures,  instead  of  his  rare  and  beautiful  specimens  he  found  nothing  but  a  set  of 
infamous  red  ants,  who,  crawling  down  the  threads,  had  found  means  to  invade  the 
boxes  and  utterly  to  destroy  their  valuable  contents. 

Wallace  gives  a  feeling  description  of  the  ants  of  Dorey,  one  of  the  islands  of  the 
Indian  Ocean:  "One  small  black  kind  was  excessively  abundant.  Almost  every 
shrub  and  tree  was  more  or  less  infested  with  it,  and  its  large  papery  nests  were 
everywhere  to  be  seen.  They  immediately  took  possession  of  my  house,  building  a 
large  nest  in  the  roof,  and  forming  papery  tunnels  down  almost  every  post.  They 
swarmed  on  my  table  as  I  was  at  work  setting  out  my  insects,  carrying  them  off  from 
under  my  very  nose,  and  even  tearing  them  off  from  the  cards  on  which  they  were 
gummed,  if  I  left  them  for  an  instant.  They  crawled  continually  over  my  hands  and 
face,  got  into  my  hair,  and  roamed  at  will  over  ray  whole  body,  not  producing  much 
inconvenience '  till  they  began  to  bite,  which  they  would  do  on  meeting  with  any 
obstruction  to  their  passage,  and  with  a  sharpness  which  made  me  jump  again,  and 
rush  to  undress  and  turn  out  the  offender.  They  visited  my  bed  also,  so  that  night 
brought  no  relief  from  their  persecutions;  and  I  verily  believe  that  during  my  three 
and  a  half  months'  residence  at  Dorey  I  was  never  for  a  single  hour  free  from  them. 


598  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

They  were  not  nearly  so  voracious   as  many  otber  kinds,  but   their  numbers  and 
ubiquity  rendered  it  necessary  to  be  constantly  on  guard  against  them." 

In  countless  multitudes  the  Ranger  ants  break  forth  from  the  primeval  forest, 
marching  through  the  country  in  compact  order,  like  a  well-drilled  army.  Every 
creature  they  meet  in  their  way  falls  a  victim  to  their  dreadful  onslaught.  On  the 
west  coast  of  Africa  is  found  a  formidable  species  of  the  Ranger  ant,  there  named  the 
BasUkouay,  of  which  Paul  du  Chaillu*  furnishes  a  description,  which  we  give,  some- 
what abridged : 

"  But  more  potent  than  snakes,  lions,  leopards,  or  gorillas,  is  a  species  of  ant  called 
the  Bashikouay.  It  is  the  dread  not  only  of  man,  but  of  every  living  thing  from  the 
elephant  down  to  the  smallest  insect.  A  half  inch  is  about  the  average  length  of 
one  of  these  ants,  though  some  are  found  of  twice  that  length.  Individually  they  are 
bold  ;  the  bull-dog  has  not  more  pluck  and  tenacity  of  grip.  But  their  great  power  lies 
in  the  immense  armies  into  which  they  organize  themselves,  and  the  military  order 
which  they  preserve."  When  on  the  march,  they  often  go  in  a  column  two  inches 
broad  and  miles  in  length.  Du  Chaillu  once  saw  such  a  column  formed  in  close 
order,  which  occupied  twelve  hours,  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  in  passing  the  spot  from 
which  he  watched  them  ;  and  as  they  marched  by  night  as  well  as  by  day,  he  did  not 
know  how  long  the  column  had  been  passing  before  he  saw  it.  All  along  the  line 
were  larger  ants,  evidently  officers,  standing  outside  the  column  until  their  squads  had 
passed,  when  they  moved  on  and  joined  them.  How  many  millions  upon  millions 
there  were  in  this  army  he  did  not  venture  to  estimate.  When  on  the  march  such  a 
column  comes  to  a  small  stream,  they  fling  across  it  a  living  bridge.  Choosing  a  place 
where  the  branch  of  a  tree  reaches  nearly  from  one  bank  to  the  other,  only  somewhat 
lower  down,  the  second  of  the  pontoneers,  as  we  may  fairly  call  them,  with  his  fore- 
claws  grasps  the  hind-claws  of  the  one  in  front,  and  lowers  him  over,  A  third  does 
the  same  by  the  second ;  and  so  on  until  the  line  is  long  enough  to  reach  the  desired 
point.  Line  after  line  is  thus  formed  until  a  suspension  bridge  is  constructed  wide 
enough  for  the  whole  army  to  pass  over.  Imagine  the  strength  of  muscle  which  these 
creatures  must  possess  to  enable  them  to  maintain  their  hold  for  hours. 

The  marching  column  throws  itself  into  line  of  battle  with  wonderful  precision. 
When  it  sweeps  over  a  country  nothing  can  stay  its  progress.  Du  Chaillu  was  once 
plodding  through  the  forest  in  search  of  game.  Suddenly  he  was  startled  by  a  strange 
sound.  It  was  caused  by  a  rush  of  wild  beasts.  He  thought  he  caught  a  glimpse 
of  a  gorilla ;  he  was  sure  that  he  heard  the  heavy  tread  of  elephants ;  and  this  was 
followed  by  a  heavy  crash  as  though  a  herd  of  these  great  creatures  were  rushing 
through  the  forest.  Soon  the  air  grew  thick  with  insects.  While  wondering  what 
this  might  mean,  he  felt  the  torments  of  innumerable  bites,  and  in  an  instant  he  was 
almost  covered  by  ants.  He  had  encountered  the  skirmishers  of  a  Bashikouay 
army.  He  set  off  at  his  utmost  speed  in  the  direction  which  the  other  fugitives 
had  taken.  Luckily  his  speed  was  greater  than  that  of  the  ants,  and  as  soon  as  he 
thought  himself  safe  he  stripped  off  his  clothing.  It  fairly  swarmed  with  ants  who  had 
buried  themselves  in  the  garments,  striking  their  pincers  clear  through  into  the  flesh 
beneath.  They  never  let  go  their  grip  until  they  have  taken  out  the  fle.sh.  Pull  at 
one  till  his  body  is  separated  from  the  head,  and  the  jaws  still  keep  their  hold.  He 
*  Wild  Life  under  tlie  Equator. 


THE   BASHIKOUAY-HOUSE-RUILDING   ANTS. 


WJ 


had  just  resumed  his  garments  when  the  main  army  came  up,  and  he  again  took  to 
flight,  never  stopping  until  he  had  crossed  a  stream  and  taken  refuge  in  a  swamp 
heyond. 

The  Bashikouay  can  not  bear  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and.  hence  they  are  only  found 
in  regions  covered  by  forests.  If  while  on  a  march  they  come  to  an  open  place,  they 
dig  a  tunnel  three  or  four  feet  under  ground,  through  which  they  pass  to  the  jungles 
on  the  opposite  side.  When  they  enter  a  village  the  inhabitants  run  for  t>ieir  lives. 
In  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time  every  hut  is  cleared  of  vermin,  and  the  only  trace 
left  of  the  invaders  is  the  bones  of  rats  and  mice,  and  the  horny  wing-cases  of  insects. 
Nothing  that  breathes  comes  amiss  to  them.  An  antelope  which  had  been  shot  by 
Du  Chaillu  was  picked  to  the  bones  in  a  few  hours.  The  carcass  of  an  elephant 
would  be  cleared  away  as  quickly  as  by  a  kraal  of  natives.  They  sometimes  come 
upon  a  huge  snake,  lying  torpid  and  gorged  with  food.  In  this  case  all  is  soon  over 
with  his  serpentine  majesty.  But  rats,  mice,  roaches,  centipedes,  scorpions,  spiders, 
and  such  small  pests,  are  the  special  prey  of  the  Bashikouay.  A  swarm  of  them  will 
kill  a  rat  in  two  minutes,  and  devour  him  in  about  the  same  space  of  time.  Upon  the 
whole,  they  are  a  blessing  to  the  human  race  in  Western  Africa,  by  keeping  down  the 
vermin,  which  would  otherwise  render  the  whole  country  uninhabitable.  They  will 
not  touch  vegetable  matter.  One  might  almost  suppose  that  the  author  of  the  Book 
of  Revelations  had  the  Bashikouay  in  his  mind  when  he  speaks  of  the  swarms  of  "lo- 
custs "  which  rose  from  the  bottomless  pit  at  the  sounding  of  the  fifth  trumpet,  to 
whom  "  it  was  commanded  that  they  should  not  hurt  the  grass  of  the  earth,  neither 
any  green  thing,  neither  any  tree ; "  but  whose  "  torment  was  as  the  torment  of  a 
scorpion  when  he  striketh  a  man."  Certain  it  is  that  the  description  fits  the  Bashi- 
kouay, while  it  is  altogether  inapplicable  to  the  creature  which  we  call  the  "  locust," 
whose  only  food  is  green  things,  and  who  have  no  tormenting  bite. 

The  wonderful  societies  of  the  ants,  their  strength  and  perseverance,  their  unwearied 
industry,  their  astonishing  intelligence,  are  so  well  known,  and  have  been  so  often  and 
so  admirably  described,  that  it  would  be  trespassing  on  the  patience  of  my  readers 
were  I  to  enter  into  any  lengthened  details  on  the  subject.  And  yet,  the  observations 
of  naturalists  have  chiefly  been  confined  to  the  European  species,  while  the  economy 
of  the  infinitely  more  numerous  tropical  ants,  confined  to  countries  or  places  hardly 
ever  visited,  or  even  unknown  to  civilized  man,  remains  an  inexhaustible  field  for 
future  inquiry. 

The  study  of  their  various  buildings  alone,  from  the  little  we  know  of  them,  would 
occupy  a  zealous  entomologist  for  years.  Here  we  have  an  American  species  that 
forms  its  globular  nest  of  the  size  of  a  large  Dutch  cheese,  of  small  twigs  artistically 
interlaced  ;  here  another,  which  constructs  its  dwelling  of  dried  excrements,  attaching 
it  to  a  thick  branch ;  while  a  third  (Formica  bispinosa)  uses  the  cotton  of  the  Bom- 
baceae  for  its  building  material,  and  through  the  chemical  agency  of  its  pungent  secre- 
tion converts  it  into  a  spongy  substance. 

On  the  west  coast  of  Borneo,  Mr.  Adams  noticed  two  kinds  of  ants'  nests — one 
species  of  the  size  of  a  man's  hand,  adhering  to  the  trunk  of  trees,  resembling,  when 
cut  through,  a  section  of  the  lungs ;  the  other  was  composed  of  small  withered  bits  of 
sticks  and  leaves,  heaped  up  in  the  axils  of  branches,  somewhat  in  the  form  of  flat- 


600  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

tened  cylinders  and  compressed  cones.  A  third  species,  still  more  ingenious,  con- 
structs its  domicile  out  of  a  large  leaf,  bending  the  two  halves  by  the  weight  of  united 
millions  till  the  opposite  margins  meet  at  the  under  surface  of  the  mid-rib,  where  they 
are  secured  by  a  gummy  matter.  The  stores  and  larvfe  are  conveyed  into  the  nest  so 
made  by  regular  beaten  tracks  along  the  trunk  and  branches  of  the  tree. 

On  the  large  plains  near  Lake  Dilolo,  where  water  stands  so  long  annually  as  to 
allow  the  lotus  and  other  aqueous  plants  to  come  to  maturity,  Livingstone  had  occa- 
sion to  admire  the  wonderful  sagacity  of  the  ants,  whom  he  declares  to  be  wiser  than 
some  men,  as  they  learn  by  experience.  When  all  the  ant  horizon  is  submerged  a  foot 
deep,  they  manage  to  exist  by  ascending  to  little  houses,  built  of  black  tenacious  loam, 
on  stalks  of  grass,  and  placed  higher  than  the  line  of  inundation.  This  must  have 
been  the  result  of  experience,  for  if  they  had  waited  till  the  water  actually  invaded 
their  habitations  on  the  ground,  they  would  not  have  been  able  to  procure  materials 
for  their  higher  quarters,  unless  they  dived  down  to  the  bottom  for  every  mouthful  of 
clay.  Some  of  these  upper  chambers  are  about  the  size  of  a  bean,  and  others  as  large 
as  a  man's  thumb. 

Two  species  of  continental  Europe,  the  Formica  ruhescens  and  sanguinea,  are 
remarkable  or  infamous  for  their  slave-making  expeditions.  Unable  or  unwilling  to* 
work  themselves,  they  make  war  upon  others  for  the  sole  purpose  of  procuring  bonds- 
men, who  literally  and  truly  labor  for  them,  and  perform  all  the  daily  domestic  duties 
of  the  community. 

The  Aphides,  or  plant-lice,  eject  a  sweet,  honey-like  fluid,  which  may  be  correctly 
termed  their  milk,  and  which  is  so  grateful  to  the  ants,  that  they  attend  on  the  honey- 
flies  for  the  sole  purpose  of  gathering  it,  and  literally  milk  them  as  we  do  our  cows, 
forcing  them  to  yield  the  fluid,  by  alternately  patting  them  with  their  antennae.  But 
the  most  extraordinary  part  of  these  proceedings  is,  that  the  ants  not  only  consider  the 
Aphides  as  their  property,  -but  actually  appropriate  to  themselves  a  certain  number, 
which  they  enclose  in  a  tube  of  earth  or  other  materials  near  their  nest,  so  that  they 
may  be  always  at  hand  to  supply  the  nourishment  which  they  may  desire.  The  yellow 
ant,  the  most  remarkable  "cow-keeper"  among  our  indigenous  species,  pays  great 
attention  to  its  herds,  plentifully  supplying  them  with  proper  food,  and  tending  their 
young  with  the  same  tenderness  which  it  exhibits  towards  its  own.  With  the  same 
provident  care  a  large  black  ant  of  India  constructs  its  nest  at  the  root  of  the  plant 
upon  which  its  favorite  species  of  aphis  resides.  The  ants  of  tropical  America,  where 
no  Aphides  are  found,  derive  their  honey  from  another  family  of  insects,  the  numerous 
and  grotesquely-formed  Membracidse,  which  are  most  abundant  in  the  regions  of  Bra- 
zil. According  to  Mr  Swainson,  many  of  these  little  Membracidas  live  in  families  of 
twenty  or  thirty,  all  clustered  together  on  the  panicles  of  grasses,  and  on  the  tops  of 
other  plants,  like  the  European  plant-lice.  These  are  regularly  visited  by  parties  of 
a  little  black  ant,  which  may  be  seen  going  and  coming  to  their  heads,  and  attending 
them  with  the  same  care  which  the  European  ants  bestow  on  the  Aphides.  To  render 
the  similarity  with  cattle  still  more  complete,  the  Membracidae  possess  horns  growing 
out  of  their  heads,  or  are  otherwise  armed,  while  their  large  abrupt  heads  remind  the 
entomologist  of  the  bull  or  cow.  The  Mexican  honey  ants  {Myrmecocystus  Mexica- 
nus)  are,  if  possible,  still  more  remarkable,  for  here  we  see  an  animal  rearing  others 
of  the  same  species  for  the  purpose  of  food.     Some  of  these  ants  are  mainly  distin- 


SLAVE-HOLDING  ANTS-TERMITES.  601 

guished  by  an  enormous  swelling  of  the  abdomen,  which  is  converted  into  a  mass  like 
honey,  and  being  unable,  in  their  unwieldy  condition,  to  seek  food  themselves,  are  fed 
by  the  laborers,  until  they  are  doomed  to  die  for  the  benefit  of  the  community.  Whether 
this  vast  distension  is  the  result  of  an  intestinal  rupture,  caused  by  an  excessive  in- 
dulgence of  the  appetite,  or  whether  they  are  purposely  selected,  confined,  and  over- 
fed, or  wounded  for  the  purpose,  has  not  yet  been  ascertained. 

The  Termites,  or  white  ants,  as  they  are  commonly  called,  though  they  in  reality 
belong  to  a  totally  diflferent  order  of  insects,  are  spread  in  countless  numbers  over  all 
the  warmer  regions  of  the  earth,  emulating  on  the  dry  land  the  bore-worm  in  the  sea; 
for  when  they  have  once  penetrated  into  a  building,  no  timber  except  ebony  and  iron- 
wood,  which  are  too  hard,  or  such  as  is  strongly  impregnated  with  camphor  and 
aromatic  oils,  which  they  dislike,  is  capable  of  resisting  their  attacks.  Their  favorite 
food  is  wood,  and  so  great  are  their  multitudes,  so  admirable  their  tools,  that  in  a  few 
days  they  devour  the  timber  work  of  a  spacious  apartment.  Outwardly,  the  beams 
and  rafters  may  seem  untouched,  while  their  core  is  completely  consumed,  for  these 
destructive  miners  work  in  the  dark,  and  seldom  attack  the  outside  until  they  have 
previously  concealed  themselves  and  their  operations  by  a  coat  of  clay.  Scarcely  any 
organic  substance  remains  free  from  their  attacks ;  and  forcing  their  resistless  way  into 
trunks,  chests,  and  wardrobes,  they  will  often  devour  in  one  night  all  the  shoes,  boots, 
clothes,  and  papers  they  may  contain.  It  is  principally  owing  to  their  destructions, 
says  Humboldt,  that  it  is  so  rare  to  find  papers  in  tropical  America  of  an  older  date 
than  fifty  or  sixty  years.  Smeathman  relates  that  a  party  of  them  once  took  a  fancy 
to  a  pipe  of  fine  old  Madeira,  not  for  the  sake  of  the  wine,  almost  the  whole  of  which 
they  let  out,  but  of  the  staves,  which,  however,  may  not  have  proved  less  tasteful 
from  having  imbibed  some  of  the  costly  liquor.  On  surveying  a  room  wliich  had  been 
locked  up  during  an  absence  of  a  few  weeks,  Forbes  observed  a  number  of  advanced 
works  in  various  directions  towards  some  prints  and  drawings  in  English  frames ;  the 
glasses  appeared  to  be  uncommonly  dull,  and  the  frames  covered  with  dust.  On 
attempting  to  wipe  it  off,  he  was  astonished  to  find  the  glasses  fixed  to  the  wall,  not 
suspended  in  frames  as  he  left  them,  but  completely  surrounded  by  an  incrustation 
cemented  by  the  white  ants,  who  had  actually  eaten  up  the  deal  frames  and  back- 
boards and  the  greater  part  of  the  paper,  and  left  the  glasses  upheld  by  the  incrusta- 
tion or  covered  way  which  they  had  formed  during  their  depredations. 

On  the  small  island  of  Goree,  near  Cape  Verde,  the  famous  naturalist,  Adanson, 
lived  in  a  straw  hut,  which,  though  quite  new  at  the  time  he  took  up  his  residence  in 
it,  became  transparent  in  many  places  before  the  month  was  out.  This  might  have 
been  endured,  but  the  vilfeinous  termites  ravaged  his  trunk,  destroyed  his  books, 
penetrated  into  his  bed,  and  at  last  attacked  the  naturalist  himself.  Neither  sweet 
nor  salt  water,  neither  vinegar  nor  corrosive  liquids,  were  able  to  drive  them  away, 
and  so  Adanson  thought  it  best  to  abandon  the  premises,  and  to  look  out  for  another 
lodging. 

One  night,  in  Brazil,  Von  Martins  was  awakened  by  a  disagreeable  feeling  of  cold 
across  his  body.  Groping  in  the  dark,  he  found  a  cool  greasy  mass  crawling  right 
over  the  bed,  and  on  a  light  being  brought,  saw  to  his  astonishment  that  his  rest  had 
been  disturbed  by  an  innumerable  host  of  white  ants.     The  room  having  been  unin- 


602  THE   TROPICAL  WORLD. 

habited  for  some  time,  they  had  formed  a  clay  nest  in  one  of  the  corners,  communi- 
catino-  with  similar  constructions  under  the  roof,  and  the  whole  colony  was  now  busy 
miorating.  They  formed  a  column  about  a  foot  and  a  half  broad,  and  their  multi- 
tudes poured  along  in  one  continuous  stream,  regardless  of  the  fate  of  thousands  of 
their  companions,  whom  the  naturalist  scalded  to  death  with  boiling  water.  Their 
march  ceased  only  with  the  dawn  of  day,  and  several  baskets  were  filled  with  the 
bodies  of  the  slain. 

But  if  the  greedy  termite  destroys  like  the  bore-worm  many  a  useful  work  of  man, 
its  ravages  are  perhaps  more  than  compensated  by  its  services  in  removing  decayed 
vegetable  substances  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  thus  contributing  to  the  purity  of 
the  air  and  the  beauty  of  the  landscape.  If  the  forests  of  the  tropical  world,  where 
thousands  of  gigantic  trees  succumb  to  the  slow  ravages  of  time,  or  are  suddenly  pros- 
trated by  lightning  or  the  hurricane,  still  appear  in  all  the  verdure  of  perpetual  youth, 
it  is  chiefly  to  the  unremitting  labors  of  the  termites  that  they  are  indebted  for  their 
freshness. 

Though  belonging  to  a  different  order  of  the  insect  world,  the  economy  of  the 
termites  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  real  ants.  They  also  form  communities,  divided 
into  distinct  orders — laborers  (larvce),  soldiers  (neuters),  perfect  insects;  and  they 
also  erect  buildings,  but  of  a  far  more  astonishing  structure.  Several  of  their  species 
erect  high,  dome-like  edifices,  rising  from  the  plain,  so  that  at  first  sight  they  might  be 
mistaken  for  the  hamlets  of  the  negroes ;  others  build  on  trees,  often  at  a  considerable 
hight  above  the  ground.  These  sylvan  abodes  are  frequently  the  size  of  a  hogshead, 
and  are  more  generally  found  in  the  new  world. 

The  clay-built  citadels  or  domes  of  the  Termes  bellicosus,  a  common  species  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  attain  a  hight  of  twelve  feet,  and  are  constructed  with  such 
strength  that  the  traveler  often  ascends  them  to  have  an  uninterrupted  view  of  the 
grassy  plain  around.  Only  the  under  part  of  the  mound  is  inhabited  by  the  termites, 
the  upper  portion  serving  principally  as  a  defence  from  the  weather,  and  to  keep  up 
in  the  lower  part  the  warmth  and  moisture  necessary  to  the  hatching  of  the  eggs  and 
cherishing  of  the  young  ones.  In  the  center,  and  almost  on  a  level  with  the  ground, 
is  placed  the  sanctuary  of  the  whole  community — the  large  cell,  where  the  queen 
resides  with  her  consort,  and  which  she  is  doomed  never  to  quit  again,  after  having 
been  once  enclosed  in  it,  since  the  portals  soon  prove  too  narrow  for  her  rapidly 
increasing  bulk.  Encircling  the  regal  apartment  extends  a  labyrinth  of  countless 
chambers,  in  which  a  numerous  army  of  attendants  and  soldiers  is  constantly  in  wait- 
ing. The  space  between  these  chambers  and  the  external  wall  of  the  citadel  is  filled 
with  other  cells,  partly  destined  for  the  eggs  and  young  larvae,  partly  for  storerooms. 
The  subterranean  passages  which  lead  from  the  mound  are  hardly  less  remarkable  than 
the  building  itself  Perfectly  cylindrical,  and  lined  with  a  cement  of  clay,  similar  to 
that  of  which  the  hill  is  formed,  they  sometimes  measure  a  foot  in  diameter.  They 
run  in  a  sloping  direction,  under  the  bottom  of  the  hill,  to  a  depth  of  three  or  four 
feet,  and  then  ramifying  horizontally  into  numerous  branches,  ultimately  rise  near  to 
the  surface  at  a  considerable  distance.  At  their  entrance  into  the  interior  of  the  hill, 
they  are  connected  with  a  great  number  of  smaller  galleries,  which  ascend  the  inside 
of  the  outer  shell  in  a  spiral  manner,  and  winding  round  the  whole  building  to  the 
top,  intersect  each  other  at  different  bights,  opening  either  immediately  into  the  dome 


THE   TERMITES   AT   HOME.  603 

in  various  places,  and  into  the  lower  half  of  the  building,  or  communicating  with  every 
part  of  it  by  other  smaller  circular  passages.  The  necessity  for  the  vasr  size  of  the 
main  galleries  underground,  evidently  arises  from  the  circumstance  of  their  being  the 
great  thoroughfere  for  the  inhabitants,  by  which  they  fetch  their  clay,  wood,  wat  °r,  or 
provisions,  and  their  gradual  ascent  is  requisite,  as  the  termites  can  only  with  great 
difficulty  climb  perpendicularly. 


It  may  be  imagined  that  such  works  require  an  enormous  population  for  their  con- 
struction ;  and,  indeed,  the  manner  in  which  an  infant  colony  of  termites  is  formed 
and  grows,  until  becoming,  in  its  turn,  the  parent  of  new  migrations,  is  not  the  least 
wonderful  part  of  this  wonderful  insect's  history.     At  the  end  of  the  dry  season,  as 


604  THE  TROPICAL  WORLD. 

soon  as  the  first  rains  have  fallen,  the  male  and  female  perfect  termites,  each  about  the 
size  of  two  soldiers,  or  thirty  laborers,  and  furnished  with  four  long,  narrow  wings, 
folded  on  each  other,  emerge  from  their  retreats  in  myriads.  After  a  few  hours  their 
fragile  wings  fall  off,  and  on  the  following  morning  they  are  discovered  covering  the 
surface  of  the  earth  and  waters,  where  their  enemies — birds,  reptiles,  ants — cause  so 
sweeping  a  havoc  that  scarce  one  pair  out  of  many  thousands  escapes  destruction. 
If  by  chance  the  laborers,  who  are  always  busy  prolonging  their  galleries,  happen  to 
meet  with  one  of  these  fortunate  couples,  they  immediately,  impelled  by  their  instinct, 
elect  them  sovereigns  of  a  new  community,  and,  conveying  them  to  a  place  of  safety, 
begin  to  build  them  a  small  chamber  of  clay,  their  palace  and  their  prison — for  beyond 
its  walls  they  never  again  emerge.  Soon  after  the  male  dies,  but,  far  from  pining 
and  wasting  over  the  loss  of  her  consort,  the  female  increases  so  wonderfully  in  bulij 
that  she  ultimately  weighs  as  much  as  30,000  laborers,  and  attains  a  length  of  three 
inches,  with  a  proportional  width.  This  increase  of  size  naturally  requires  a  cor- 
responding enlargement  of  the  cell,  which  is  constantly  widened  by  the  indefatigable 
workers.'  Having  reached  her  full  size,  the  queen  now  begins  to  lay  her  eggs,  and  as 
their  extrusion  goes  on  uninterruptedly,  night  and  day,  at  the  rate  of  fifty  or  sixty  in 
a  minute,  for  about  two  years,  their  total  number  may  probably  amount  to  more  than 
fifty  millions.  This  incessant  extrusion  of  eggs  necessarily  calls  for  the  attention  of  a 
large  number  of  the  workers  in  the  royal  chamber,  to  take  them  as  they  come  forth, 
and  carry  them  to  the  nurseries,  in  which,  when  hatched,  they  are  provided  with  food, 
and  carefully  attended  till  they  are  able  to  shift  for  themselves,  and  become  in  their 
turn  useful  to  the  community. 

In  widening  their  buildings  according  to  the  necessities  of  their  growing  population, 
from  the  size  of  small  sugar-loaves  to  that  of  domes  which  might  be  mistaken  for  the 
hovels  of  Indians  or  negroes,  as  well  as  in  repairing  their  damages,  the  termite  workers 
display  an  unceasing  and  wonderful  activity ;  while  the  soldiers,  or  neuters,  which  are 
in  the  proportion  of  about  one  to  every  hundred  laborers,  and  are  at  once  distinguished 
by  the  enormous  size  of  their  heads,  armed  with  long  and  sharp  jaws,  are  no  less  re- 
markable for  their  courage  and  energy.  When  any  one  is  bold  enough  to  attack 
their  nest  and  make  a  breach  in  its  walls,  the  laborers,  who  are  incapable  of  fight- 
ing, immediately  retire,  upon  which  a  soldier  makes  his  appearance,  obviously  for 
the  purpose  of  reconnoitering,  and  then  also  withdraws  to  give  the  alarm.  Two  or 
three  others  next  appear,  scrambling  as  fast  as  they  can  one  after  the  other ;  to  these 
succeed  a  large  body,  who  rush  forth  with  as  much  speed  as  the  breach  will  permit,  . 
their  numbers  continually  increasing  during  the  attack.  These  little  heroes  present 
an  astonishing,  and  at  the  same  time  a  most  amusing  spectacle.  In  their  haste  they 
frequently  miss  their  hold,  and  tumble  down  the  sides  of  their  hill ;  they  soon,  how- 
ever, recover  themselves,  and  being  blind,  bite  everything  they  run  against.  If  the 
attack  proceeds,  the  bustle  increases  to  a  tenfold  degree,  and  their  fury  is  raised  to  its 
highest  pitch.  Woe  to  him  whose  hands  or  legs  come  within  their  reach,  for  they  will 
make  their  fanged  jaws  meet  at  the  very  first  stroke,  drawing  their  own  weight  in 
blood,  and  never  quitting  their  hold,  even  though  they  are  pulled  limb  from  limb.  The 
courage  of  the  bull-dog  is  as  nothing  compared  to  the  fierce  obstinacy  of  the  termite- 
soldier.  So  soon  as  the  injury  has  ceased,  and  no  further  interruption  is  given,  the 
soldiers  retire,  and  then  you  will  see  the  laborers  hastening  in  various  directions  towards 


WARS   OF   THE   TERMITES— THEIR   ENEMIES.  605 

the  breach,  each  carrying  in  his  mouth  a  load  of  tempered  mortar  half  as  big  as  him- 
self, which  he  lays  on  the  edge  of  the  orifice,  and  immediately  hastens  back  for  more. 
Not  the  space  of  the  tenth  part  of  an  inch  is  left  without  laborers  working  upon  it  at 
the  same  moment ;  crowds  are  constantly  hurrying  to  and  fro  ;  yet,  amid  all  this  activ- 
ity, the  greatest  order  reigns — no  one  impedes  the  other,  but  each  seems  to  thread  the 
mazes  of  the  multitude  without  trouble  or  inconvenience.  By  the.  united  labors  of 
such  an  infinite  host  the  ruined  wall  soon  rises  again ;  and  Mr.  Smeathman  has  ascer- 
tained that  in  a  single  night  they  will  restore  a  gallery  of  three  or  four  yards  in  length. 

In  numbers  and  architectural  industry  the  American  Termites  are  not  inferior  to 
those  of  the  old  world.  In  the  savannas  of  Guiana  their  sugar-loaf  or  mushroom- 
shaped,  pyramidal  or  columnar  hills  are  everywhere  to  be  seen,  impenetrable  to  the 
rain,  and  strong  enough  to  resist  even  a  tropical  tornado.  In  many  parts  of  the  Bra- 
zilian campos  or  savannas  the  termite-hills,  which  are  there  generally  of  a  more  flat- 
tened form,  are  so  numerous  that  one  is  almost  sure  to  meet  with  one  of  them  at  the 
distance  of  every  ten  or  twenty  paces.  The  great  ant  bear  digs  deep  holes  into  their 
sides,  where  afterwards  small  owls  build  their  nests.  Similar  termite  structures,  of  a 
dark -brown  color,  and  a  round  form,  are  attached  to  the  thick  branches  of  the  trees, 
and  you  will  scarcely  meet  with  a  single  specimen  of  the  tall  candelabra-formed  cac- 
tuses ( Cerei),  so  common  on  those  high  grass-plains,  that  is  not  loaded  with  their 
weight. 

In  spite  of  their  working  in  the  dark,  in  spite  of  their  subterranean  tunnels,  their 
strongholds,  and  the  fecundity  of  their  queens,  the  termites,  even  when  their  swarms 
do  not  expose  themselves  to  the  dangers  already  mentioned,  are  subject  to  the  attacks 
of  innumerable  foes.  One  of  their  most  ferocious  enemies  is  a  species  of  black  ant, 
which,  on  the  principle  of  setting  one  thief  to  catch  another,  is  used  by  the  negroes 
of  Mauritius  for  their  destruction.  When  they  perceive  that  the  covered  ways  of  the 
termites  are  approaching  a  building,  they  drop  a  train  of  syrup  as  far  as  the  nearest 
encampment  of  the  hostile  army.  Some  of  the  black  ants,  attracted  by  the  smell  and 
taste  of  their  favorite  food,  follow  its  traces  and  soon  find  out  the  termite  habitations. 
Immediately  part  of  them  return  to  announce  the  welcome  intelligence,  and  after  a  few 
hours  a  black  army,  in  endless  columns,  is  seen  to  advance  against  the  white-ant  strong- 
hold. With  irresistible  fury  (for  the  poor  termites  are  no  match  for  their  poisonous 
sting  and  mighty  mandibles),  they  rush  into  the  galleries,  and  only  retreat  after  the 
extirpation  of  the  colony.  Mr.  Baxter  once  saw  an  army  of  black  ants  returning 
from  one  of  these  expeditions.  Each  little  warrior  bore  a  slaughtered  termite  in  his 
mandibles,  rejoicing  no  doubt  in  the  prospect  of  a  comfortable  meal,  or  a  quiet  dinner- 
party at  home.  Even  man  is  a  great  consumer  of  termites,  and  they  are  esteemed  a 
delicacy  by  negroes  and  Indians,  both  in  the  old  and  in  the  new  world. 

In  some  parts  of  the  East  Indies  the  natives  have  an  ingenious  way  of  emptying 
a  termite  hill,  by  making  two  holes  in  it,  one  to  the  windward  and  the  other  to  the 
leeward,  placing  at  the  latter  opening  a  pot  rubbed  with  an  aromatic  herb  to  receive 
the  insects,  when  driven  out  of  their  nest  by  a  fire  of  stinking  materials  made  at  the 
former  breach.  Thus  they  catch  great  quantities,  of  which  they  make,  with  flour,  a 
variety  of  pastry.  In  South  Africa  the  general  way  of  catching  them  is  to  dig  into 
the  ant-hill,  and  when  the  builders  come  forth  to  repair  the  damage,  to  brush  them  oft' 
quickly  into  the  vessel,  as  the  ant-eater  does  into  his  mouth.     They  are  then  parched 


606  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

ia  iron  pots  over  a  gentle  fire,  stirring  them  about  as  is  done  in  roasting  cofiee,  and 
eaten  by  handfuls,  without  sauce  or  any  other  addition,  as  we  do  comfits.  According 
to  Smeathman,  they  resemble  in  taste  sugared  cream,  or  sweet  almond  paste,  and  are, 
at  the  same  time,  so  nutritious,  that  the  Hindoos  use  them  as  a  restorative  for  debil- 
itated patients. 

While  most  termites  live  and  work  entirely  under  covered  galleries,  the  Marching 
Termite  {T.  viarum)  exposes  itself  to  the  day.  Mr.  Smeathman  on  one  occasion, 
while  passing  through  a  dense  forest,  suddenly  heard  a  loud  hiss  like  that  of  a  ser- 
pent ;  another  followed,  and  struck  him  with  alarm ;  but  a  moment's  reflection  led 
him  to  conclude  that  these  sounds  proceeded  from  white  ants,  although  he  could  not 
see  any  of  their  huts  around.  On  following  this  noise,  however,  he  was  struck  with 
surprise  and  pleasure  at  perceiving  an  army  of  these  creatures  emerging  from  a  hole 
in  the  ground,  and  marching  with  the  utmost  swiftness.  Having  proceeded  about  a 
yard,  this  immense  host  divided  into  two  columns,  chiefly  composed  of  laborers,  about 
fifteen  abreast,  following  each  other  in  close  order,  and  going  straight  forward.  Here 
and  there  was  seen  a  soldier,  at  a  distance  of  a  foot  or  two  from  the  columns  ;  many 
other  soldiers  were  to  be  seen,  standiflg  still  or  passing  about,  as  if  upon  the  look-out 
lest  some  enemy  should  suddenly  surprise  their  unwarlike  comrades.  But  the  most 
extraordinary  and  amusing  part  of  the  scene  was  exhibited  by  some  other  soldiers,  who 
having  mounted  some  plants,  ten  or  fifteen  inches  from  the  ground,  hung  over  the 
army  marching  below,  and  by  striking  their  jaws  upon  the  leaves  at  certain  intervals, 
produced  the  noise  above  mentioned ;  to  this  signal  the  whole  army  immediately  re- 
turned a  hiss,  and  increased  their  pace.  The  soldiers  at  these  signal-stations  sat  quite 
still  during  these  intervals  of  silence,  except  now  and  then  making  a  slight  turn  of 
the  head,  and  seemed  as  solicitous  to  keep  their  posts  as  regular  sentinels.  After 
marching  separately  for  twelve  or  fifteen  paces,  the  two  columns  of  this  army  again 
united,  and  then  descended  into  the  earth  by  two  or  three  holes.  Mr.  Smeathman 
watched  them  for  more  than  an  hour,  without  perceiving  any  increase  or  diminution  of 
their  numbers. 

Here,  although  quite  out  of  place  in  a  scientific  point  of  view,  we  may  introduce  a 
few  paragraphs  respecting  a  class  of  animals  known  as  Ant-eaters,  and  the  modes  in 
which  they  manage  to  secure  their  prey. 

The  great  Ant-bear  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  denizens  of  the 
wilds  of  South  America ;  for  that  a  powerful  animal,  measuring  above  six  feet  from 
the  snout  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  should  live  exclusively  on  ants,  seems  scarcely  less 
remarkable  than  that  the  whale  nourishes  his  enormous  body  with  minute  pteropods 
and  medusae. 

The  vast  mouth  of  the  leviathan  of  the  seas  has  been  most  admirably  adapted  to  his 
peculiar  food,  and  it  was  not  in  vain  that  Nature  gave  such  colossal  dimensions  to  his 
head,  as  it  was  necessary  to  find  room  for  a  gigantic  straining  apparatus,  in  which,  on 
rejecting  the  engulphed  water,  thousands  upon  thousands  of  his  tiny  prey  might 
remain  entangled ;  but  the  ant-bear  has  been  no  less  wonderfully  armed  for  the  cap- 
ture of  the  minute  animals  on  which  he  feeds;  and  if,  on  considering  the  use  for 
which  it  was  ordained,  we  become  reconciled  to  the  seeming  disproportion  of  the 
whale's  jaws,  the  small  and  elongated  snout-like  head  of  the  ant-bear  will  also  appear 


THE  ANT-BEAR.  607 

less  uncouthly  formed  when  we  reflect  that  it  is  in  exact  accordance  with  the  wants  of 
the  animal.  For  here  no  deep  cavity  was  required  for  the  reception  of  two  rows 
of  powerful  teeth,  as  in  most  other  quadrupeds,  but  a  convenient  furrow  for  a  long 
and  extensile  tongue — the  use  of  which  will  immediately  become  apparent  on  follow- 
ing the  animal  into  the  Brazilian  campos,  where  the  wonderful  cities  of  the  white  ant 
are  dispersed  over  the  plains  in  such  incalculable  numbers.  Approaching  one  of  these 
structures,  the  ant-bear  strikes  a  hole  through  its  wall  of  clay  with  his  powerful 
crooked  claws,  and  as  the  ants  issue  forth  by  thousands  to  resent  the  insult,  stretches 
out  his  tongue  for  their  reception.  Their  furious  legions,  eager  for  revenge,  imme- 
diately rush  upon  it,  and,  vainly  endeavoring  to  pierce  its  thick  skin  with  their 
mandibles,  remain  sticking  in  the  glutinous  liquid  with  which  it  is  lubricated  from  two 
very  large  glands  situated  below  its  root.  When  sufficiently  charged  with  prey,  the 
ant-bear  suddenly  withdraws  his  tongue  and  swallows  all  the  insects. 

Without  swiftness  to  enable  him  to  escape  from  his  enemies,  for  man  is  superior  to 
him  in  speed ;  without  teeth,  the  possession  of  which  would  assist  him  in  self-defence  • 
without  the  power  of  burrowing  in  the  ground,  by  which  he  might  conceal  himself 
from  his  pursuers ;  without  a  cave  to  retire  to,  the  ant-bear  still  ranges  throuf^h  the 
wilderness  in  perfect  safety,  and  fears  neither  the  boa  nor  the  jaguar,  for  he  has  full 
reliance  on  his  powerful  fore-legs  and  their  tremendous  claws.  Schomburgk  had  an 
opportunity  of  witnessing  a  young  ant-bear  make  use  of  these  formidable  weapons. 
On  the  enemy's  approach  it  assumed  the  defensive,  but  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make 
the  boldest  aggressor  pause ;  for,  resting  on  its  left  fore-foot,  it  struck  out  so  desper- 
ately with  its  right  paw  as  would  undoubtedly  have  torn  off  the  flesh  of  any  one  that 
came  in  contact  with  its  claws.  Attacked  from  behind,  it  turned  round  with  the 
rapidity  of  lightning,  and  on  being  assailed  from  several  quarters  at  once,  threw  itself 
on  its  back,  and,  desperately  fighting  with  both  its  fore-legs,  uttered  at  the  same  time 
an  angry  growl  of  defiance.  In  fact,  the  ant-bear  is  so  formidable  an  opponent  that 
he  is  said  not  unfrequently  to  vanquish  even  the  jaguar,  the  lord  of  the  American 
forests,  for  the  latter  is  often  found  swimming  in  his  blood,  with  ripped  up  bowels,  a 
wound  which,  of  all  the  beasts  of  the  wilderness,  the  claws  of  the  ant-bear  are  alone 
able  to  inflict.  On  seizing  an  animal  with  these  powerful  weapons,  he  hugs  it  close 
to  his  body,  and  keeps  it  there  till  it  dies  through  pressure  or  hunger.  Nor  does  the 
ant-bear,  in  the  meantime,  suffer  much  from  want  of  aliment,  as  it  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  he  can  remain  longer  without  food  than  perhaps  any  other  quadruped,  so 
that  there  is  very  little  chance  indeed  of  a  weaker  animal's  escaping  from  his  clutches. 

Peaceable  and  harmless,  the  ant-bear  when  unprovoked  never  thinks  of  attacking 
any  other  creature ;  and  as  his  interests  and  pursuits  do  not  interfere  with  those  of  the 
more  formidable  denizens  of  the  wilderness,  he  would,  without  doubt,  attain  a  good 
old  age,  and  be  allowed  to  die  in  peace,  if,  unfortunately  for  him,  his  delicate  flesh 
did  not  provoke  the  attacks  of  the  large  carnivora  and  man.  To  be  sure,  the  Indinn 
fears  his  claws,  and  never  ventures  to  approach  the  wounded  ant-bear  until  he  has 
breathed  his  last;  nor  can  he  be  hunted  with  dogs,  as  his  skin  is  of  a  texture  that 
perfectly  resists  a  bite,  and  his  hinder  parts  are  effectually  protected  by  thick  and 
shaggy  hair;  yet,  armed  with  the  dreadful  wourali  poison,  the  Indian  knows  how  to 
paralyze  in  a  few  minutes  his  muscular  powers,  and  to  stretch  him  dead  upon  the 
earth.     A  perfect  forest  vagabond,  the  ant-bear  has  no  den  to  retire  to,  nor  any  fixed 


608  THE   TROPICAL  WORLD. 

abode  ;  his  immense  tail  is  large  enough  to  cover  his  whole  body,  and  serves  him  as  a 
tent  during  the  night,  or  as  a  waterproof  mantle  against  the  rains  of  the  wet  season,  so 
that  he  might  boast,  like  Diogenes,  of  carrying  all  he  required  about  him. 

The  peculiar  position  of  his  paws,  when  he  walks  or  stands,  is  worthy  of  notice. 
He  goes  entirely  on  the  outer  side  of  his  fore-feet,  which  are  quite  bent  inwards,  the 
claws  collected  into  a  point  and  going  under  the  foot.  In  this  position  he  is  quite  at 
ease,  while  his  long  claws  are  disposed  of  in  a  manner  to  render  them  harmless  to  him, 
and  are  prevented  from  becoming  dull  and  worn,  which  would  inevitably  be  the  case 
did  their  points  come  in  actual  contact  with  the  ground,  for  they  have  not  that  retrac- 
tile power  which  is  given  to  animals  of  the  feline  race,  enabling  them  to  preserve  the 
sharpness  of  their  claws  on  the  most  flinty  path.  In  consequence  of  its  resting  perpet- 
ually on  the  ground,  the  whole  outer  side  of  the  foot  is  not  only  deprived  of  hair,  but 
hard  and  callous,  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  inner  side  of  the  bottom  of  the  foot  is 
soft  and  hairy. 

Besides  the  great  ant-bear,  there  are  two  other  species  of  American  ant-eaters,  one 
nearly  the  size  of  a  fox,  and  the  smallest  not  much  larger  than  a  rat.  Being  provided 
with  prehensile  tails,  they  are  essentially  arboreal,  while  the  great  ant-bear,  incapable 
of  climbing,  always  remains  on  the  ground,  where,  thanks  to  the  abundance  of  his 
prey,  he  is  always  sure  of  obtaining  a  sufficient  supply  of  food  with  very  little  trouble. 
The  Manides,  Pangolins,  or  scaly  Ant-eaters  of  South  Africa  and  Asia,  resemble 
their  kindred  of  America  in  having  a  very  long  extensile  tongue,  furnished  with  a 
glutinous  mucus  for  securing  their  insect  food,  and  in  being  destitute  of  teeth,  but 
differ  wholly  from  them  in  having  the  body,  limbs,  and  tail  covered  with  a  panoply  of 
large  imbricated  scales,  overlapping  each  other  like  those  of  the  lizard  tribes,  and  also 
in  being  able  to  roll  themselves  up  when  in  danger,  by  which  their  trenchant  scales 
become  erect,  and  present  a  formidable  defensive  armor,  so  that  even  the  tiger  would 
vainly  attempt  to  overcome  the  Indian  pangolin.  The  manides  are  inoffensive  animals, 
living  wholly  on  ants  and  termites,  and  chiefly  inhabit  the  most  obscure  parts  of  the 
forest,  burrowing  in  the  ground  to  a  great  depth,  for  which  purpose,  as  also  for  ex- 
tracting their  food  from  ant  hills  and  decaying  wood,  their  feet  are  armed  with  power- 
ful claws,  which  they  double  up  in  walking,  like  the  ant-bear  of  Brazil. 

Besides  several  species  of  manides,  Africa  possesses  a  peculiar  class  of  ant-eaters  in 
the  Orycteropi,  which  are  found  from  the  Cape  to  Senegambia  and  Abyssinia,  all  over 
the  sultry  plains  where  their  food  abounds.  Their  legs  are  short,  and  provided  with 
claws  fit  for  burrowing  in  the  earth,  which  they  can  do  with  great  rapidity ;  and  when 
once  the  head  and  fore-feet  have  penetrated  into  the  ground,  their  hold  is  so  tenacious 
that  even  the  strongest  man  is  incapable  of  dragging  them  from  their  hole. 

The  Orycteropi,  or  earth-hogs  (Aard-varks)  as  they  are  called  by  the  boors,  from 
their  habit  of  burrowing  and  their  fancied  resemblance  to  small  short-legged  pigs,  have 
an  elongated  head,  though  less  tapering  than  that  of  the  American  myrmecophagi, 
and  are  provided  with  peculiarly  formed  teeth,  with  a  flat  crown  and  undivided  root, 
which  is  pierced  with  a  multitude  of  little  holes,  like  those  of  a  ratan-cane  when  cut 
transversely,  while  the  ant-bears  have  no  teeth  at  all.  Their  way  of  feeding  is  the 
same,  and  to  enable  them  to  retain  their  nimble-footed  prey,  their  tongue  is  likewise 
lubricated  with  a  glutinous  liquid.  Their  flesh  is  considered  very  wholesome  and  pal- 
atable, and  at  the  Cape  they  are  frequently  hunted  both  by  the  colonists  and  the  Hot- 


THE   AARD-VARK— THE   ARMADILLO.  609 

tentots.  •  There  are  several  species,  all  very  much  resembling  each  other  :  their  stout 
body  measures  about  five  feet  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  the 
latter  being  nearly  half  the  length  of  the  body. 


THE    AARD-VAEK. 


The  American  Armadillos  have  many  points  in  common  with  the  myrmecophagi, 
manide?,  and  orycteropi.  They  have  neither  fore  nor  canine  teeth,  but  a  number  of 
conical  grinders,  and  are  distinguished  by  having  the  upper  part  of  their  bodies  de- 
fended by  a  complete  suit  of  armor,  divided  into  joints  or  bands,  folding  one  over  the 
other  like  the  parts  of  a  lobster's  tail,  so  as  to  accommodate  themselves  to  all  the  mo- 
tions of  the  animal.  In  life  this  shell  is  very  limber,  so  that  the  armadillo  is  able  to 
go  at  full  stretch,  or  to  roll  himself  up  into  a  ball  as  occasion  may  require.  Th^o 
animals  are  very  common  both  in  the  forests  and  in  the  open  plains  of  South  America, 
where  they  burrow  in  the  sand-holes  like  rabbits.  The  armadillo  is  seldom  seen 
abroad  during  the  day,  and  when  surprised  he  is  sure  to  be  near  the  mouth  of  his  hole; 
but  after  sunset  he  sallies  forth  in  search  of  roots,  grain,  worms,  insects,  and  other 
small  animals,  and  when  disturbed,  coils  himself  up  in  his  invulnerable  armor  like  the 
hedge-hog,  or  squats  close  to  the  ground,  or,  if  he  has  time  enough,  escapes  by  digging 
into  the  earth,  a  work  which  he  performs  with  masterly  dexterity.  "  As  it  often  takes 
a  considerable  time  to  dig  him  out  of  his  hole,"  says  Mr.  Waterton,  "  it  would  be  a 
long  and  laborious  business  to  attack  each  hole  indiscriminately,  without  knowing 
39 


610  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

whether  the  animal  were  there  or  not.  To  prevent  disappointment,  the  Indians  care- 
fully examine  the  mouth  of  the  hole,  and  put  a  short  stick  down  it.  Now  if,  on  intro- 
ducing the  stick,  a  number  of  mosquitos  come  out,  the  Indians  know  to  a  certainj;y 
that  the  armadillo  is  in  it ;  whenever  there  are  no  mosquitos  in  the  hole,  there  is  no 
armadillo.  The  Indian  having  satisfied  himself  that  the  armadillo  is  there  by  the  mos- 
quitos which  come  out,  he  immediately  cuts  a  long  and  slender  stick,  and  introduces 
it  into  the  hole ;  he  carefully  observes  the  line  the  stick  takes,  and  then  sinks  a  pit  in 
the  sand  to  catch  the  end  of  it ;  this  done,  he  puts  it  further  into  the  hole,  and  digs 
another  pit,  and  so  on,  till  at  last  he  comes  up  with  the  armadillo,  which  had  been 
making  itself  a  passage  in  the  sand  till  it  had  exhausted  all  its  strength  through  pure 
exertion.  I  have  been  sometimes  three  quarters  of  a  day  in  digging  out  one  arma- 
dillo, and  obliged  to  sink  half  a  dozen  pits,  seven  feet  deep,  before  I  got  up  to  it. 
The  Indians  and  negroes  are  very  fond  of  the  flesh,  but  I  considered  it  strong  and 
rank.  On  laying  hold  of  the  armadillo,  you  must  be  cautious  not  to  come  in  contact 
with  his  feet ;  they  are  armed  with  sharp  claws,  and  with  them  he  will  inflict  a  severe 
wound  in  self-defence ;  when  not  molested,  he  is  very  harmless  and  innocent." 

But  even  the  giant  armadillo  is  a  pigmy  when  compared  to  the  extinct  mail-clad 
animals,  which  at  times  of  unknown  antiquity  peopled  the  plains  of  South  America. 
Mr.  Darwin  saw,  in  the  possession  of  a  clergyman  near  Montevideo,  the  fragment  of 
a  tail  of  one  of  these  monsters  of  the  past,  from  which  he  conjectured  that  it  must 
have  been  from  six  to  ten  feet  long ;  and  the  glyptodon,  of  which  the  British  College 
of  Surgeons  possesses  an  admirable  specimen,  and  which,  like  the  armadillos  of  the 
present  day,  was  covered  with  a  tesselated  bony  armor,  was  equal  in  size  to  the  rhi- 
noceros !  How  formidable  must  have  been  the  enemies  which  made  it  necessary  for 
an  animal  like  this  to  move  about  with  harness  on  its  back  ! 

The  curious  Echidna,  or  Porcupine  Ant-eater  {Echidna  hystrix)  of  Australia  is  a 
striking  instance  of  those  beautiful  gradations  .so  frequently  observed  in  the  animal 
kingdom,  by  which  creatures  of  various  tribes  or  genera  are  blended,  as  it  were,  or 
linked  together,  and  of  the  wonderful  diversity  which  Nature  has  introduced  into  the 
forms  of  creatures  destined  to  a  similar  mode  of  life.  It  has  the  general  appearance 
and  external  coating  of  the  porcupine,  with  the  mouth  and  peculiar  generic  characters 
of  the  ant-eaters.  It  is  about  a  foot  in  length,  and  burrows  with  wonderful  facility  by 
means  of  its  short  muscular  fore-feet  and  its  sharp-pointed  claws.  When  attacked,  it 
rolls  itself  into  a  ball  like  the  hedgehog,  erecting  the  short,  strong,  and  very  sharp 
spines  with  which  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  and  tail  are  thickly  coated.  Australia 
is  likewise  the  native  country  of  another  ant-eating  animal,  the  marsupial  Myrmecohius 
fasciatus.  It  is  formed  like  a  squirrel,  and  is  of  the  size  of  the  rat;  its  brown-red  fur, 
wi*th  six  or  seven  light  yellow  transverse  bands  over  the  back,  gives  it  an  elegant  ap- 
pearance.    It  was  discovered  about  thirty  years  ago  in  the  neighborhood  of  Swan  River. 

Here,  as  connected  with  the  Ant  family  by  their  house-building  character,  and  by 
their  irritating  bite,  we  may  introduce  the  Spiders. 

An  insect,  half  of  whose  body  is  generally  fixed  to  the  other  by  a  mere  thread, 
whose  soft  skin  is  unable  to  resist  the  least  pressure,  and  whose  limbs  are  so  loosely 
attached  to  the  body  as  to  be  torn  ofi"  by  the  slightest  degree  of  force,  would  seem 
utterly  incapable  of  protecting  its  own  life  and  securing  that  of  its  progeny.     Such, 


SPIDERS   AND   THEIR  WEBS.  611 

however,  is  the  physical  condition  of  spiders,  who  would  long  since  have  been  extir- 
pated, if  nature  had  not  provided  them  with  the  power  of  secreting  two  liquids,  the 
one  a  venom  ejected  by  their  mandibles,  the  other  of  a  glutinous  nature,  transuded  by 
papillae  at  the  end  of  their  abdomen.  These  two  liquids  amply  supply  the  want  of 
all  other  weapons  of  attack  or  defence,  and  enable  them  to  hold  their  own  against  a 
host  of  enemies.  With  the  former  they  instantly  paralyze  insects  much  stronger  and 
much  more  formidable  in  appearance  than  themselves ;  while  with  the  latter  they  spin 
those  threads  which  serve  them  in  so  many  ways,  to  weave  their  wonderful  webs,  to 
traverse  the  air,  to  mount  vertically,  to  drop  uninjured,  to  construct  the  hard  cocoons 
intended  to  protect  their  eggs  against  their  numberless  enemies,  or  to  produce  the  soft 
down  which  is  to  preserve  them  from  the  cold. 

Preying  on  other  insect  tribes,  which  they  attack  with  the  ferocity  of  the  tiger,  or 
await  in  their  snares  with  the  patient  artifice  of  the  lynx,  the  spiders  may  naturally  be 
expected  to  be  most  numerous  in  the  torrid  zone,  where  nature  has  provided  them 
with  the  greatest  abundance  of  food.  There  also,  where  so  many  beetles,  flies,  and 
moths  attain  a  size  unknown  in  temperate  regions,  we  find  the  spiders  growing  to  sim- 
ilar gigantic  dimensions,  and  forming  webs  proportioned  to  the  bulk  of  the  victims 
which  they  are  intended  to  ensnare. 

By  means  of  their  monstrous  webs  many  giant-spiders  of  the  tropical  zone  are  en- 
abled to  entangle  not  only  the  largest  butterflies  and  moths,  but  even  small  birds. 
Tremeyer  tells  us  that  there  are  spiders  in  Mexico  which  extend  such  strong  nets 
across  the  pathways,  that  they  strike  ofi"  the  hat  of  the  passer  by ;  and  at  Goree  and 
in  Senegal  several  spiders  spin  threads  so  strong  as  to  be  able  to  bear  a  weight  of  sev- 
eral ounces,  and  which  no  doubt  would  be  made  use  of  for  twine,  if  the  negroes  did 
not  already  possess  vegetable  fibres  in  abundance  fit  for  the  purpose.  In  the  for- 
ests of  Java,  Sir  George  Staunton  saw  spider-webs  of  so  strong  a  texture  that  it  re- 
quired a  sharp  knife  to  cut  one's  way  through  them  ;  and  many  other  similar  examples 
might  be  mentioned.  These  large  spiders  so  temptingly  suspended  in  mid-air  in  the 
forest-glades,  seem  very  much  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  birds,  but  in  many  cases  it 
lias  pleased  nature  to  invest  them  with  large  angular  spines  sticking  out  of  their  bodies 
ill  every  kind  of  fashion.  Some  are  so  protected  by  these  long  prickles  that  their 
bodies  resemble  a  miniature  "  chevaux-de-frise,"  and  could  not  by  any  possibility  be 
swallowed  by  a  bird  without  producing  a  very  unpleasant  sensation  in  his  throat.  One 
very  remarkable  species  ( Gasleracantha  arcuata)  has  two  enormous  recurved  conical 
spines,  proceeding  upwards  from  the  posterior  part  of  the  body,  and  several  times 
longer  than  the  entire  spider. 

Other  araneoe,  to  whom  these  means  of  defence  have  been  denied,  are  enabled  by 
their  color  to  escape  the  attacks  of  many  enemies,  or  to  deceive  the  vigilance  of  many 
of  their  victims.  Thus,  those  that  spend  their  lives  among  the  flowers  and  foliage  of 
the  trees  are,  in  general,  delicately  and  beautifully  marked  with  green,  orange,  black, 
and  yellow,  while  those  which  frequent  gloomy  places  are  clothed  with  a  dark-colored 
and  dingy  garb,  in  accordance  with  their  habits.  In  the  forests  about  Calderas,  in  the 
Philippine  Archipelago,  Mr.  Adams  saw  handsomely  colored  species  of  theridia  crouch- 
ing among  the  foliage  of  the  trees :  while  numbers  of  the  same  genus  of  a  black  color 
were  running  actively  about  among  the  dry  dead  leaves  that  strewed  the  ground, 
lookmg,  at  a  little  distance,  like  odd-shaped  ants,  and  no  doubt  deceiring  many  an 


612  THE   TROPICAL  WORLD. 

antaiyonist  by  tbis  appearance.  One  species,  which  knew  it  was  being  watched,  placed 
itself  upon  a  diseased  leaf,  where  it  remained  quite  stationary  until  after  the  departure 
of  the  naturalist,  who,  had  he  not  seen  the  sidelong  movement  of  the  cunning  little 
creature  in  the  first  instance,  would  not  have  been  able  to  distinguish  its  body  from 
the  surface  of  the  leaf.  While,  in  this  case,  dulness  of  color  served  as  a  defence,  the 
vividly-colored  spiders  that  live  among  the  foliage  and  flowers  no  doubt  attract  many 
flies  and  insects  by  reason  of  their  gaudily-tinted  bodies.  An  exception  to  the  general 
rule  is,  however,  found  in  those  very  large  and  powerful  species,  which,  if  not  rendered 
somewhat  conspicuous  to  the  sight  of  other  insects,  might  do  too  much  damage  to  the 
tribes  which  they  keep  in  check.  Most  of  these,  therefore,  have  the  thorax  and  abdo- 
men margined  with  a  light  color  that  contrasts  strongly  with  that  of  their  bodies,  and, 
in  many  cases,  gives  timely  warning  of  their  approach. 

The  spiders  of  temperate  zones  have  generally  a  very  repulsive  appearance,  while 
many  of  the  tropical  species  are  most  splendidly  ornamented,  or  rather  illuminated,  many 
of  them  by  the  vividness  of  their  colors  resembling  the  gaudy  missals  painted  by  monks 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  Thus,  among  the  epeiras  of  the  Philippian  isles,  are  found  white 
figures  on  a  red  ground;  red,  yellow,  and  black,  in  alternate  streaks;  orange  marbled 
with  brown,  light  green  with  white  ocelli,  yellow  with  light  brown  festoons,  or  ash-colored 
and  chestnut  bodies  with  crescents,  horse-shoes,  Chinese  characters,  and  grotesque  hiero- 
glyphics of  every  description.  Unfortunately,  these  colors,  lustrous  and  metallic  as  the 
feathers  of  the  humming  bird,  are,  unlike  the  bright  colors  of  the  beetle,  totally  dependent 
on  the  life  of  the  insect  which  they  beautify,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  preserve  them. 
While  most  spiders  obtain  their  food  either  by  patiently  waiting  in  ambush  or  by 
catching  it  with  a  bound,  the  enormous  mygales,  or  trap-door  spiders,  run  about  with 
great  speed,  in  and  out,  behind  and  around  every  object,  searching  for  what  they  may 
devour,  and  from  their  size  and  rapid  motions  exciting  the  horror  of  every  stranger. 
Their  body,  which  sometimes  attains  a  length  of  three  inches,  while  their  legs  embrace 
a  circle  of  half  a  foot  in  diameter,  is  covered  all  over  with  brown,  reddish  brown,  or 
black  hair,  which  gives  them  a  funereal  appearance,  while  their  long  feelers  armed 
with  sharp  hooks  proclaim  at  once  what  formidable  antagonists  they  must  be  to  every 
insect  that  comes  within  their  reach.  Though  some  species  are  found  in  Southern 
Europe,  in  Chili,  or  at  the  Cape,  yet  they  are  chiefly  inhabitants  of  the  torrid  zone," 
both  in  the  Old  and  the  New  World.  Some  of  them  weave  cells  between  the  leaves,  in 
the  hollows  of  trees  or  rocks,  while  others  dig  deep  tubular  holes  in  the  earth,  which 
they  cover  over  with  a  lid,  or  rather  with  a  door  formed  of  particles  of  earth  cemented 
by  silken  fibres,  and  closely  resembling  the  surrounding  ground.  This  door  or  valve 
is  united  by  a  silken  hinge  to  the  entrance  at  its  upper  side,  and  is  so  balanced  that., 
when  pushed  up,  it  shuts  again  by  its  own  weight;  nay,  what  is  still  more  admirable, 
on  the  interior  side  opposite  to  the  hinge  a  series  of  little  holes  may  be  perceived,  into 
which  the  mygale  introduces  its  claws  to  keep  it  shut,  should  any  enemy  endeavor  to 
open  it  by  force.  The  interior  of  the  nest,  which  is  sometimes  nine  inches  deep,  is 
lined  with  a  double  coat  of  tapestry,  the  one  nearest  the  wall,  which  is  of  a  coarser 
tissue,  being  covered  with  a  pure  white  silken  substance  like  paper. 

All  species  of  spiders  are  gifted  with  the  same  maternal  instinct,  and  resort  to 
various  methods  for  the  purpose  of  securing  their  cocoons.  The  Theridion,  when  a 
seizure  of  the  precious  burden  is  threatened,  tumbles  together  with  it  to  the  ground, 


ENEMIES   OF   THE   SPIDER— USES   OF   THE   SPIDER.  G13 

and  remains  motionless,  while  the  Thorinsa  covers  it  with  its  body,  and  when  robbed 
of  it,  wanders  about  disconsolate.  In  a  forest  of  the  Sooloo  Islands,  Mr.  Adams 
found  the  ground  literally  overrun  with  a  small  black  agile  species  of  Lycosa,  many 
of  which  had  a  white  flattened  globose  cocoon  affixed  to  the  ends  of  their  abdomen. 
It  was  most  amusing  to  watch  the  care  with  which  these  jealous  mothers  protected  the 
cradles  of  their  little  ones,  allowing  themselves  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy 
rather  than  be  robbed  of  the  silken  nests  that  contained  them. 

If  the  spiders  are  at  war  with  all  other  insects,  and  contribute  to  keep  them  within 
bounds  by  the  destruction  they  cause  among  their  ranks,  they  in  their  turn  have  to 
suffer  from  the  attacks  of  many  enemies.  Several  species  of  monkeys,  squirrels,  liz- 
ards, tortoises,  frogs,  and  toads  catch  and  devour  them  wherever  they  can.  In  Java 
and  Sumatra,  we  even  find  several  birds  belonging  to  the  order  of  sparrows  that  have 
been  named  Arachnotherce,  from  their  living  almost  exclusively  on  spiders.  Armed 
with  a  prodigiously  long  recurved  and  slender  beak,  they  know  how  to  pursue  them 
and  drag  them  forth  from  the  most  obscure  recesses. 

It  is  amongst  the  insects  themselves,  however,  that  the  spiders  have  to  fear  their  most 
numerous  and  formidable  enemies.  Independently  of  those  which  they  find  in  their 
own  class,  the  centipedes  seize  them  beyond  the  possibility  of  escape ;  while  several 
species  of  philanthus,  pompilius,  and  sphex,  more  savage  and  poisonous  than  themselves, 
will  rush  upon  spiders  eight  times  their  size  and  weight,  and  benumbing  them  with  a 
sting,  bear  them  off  to  their  nests,  to  serve  as  food  for  their  larvJB.  But  the  insects 
which  in  appearance  are  the  tiniest  and  most  delicate,  are  perhaps  those  which  most 
cruelly  wound  the  spiders,  by  attacking  them  in  their  eggs,  which  they  watch  over 
with  such  affection,  as  to  be  ever  ready  for  them  to  make  the  sacrifice  of  their  own 
lives.  The  Pimpla  Arachnitor  pierces  with  its  invisible  gimlet  the  tender  skin  of  the 
spider's  egg,  and,  without  tearing  it,  introduces  its  own  eggs  into  the  liquid.  The 
pimpla's  egg  soon  comes  to  maturity,  and  the  larva  devours  the  substance  of  that  of 
the  spider,  from  whence  a  winged  insect  bursts  forth — a  phenomenon  which  made 
some  naturalists,  too  hasty  to  judge  from  appearances,  believe  that  spiders  were  able 
to  procreate  four-winged  flies. 

Notwithstanding  the  disgust  or  horror  which  they  generally  inspire,  the  spiders  are, 
with  very  rare  exceptions,  by  no  means  injurious  to  man.  However  promptly  their 
venom  may  act  upon  insects,  even  that  of  the  largest  species  of  Northern  Europe  pro- 
duces, on  coming  into  contact  with  our  skin,  no  pain  or  inflammation  equalling  in 
virulence  that  of  the  wasp,  the  bee,  the  gnat,  or  other  insects  of  a  still  smaller  size. 
The  giant  spiders  of  a  sunnier  sky,  armed  with  more  formidable  weapons,  naturally 
produce  a  more  painful  sting ;  but  even  here  the  effects  have  been  much  exaggerated, 
and  the  wonderful  stories  about  the  Sicilian  tarantula's  bite,  which  we  read  of  in  Brydone 
and  other  authors,  are  nothing  but  fables  raised  upon  a  very  slender  foundation  of  truth. 
Azara  mentions  that  several  of  his  negroes  having  been  bitten  by  the  large  Avicular 
mygale  {M.  avicalaria)  of  South  America,  a  slight  ephemeral  fever  was  the  only  result. 

If  thus,  among  the  many  species  of  spiders,  hardly  a  single  one  may  be  said  to  be 
formidable  to  man,  the  indirect  services  which  they  render  him — by  diminishing  the 
number  of  noxious  insects,  or  keeping  in  check  the  legions  of  gnats  which  irritate  and 
annoy  him  by  their  attacks — are  far  from  inconsiderable.  Nor  are  they  entirely  with- 
out direct  use.     Several  savage  nations  eat  spiders,  and  the  inhabitants  of  New  Cale- 


614  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

donia  reckon  a  large  species  of  Epeira  amongst  the  choicest  delicacies  of  the  land. 
Even  in  Europe  some  people  enjoy  a  spider,  and  the  famous  astronomer  Lalande  was 
far  from  being  singular  in  this  respect.  They  are  said  to  taste  like  filberts,  and  the 
proper  way  to  eat  them  is  to  take  off  the  legs,  and  to  swallow  the  abdomen,  after 
having  washed  and  rubbed  it  with  butter.  The  property  of  spiders'  webs  to  stop  an 
hemorrhage  or  the  bleeding  of  a  wound  is  a  well-known  fact,  and  they  have  also  been 
recommended  as  an  anti-febrifuge.  In  several  countries  where  the  insects  cause  great 
ravages,  the  services  of  the  spiders  are  duly  appreciated.  Thus  in  the  West  Indies,  a 
large  and  formidable  trap-door  spider,  which  would  make  a  European  start  back  with 
horror,  is  looked  upon  with  pleasure  by  the  islanders  of  the  torrid  zone,  who  respect  it 
as  a  sacred  animal,  by  no  means  to  be  disturbed  or  harmed,  as  it  delivers  them  from 
the  cockroaches,  which  otherwise  would  overrun  their  dwellings.  Those  who  do  not 
possess  these  spiders  take  good  care  to  purchase  and  transport  them  into  their  houses, 
expecting  from  them  similar  services  to  those  we  derive  from  a  good  domestic  cat. 

When  we  consider  the  large  size  of  many  of  the  tropical  spiders,  and  the  strength 
of  their  threads,  it  seems  probable  that  their  cocoons  might  be  put  to  some  use.  We 
are  told  by  Azara,  in  his  "  Travels  to  Paraguay,"  that  a  spider  exists  in  that  country 
the  silk  of  whose  spherical  cocoons,  measuring  an  inch  in  diameter,  is  spun  on  account 
of  its  permanent  orange  color.  The  eyes  and  noses  of  the  women  employed  in 
unravelling  the  cocoons  are  said  to  water  considerably,  though  without  their  perceiving 
any  pungent  smell,  or  feeling  any  other  inconvenience.  This  spider  is,  perhaps,  the 
same  as  that  which,  according  to  M.  de  Bomare,  is  known  in  the  interior  of  South 
America  under  the  name  of  the  silk-spider.  Its  cocoon  is  of  the  size  of  a  pigeon's 
egg,  the  silk  is  soft,  and  can  be  easily  carded.  Attempts  have  also  been  made  in 
Europe  to  utilize  the  threads  of  the  large  indigenous  spiders.  About  the  beginning 
of  the  last  century,  M.  Bon,  a  Frenchman,  who  seems  to  have  been  the  first  that  ever 
put  the  idea  into  practice,  collected  a  sufficient  quantity  to  make  some  stockings  and 
gloves,  which  he  presented  to  the  king,  Louis  XIV.  5  and  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  Paris.  His  discovery  caused  some  sensation  at  the  time,  and  his  dissertation  on 
the  subject  was  translated  into  all  European  languages,  and  at  a  later  period  even  into 
the  Chinese,  by  order  of  the  Emperor  Kien-Long.  The  celebrated  Reaumur,  however, 
who  was  commissioned  by  the  Academy  to  report  on  M.  Bon's  discovery,  pointed  out 
how  difficult  it  would  be  to  put  it  to  any  extensive  use,  as  it  would  require  no  less 
than  55,296  of  the  Epeira  diadema  to  produce  a  single  pound  of  silk  ;  and  how  were 
all  these  to  be  provided  with  flies  ? 

If  the  extreme  fineness  of  the  spider's  threads  is  an  obstacle  to  their  being  spun 
and  woven,  this  property,  united  with  their  metallic  brilliancy,  renders  them  an  excel- 
lent material  for  the  construction  of  the  micrometers  used  for  astronomical  purposes : 
the  finest  silver  thread  which  it  is  possible  to  spin  having  a  diameter  of  ^Jt  of  an  inch, 
while  spiders'  threads  measure  only  t/oit  or  even  -g-A-u-  Troughton,  an  eminent 
English  instrument  maker,  first  thought  of  substituting  them  for  the  silver-threads 
then  in  use,  and  they  were  found  to  answer  so  well  that  since  that  time  they  have 
been  constantly  employed. 

The  Scorpions,  which  even  in  Europe  are  reckoned  among  the  most  malignant  in- 
sects, are  truly  terrific  in  the  torrid  zone,  where  they  frequently  attain  a  length  of 


SCORPIONS.  G15 

six  or  seven  inches.  Closely  allied  to  the  spiders,  their  aspect  is  still  more  repul- 
sive. Were  one  of  the  largest  scorpions  menacingly  to  creep  up  against  you,  with 
extended  claws  and  its  long  articulated  sharply-pointed  tail  projecting  over  its  head,  I 
think,  despite  the  strength  of  your  nerves,  you  would  start  back,  justly  concluding 
that  a  creature  of  such  an  aspect  must  necessarily  come  with  the  worst  intentions. 
The  poison  of  the  scorpion  is  discharged  like  that  of  the  snake.  Near  the  tip  of  the 
crooked  sting,  namely,  which  terminates  the  tail,  we  find  two  or  three  very  small  fora- 
mina, through  which,  on  pressure,  the  venom  of  the  gland  with  which  they  are  con- 
nected immediately  issues  forth.  By  means  of  this  weapon,  even  the  small  European 
scorpions  are  able  to  kill  a  dog,  while  the  tropical  giants  of  the  race  inflict  wounds 
that  become  fatal  to  man  himself  The  sting  of  several  South  American  scorpions 
produces  fever,  numbness  of  the  limbs,  tumors  on  the  tongue,  weakness  of  the  sight, 
and  other  nervous  symptoms,  lasting  twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours  ;  but  the  African 
scorpions  seem  to  be  still  more  formidable.  Mr.  Swainson  informs  us  that  the  only 
means  of  saving  the  lives  of  English  soldiers  who  were  stung  by  those  of  Egypt,  was 
the  amputation  of  the  wounded  limb ;  and  Professor  Ebrenberg,  who,  while  making 
his  researches  on  the  Natural  History  of  the  Eed  Sea,  was  stung  five  times  by  the 
Androctonus  quinquestriatus,  and  funestus,  says  he  can  well  believe,  from  the  dreadful 
pains  he  suffered,  that  the  poison  of  these  scorpions  may  become  fatal  to  women  and 
children.  A  servant  of  Mr.  Russegger,  while  emptying  a  trunk,  was  stung  in  the 
breast  by  a  large  scorpion,  wliich  had  concealed  itself  among  the  -linen.  For  hours 
the  pain  was  dreadful,  shooting  from  time  to  time  through  the  whole  nervous  system, 
and  almost  depriving  the  patient  of  consciousness.  A  cold  perspiration  covered  his 
brow,  and  it  was  only  after  the  internal  and  external  application  of  ammonia,  one  of 
the  chief  remedies  for  sustaining  the  sinking  flame  of  life,  that  he  at  length  felt  some 
relief,  though  he  had  still  to  suffer  several  days  from  a  strong  fever. 

The  scorpions  live  mostly  on  the  ground,  in  gloomy  recesses,  and  even  in  the  nooks 
and  corners,  of  dwelling-houses,  so  that,  in  countries  where  they  are  known  to  abound, 
it  is  necessary  to  be  very  cautious  in  removing  stones,  pieces  of  wood,  «&;c.  Of  a 
ferocious,  cruel  disposition,  they  are  not  only  the  foes  of  all  other  animals,  but  carry 
on  a  war  of  extermination  among  themselves,  and  are  even  said  to  kill  and  devour 
their  own  progeny,  without  pity,  as  soon  as  they  are  born  ;  thus  rendering  good  service 
to  the  community  at  large*  Maupertuis  once  inclosed  a  hundred  scorpions — a  select 
and  delightful  party — in  a  box.  Immediately  a  furious  battle  ensued — one  against 
all,  all  against  one — and  in  an  hour's  time  scarcely  one  of  the  combatants  survived 
the  conflict. 

The  poison  of  the  scorpion  is  lodged  in  its  tail,  but  that  of  the  centipede  is  in  its 
jaws.  These  are  likewise  among  the  pests  of  tropical  climates ;  for,  although  several 
are  found  in  Europe,  yet,  from  their  small  size,  they  are  harmless  to  man.  Those  of 
India  and  South  America,  on  the  other  hand,  are  enormous,  frequently  six  or  seven 
inches  long,  and  their  sting  is  no  less  painful  and  virulent  than  that  of  the  dreaded 
scorpion  itself. 


THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 


CHAPTER    X. 

SERPENTS— LIZARDS— FROGS  AND  TOADS. 

Serpents:  Rarity  of  Venomous  Serpents — Habits  and  External  Characteristics  of  Serpents — 
The  Labarri — The  Trigonocephalus — Antidotes  to  the  Poison  of  Serpents— Sucking  out 
the  Venom — The  Poison-Fangs — The  Bush-Master — The  Ecliidna  Ocellata — Rattlesnakes 
— Their  Enemy  the  Hog — The  Cobra  de  Capello — The  Haje — The  Cerastes — Boas  and 
Pythons — The  Boa-constrictor — The  Water  Boa — Fascination  by  Snakes — Henderson's 
■  Argument  against  It — Thorpe's  Reasons  in  its  Favor — Du  Chaillu  on  the  Subject — Enemies 
of  Serpents — The  Secretary  Bird — The  Adjutant  Bird— The  Mongoos — Serpents  Eating 
Serpents — The  Locomotion  of  Serpents — Anatomy  of  their  Jaws — A  Serpentine  Meal — 
Pet  Serpents — Tree  Snakes — Water  Snakes — Stories  of  Enormous  Snakes — Du  Chaillu's 
Big  Snake — Wallace's  Bigger  One. — Lizards:  The  Geckoe — Anatomy  of  its  Feec — Their 
Wide  Distribution — The  Anolis — Its  Combativeness — The  Chameleon — Its  Habits,  Change 
of  Color,  and  Characteristics — The  Iguana— The  Teju — Water  Lizards — Flying  Dragons— 
The  Basilisk. — F7-orjs  and  Toads:  The  Pipa  Frog — Tree  Frogs — Wallace's  Flying  Frog — 
The  Bahia  Toad— The  Giant  Toad— The  Musical  Toad. 

ON  penetrating  for  the  first  time  into  a  tropical  forest,  the  traveler  is  moved  by 
many  conflicting  emotions.  This  luxuriance  of  vegetation,  this  abundance  of 
blossoms,  unite  in  raising  the  soul  to  the  fullest  enjoyment  of  the  moment ;  and  yet 
the  heart  is,  at  the  same  time,  chilled  with  vague  fears,  that  mix  like  a  discordant 
sound  with  the  harmonies  of  this  sylvan  world.  For  in  the  hollows  of  the  tangled 
roots  and  in  the  dense  underwood  of  the  forest  a  brood  of  noxious  reptiles  loves  to 
conceal  itself,  and  who  knows  whether  a  snake,  armed  with  poisonous  fangs,  may  not 
dart  forth  from  the  rustling  foliage.  Gradually,  however,  these  reflections  wear 
away,  and  time  and  experience  convince  one  that  the  snakes  in  the  tropical  woods  are 
hardly  more  to  be  feared  than  in  our  own  forests.  These  reptiles  are,  indeed,  far 
from  being  of  so  frequent  occurrence  as  is  generally  believed ;  and  on  meeting  with  a 
snake,  there  is  every  probability  of  its  belonging  to  some  harmless  species,  which  show 
themselves  much  more  frequently  by  day,  and  are  by  far  more  numerous.  Even  in 
India  and  Ceylon,  where  serpents  are  said  to  abound,  they  make  their  appearance  so 
cautiously  that  the  surprise  of  long  residents  is  invariably  expressed  at  the  rarity  with 
which  they  are  to  be  seen.  Dr.  Russell,  who  particularly  studied  the  serpents  of 
India,  found  that,  out  of  forty-three  species  which  he  himself  examined,  not  more 
than  seven  were  found  to  possess  poisonous  fangs;  and  Davy,  whose  attention  was 
carefully  directed  to  the  snakes  of  Ceylon,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  but  four  out 
of  the  twenty  species  he  could  collect  were  venomous,  and  that  of  these  only  two 
were  capable  of  inflicting  a  wound  likely  to  be  fatal  to  man. 

Sir  E.  Tennent,  who  frequently  performed  journeys  of  two  to  five  hundred  miles 
through  the  jungle  without  seeing  a  single  snake,  never  heard,  during  his  long  resi- 


VENOMOUS   SNAKES— THEIR   llAPJTY.  617 

dence  in  Ceylon,  of  the  death  of  a  European  which  was  caused  by  the  bite  of  one 
of  these  reptiles ;  and  in  almost  every  instance  accidents  to  the  natives  happened  at 
night,  when  the  animal,  having  been  surprised  or  trodden  on,  had  inflicted  the  wound 
in  self-defence.  Thus,  to  avoid  danger,  the  Singhalese,  when  obliged  to  leave  their 
houses  in  the  dark,  carry  a  stick  with  a  loose  ring,  the  noise  of  which,  as  they  strike  it 
on  the  ground,  is  sufficient  to  warn  the  snakes  to  leave  their  path.  During  his  five 
years'  travels  through  the  whole  breadth  of  tropical  America,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  M.  de  Castelnau,  although  ever  on  the  search,  collected  no  more  tban  ninety- 
one  serpents,  of  which  only  twenty-one  were  poisonous. 

The  habits  of  the  venomous  snakes,  and  the  external  characters  by  which  they  are 
distinguished  from  the  harmless  species,  likewise  tend  to  diminish  the  danger  to  be 
apprehended  from  them.  Thus,  their  head  is  generally  flat,  broad,  lanceolate;  they 
have  an  aperture  or  slit  on  each  cheek,  behind  the  nostrils,  and  an  elongated  vertical 
pupil  like  many  other  nocturnal  animals.  They  are  also  generally  slower  and  more 
indolent  in  their  motions,  and  thus  are  more  easily  avoided.  No  venomous  snake  will 
ever  be  found  on  a  tree ;  and  on  quietly  approaching  one  in  the  forest  or  in  the 
savanna,  it  will  most  likely  creep  away  without  disputing  the  path,  as  it  is  not  very 
anxious  uselessly  to  squander  the  venom  which  nature  gave  it  as  the  only  means  for 
procuring  itself  food. 

"  There  is  not  much  danger  in  roving  amongst  snakes,"  says  Waterton,  who,  from 
spending  many  a  month  in  tropical  wilds,  may  justly  be  called  an  excellent  authority, 
"  provided  only  that  you  have  self  command.  You  must  never  approach  thera 
abruptly;  if  so,  you  are  sure  to  pay  for  your  rashness;  because  the  idea  of  self- 
defence  is  predominant  in  every  animal,  and  thus  the  snake,  to  defend  himself  from 
what  he  considers  an  attack  upon  him,  makes  the  intruder  feel  the  deadly  effect  of  his 
envenomed  fangs.  The  labarri  snake  is  very  poisonous,  yet  I  have  often  approached 
within  two  yards  of  him  without  fear.  I  took  care  to  advance  very  softly  and  gently, 
without  moving  my  arms,  and  he  always  allowed  me  to  have  a  fine  view  of  him, 
without  showing  the  least  inclination  to  make  a  spring  at  me.  He  would  appear  to 
keep  his  eye  fixed  on  me,  as  though  suspicious,  but  that  was  all.  Sometimes  I  have 
taken  a  stick  ten  feet  long  and  placed  it  on  the  labarri's  back  ;  he  would  then  glide 
away,  without  offering  resistance.  However,  when  I  put  the  end  of  the  stick  abruptly 
to  his  head,  he  immediately  opened  his  mouth,  flew  at  it,  and  bit  it."  But  although 
accidents  from  venomous  snakes  are  comparatively  rare,  yet  the  consequences  are 
dreadful  when  they  do  take  place,  and  the  sight  of  a  cobra  or  a  trigonocephalus  pre- 
paring for  its  fatal  spring  may  well  appall  the  stoutest  heart. 

Prince  Maximilian  of  Neu  Wied,  having  wounded  a  tapir,  was  following  the  traces 
of  his  game  along  with  his  Indian  hunter,  when  suddenly  his  companion  uttered  a  loud 
scream.  He  had  come  too  near  a  labarri  snake,  and  the  dense  thicket  prevented  his 
escape.  Fortunately  the  first  glance  of  the  distinguished  naturalist  fell  upon  the  rep- 
tile, which  with  extended  jaws  and  projecting  fangs  was  ready  to  dart  upon  the  Indian, 
but  at  the  same  moment,  struck  by  a  ball  from  the  prince's  rifle,  lay  writhing  on  the 
ground.  The  Indian,  though  otherwise  a  strong-nerved  man,  was  so  paralyzed  by  fear 
that  it  was  some  time  before  he  could  recover  his  self-possession — a  proof,  among  others, 
that  it  is  superfluous  to  attribute  a  fascinating  power  to  the  venomous  snakes,  as  the 
effects  of  terror  are  quite  sufficient  to  explain  why  smaller  animals,  unable  to  flee  the 


618  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

impending  danger,  become  their  unresisting  victims,  and  even  seem,  as  it  were,  wan- 
tonly to  rush  upon  destruction.     But  upon  this  subject  we  shall  have  more  to  say. 

A  poor  Indian  girl  that  accompanied  Schomburgk  on  his  travels  through  the  forests 
of  Guiana  was  less  fortunate  than  the  Prince  of  Neu  Wied's  companion.  She  was 
bitten  by  a  trigonocephalus,  and  it  was  dreadful  to  see  how  soon  the  powers  of  life 
began  to  ebb  under  the  fatal  effects  of  the  poison.  The  wound  was  immediately 
sucked,  and  spirits  of  ammonia,  the  usual  remedy,  profusely  applied  both  externally 
and  inwardly,  but  all  in  vain.  In  less  than  three  minutes,  a  convulsive  trembling 
shook  the  whole  body,  the  face  assumed  a  cadaverous  aspect,  dreadful  pains  raged  in 
the  heart,  in  the  back,  less  in  the  Avound  itself ;  the  dissolved  blood  flowed  from  the 
ears  and  nose,  or  was  spasmodically  ejected  by  the  stomach  ;  the  pulse  rose  to  120-130 
in  the  minute ;  the  paralysis  which  first  benumbed  the  bitten  foot  spread  farther  and 
farther,  and  in  less  than  eight  minutes  the  unfortunate  girl  was  no  longer  to  be  recog- 
nized. The  same  day  the  foot  swelled  to  shapeless  dimensions,  and  she  lay  senseless 
until,  after  an  agony  of  sixty-three  hours,  death  relieved  her  from  her  sufferings. 

A  great  many  antidotes  have  been  recommended  against  serpentine  poison,  but  their 
very  number  proves  their  inefficacy.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  serpentine  poison 
may  be  swallowed  with  impunity ;  it  shows  its  effects  only  on  mixing  directly  with  the 
blood.  A  tight  ligature  above  the  wound,  along  with  sucking,  burning,  or  cutting  it 
out,  are  thus  very  rational  remedies  for  preventing  the  rapid  propagation  of  the  venom. 
Suction  is,  however,  not  always  unattended  with  danger  to  the  person  who  undertakes 
the  friendly  office.  Thus  Schomburgk  relates  the  misfortunes  of  a  poor  Indian,  whose 
son  had  been  bitten  in  the  cheek.  The  father  instantly  sucked  the  wound,  but  a  hollow 
tooth  conveyed  the  poison  into  his  own  body.  His  cheek  swelled  under  excruciating 
pains,  and  without  being  able  to  save  his  son,  his  own  health  and  vigor  were  forever  lost; 
for  such  are  the  dreadful  consequences  of  this  poison,  that  they  incurably  trouble  the 
fountains  of  life.  The  wound  generally  breaks  open  every  year,  emitting  a  very  offen- 
sive odor,  and  causes  dreadful  pains  at  every  change  of  the  weather.  Although  all 
the  venomous  snakes  produce  morbid  symptoms  nearly  similar,  yet  the  strength  of  the 
poison  varies  according  to  the  species  of  the  serpent,  and  to  the  circumstances  under 
which  it  is  emitted.  It  is  said  to  be  most  virulent  during  very  hot  weather,  or  when 
the  animal  is  about  to  cast  its  skin.  The  effects  are  naturally  more  powerful  and 
rapid  when  a  larger  quantity  of  poison  flows  into  the  wound,  and  a  snake  with  exhausted 
supplies  from  repeated  bitings  will  evidently  strike  less  fatally  than  another  whose 
glands  are  inflated  with  poison  after  a  long  repose. 

Before  describing  some  of  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  venomous  serpents,  a  few 
words  on  the  simple  but  admirable  mechanism  of  their  delicate  but  needle-like  fangs 
will  not  be  out  of  place.  Towards  the  point  of  the  fang,  which  is  invariably  situated 
in  the  upper  jaw,  there  is  a  little  oblong  aperture  on  the  convex  side  of  it,  and  through 
this  there  is  a  communication  down  the  fang  to  the  root,  at  which  lies  a  little  bag  con- 
taining the  poison.  Thus,  when  the  point  of  the  fang  is  pressed,  the  root  of  the  fang 
also  presses  against  the  bag  and  sends  up  a  portion  of  the  poison  it  contained.  The 
fangs  being  extremely  movable,  can  be  voluntarily  depressed  or  elevated  ;  and  as  from 
their  brittleness  they  are  very  liable  to  break,  nature,  to  provide  for  a  loss  that  would 
be  fatal,  has  added  behind  each  of  them  smaller  or  subsidiary  fangs  ready  to  take 
their  place  in  case  of  accident. 


THE   BUSHMASTER— RATTLESNAKE— COBRA.  010 

Unrivalled  in  the  display  of  every  lovely  color  of  the  rainbow,  and  unmatched  in 
the  effects  of  his  deadly  poison,  the  Bushmaster  or  Counacutchi  (Lachesis  rhombeata) 
glides  on,  sole  monarch  of  the  forests  of  Guiana  or  Brazil,  as  both  man  and  beast  fly 
before  him.  In  size  he  surpasses  most  other  venomous  species,  as  he  sometimes  grows 
to  the  length  of  fourteen  feet.  Generally  concealed  among  the  fallen  leaves  of  the 
forest,  he  lives  on  small  birds,  reptiles,  and  mammalians,  whom  he  is  able  to  pursue 
with  surprising  activity.  Fortunately,  the  bushmaster  is  a  rare  serpent,  frequenting 
only  the  deepest  shades  of  the  thicket,  where  in  the  day-time  he  generally  lies  coiled 
upon  the  ground.  Still  rarer,  thoi^gh  if  possible  yet  more  formidable,  is  a  small  brown 
viper  {Echidna  ocellata),  which  infests  the  Peruvian  forests.  Its  bite  is  said  to  be 
able  to  kill  a  strong  man  within  two  or  three  minutes.  The  Indian,  when  bitten  by  it, 
does  not  even  attempt  an  antidote  against  the  poison,  but  stoically  bids  adieu  to  his 
comrades,  and  lays  himself  down  to  die. 

The  ill  famed,  wide  extended  race  of  the  rattlesnakes,  which  ranges  from  South 
Brazil  to  Canada,  belongs  exclusively  to  the  new  world.  They  prefer  the  more  ele- 
vated, dry,  and  stony  regions,  where  they  lie  coiled  up  in  the  thorny  bushes,  and  only 
attack  such  animals  as  come  too  near  their  lair.  Their  bite  is  said  to  be  able  to  kill  a 
horse  or  an  ox  in  ten  or  twelve  minutes  ;  but,  fortunately,  they  are  afraid  of  man,  and 
will  not  venture  to  attack  him  unless  provoked.  When  roused  to  anger  they  are,  how- 
ever, very  formidable,  as  their  fangs  penetrate  through  the  strongest  boot.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  features  of  their  organization  is  a  kind  of  rattle  terminating  the  tail, 
and  consisting  of  a  number  of  pieces  inserted  into  each  other,  all  alike  in  shape  and 
size,  hollow,  and  of  a  thin,  elastic,  brittle  substance,  like  that  of  which  the  scales  are 
externally  formed.  When  provoked,  the  strong  and  rapid  vibratory  motions  imparted 
to  the  rattle  produce  a  sound  which  has  been  compared  to  that  of  knife -grinding,  but 
it  is  never  loud  enough  to  be  heard  at  any  distance,  and  becomes  almost  inaudible  in 
rainy  weather. 

Naturalists  distinguish  at  least  a  dozen  different  species  of  rattlesnakes,  the  com- 
monest of  which  are  the  Boaquira  (Crotahcs  horridus),  which  frequents  the  warmest 
regions  of  South  America,  and  the  Durissus  ( G.  durissus),  which  has  chosen  the  United 
States  for  its  principal  home.  The  chief  enemy  of  this  serpent  is  the  hog,  whom  it 
dreads  so  much  that  on  seeing  one  it  immediately  loses  all  its  courage,  and  instantly 
takes  to  flight.  But  the  hog,  who  smells  it  from  afar,  draws  nearer  and  nearer,  his 
bristles  erected  with  excitement,  seizes  it  by  the  neck,  and  devours  it  with  great  com- 
placency, though  without  touching  the  head.  As  the  hog  is  the  invariable  companion 
of  the  settler  in  the  backwoods,  the  rattlesnake  everywhere  disappears  before  the  ad- 
vance of  man,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  a  century  or  two  hence  it  will  be  ranked  among 
the  extinct  animals.  The  American  Indians  often  regale  on  the  rattlesnake.  When 
thoy  find  it  asleep,  they  put  a  small  forked  stick  over  its  neck,  which  they  keep  im- 
movably fixed  to  the  ground,  giving  the  snake  a  piece  of  leather  to  bite,  and  this 
they  pull  back  several  times  with  great  force,  until  they  perceive  that  the  poison-fangs 
are  torn  out.  They  then  cut  off  the  head,  skin  the  body,  and  cook  it  as  we  do  eels. 
The  flesh  is  said  to  be  white  and  excellent. 

None  of  the  American  snakes  inhabit  the  Old  World,  but  in  the  East  Indies  and 
Ceylon  other  no  less  dangerous  species  appear  upon-  the  scene,  among  which  the 
celebrated  Cobra  de  Capello  is  one  of  the  most  deadly.     A  few  years  since,  a  cobra 


620  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

in  the  British  Zoological  Gardens  destroyed  its  keeper.  In  a  fit  of  drunkenness,  the 
man,  against  express  orders,  took  the  reptile  out  of  its  cage,  and  placing  its  head 
inside  his  waistcoat,  allowed  it  to  glide  round  his  body.  When  it  had  emerged  from 
under  his  clothes  on  the  other  side,  apparently  in  good  humor,  the  keeper  squeezed  its 
tail,  when  it  struck  him  between  his  eyes.  In  twenty  minutes  his  consciousness  was 
gone,  and  in  less  than  three  hours  he  was  dead.  As  long  as  the  cobra  is  in  a  quiet 
mood,  its  neck  is  nowhere  thicker  than  its  head  or  other  parts ;  but  as  soon  as  it  is 
excited,  it  raises  vertically  the  anterior  part  of  its  trunk,  dilates  the  hood  on  each  side 
of  the  neck,  which  is  curiously  marked  in  the  center  in  black  and  white,  like  a  pair 
of  spectacles,  and  then  swells  out  to  double  its  former  proportions,  and  advances 
against  the  aggressor  by  the  undulating  motion  of  the  tail.  It  is  not  only  met  with 
in  the  cultivated  grounds  and  plantations,  but  will  creep  into  the  houses  and  insinuate 
itself  among  the  furniture.  This  is  the  snake  so  frequently  exhibited  by  the  Indian 
jugglers,  who  contrive  by  some  unknown  method  to  tame  them  so  far  that  they  will 
perform  certain  movements  in  cadence,  and  dance  to  the  sound  of  music,  with 
which  the  cobra  seems  much  delighted,  keeping  time  by  a  graceful  motion  of  the  head, 
erecting  about  half  its  length  from  the  ground  and  following  the  few  simple  notes  of 
the  conjuror's  flute  with  gentle  curves  like  the  undulating  lines  of  a  swan's  neck. 

The  Egyptian  Haje  {Naja  Haje),  a  near  relation  of  the  Indian  cobra,  is  most  likely 
the  asp  of  ancient  authors,  which  the  celebrated  Cleopatra  chose  as  the  instrument  of 
her  death,  to  avoid  figuring  in  the  triumph  of  Augustus.  Like  the  cobra,  it  inflates 
its  neck  when  in  a  state  of  excitement,  and  as  it  raises  its  head  on  being  approached, 
as  if  watchful  for  its  safety,  it  was  venerated  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  as  a  symbol  of 
divinity,  and  as  the  faithful  guardian  of  their  fields.  Divine  honors  have,  however, 
much  more  frequently  been  paid  to  the  venomous  snakes  from  the  terror  they  inspire, 
than  from  far-fetched  notions  of  beneficence.  The  Cerastes,  or  horned-viper,  one  of 
the  most  deadly  serpents  of  the  African  deserts,  is  frequently  exhibited  by  Egyptian 
jugglers,  who  handle  and  irritate  it  with  impunity :  they  are  supposed  to  render  them- 
selves invulnerable  by  the  chewing  of  a  certain  root,  but  most  likely,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  cobra-charmers,  their  secret  consists  in  their  courage  and  perfect  knowledge  of 
the  animal's  nature. 

Although  the  Boas  and  Pythons  are  unprovided  with  venomous  fangs,  yet.  from 
their  enormous  size,  they  may  well  be  ranked  among  the  deadly  snakes;  for,  as 
Waterton  justly  remarks,  "  it  comes  to  nearly  the  same  thing  in  the  end  whether  the 
victim  dies  by  poison  from  the  fangs,  which  corrupts  his  blood  and  makes  it  stmk 
horribly,  or  whether  his  body  be  crushed  to  mummy  and  swallowed  by  a  Python." 
The  kingly  Jiboya  {Boa-constrictor)  inhabits  the  dry  and  sultry  localities  of  the  Bra- 
zilian forests,  where  he  generally  conceals  himself  in  crevices  and  hollows  in  parts  but 
little  frequented  by  man,  and  sometimes  attains  a  length  of  thirty  feet.  To  catch  his 
prey  he  ascends  the  trees,  and  lurks,  hidden  in  the  foliage,  for  the  unfortunate  agutis, 
pacas,  and  capybaras,  whom  their  unlucky  star  may  lead  within  his  reach.  When 
full-grown  he  seizes  the  passing  deer  ;  but  in  spite  of  his  large  size  he  is  but  little  feared 
by  the  natives,  as  a  single  blow  of  a  cudgel  suffices  to  kill  him.  Prince  Maximilian 
of  Neu  Wied  tells  us  that  the  experienced  hunter  laughs  when  asked  whether  the 
Jiboya  attacks  and  devours  man. 

The  Sucuriaba,  Anaconda,  or  Water  Boa  {Eunectes  murinus),  as  it  is  variously 


SERPENT  EASCINATION.  621 

named,  attains  still  larger  dimensions  than  the  constrictor,  as  some  are  said  to  have 
been  found  of  a  length  of  forty  feet.  It  inhabits  the  large  rivers,  lakes,  and  marshy 
grounds  of  tropical  America,  and  passes  most  of  its  time  in  the  water,  now  reposing 
on  a  sand-bank,  with  only  its  head  above  the  surface  of  the  stream,  now  rapidly  swim- 
ming like  an  eel,  or  abandoning  itself  to  the  current  of  the  river.  Often,  also,  it  suns 
itself  on  the  sandy  margin  of  the  stream,  or  patiently  awaits  its  prey,  stretched  out 
upon  some  rock  or  fallen  tree.  With  sharp  eye  it  observes  all  that  swims  in  the 
waters  as  well  as  all  that  flies  over  them,  or  all  that  comes  to  the  banks  to  quench  its 
thirst ;  neither  fish  nor  aquatic  bird  is  secure  from  the  swiftness  of  its  attack,  and  woe 
to  the  capybara  that  comes  within  the  grasp  of  its  folds.  Such  is  its  voracity,  that 
Firmin  found  in  the  stomach  of  an  Anaconda  a  large  sloth,  an  Iguana  nearly  four 
feet  long,  and  a  tolerably-sized  Ant-bear,  all  three  nearly  in  the  same  state  as  when 
they  were  swallowed— a  proof  that  their  capture  had  taken  place  within  a  short  time. 
As  is  commonly  the  case  with  reptiles,  the  water-boa  is  very  tenacious  of  life,  and 
though  the  head  may  be  nearly  severed  from  the  trunk,  the  entrails  taken  out  of  the 
body,  and  the  skin  detached,  it  will  still  move  about  for  a  considerable  time.  The 
boas  principally  inhabit  America,  although  some  species  are  likewise  met  with  in  Asia. 
But  the  more  formidable  pythons  are  confined  to  the  hot  regions  of  the  Old  World. 
They  are  said  to  enlace  even  the  tiger  or  the  lion  in  their  fatal  embrace ;  and  to  judge 
by  their  size  and  strength,  this  assertion  seems  by  no  means  improbable. 

The  alleged  power  of  fascination  in  snakes  is  now  abandoned  by  most  naturalists ; 
and  all  the  authenticated  facts  in  relation  to  it  seem  to  be  capable  of  being  otherwise 
explained.  Dr.  Henderson,  a  very  close  American  observer,  relates*  some  incidents 
bearing  on  this  question.  "  Some  field  hands,  "  he  says,  "  while  at  work  in  the  field, 
killed  a  rattlesnake  of  such  unusual  size  that  they  were  induced  to  bring  it  to  the 
house  that  the  family  might  see  it.  Its  head  was  chopped  off  and  left  in  the  field. 
The  snake  was  laid  under  some  shade  trees,  upon  the  branches  of  which  a  pair  of 
mocking-birds  had  built  their  nest.  The  birds  soon  discovered  the  snake,  and  at 
once  sounded  their  notes  of  alarm  and  distress.  They  commenced  approaching,  and 
finally  came  in  immediate  contact  with  the  snake.  In  short,  they  exhibited  all  the 
phenomena  of  the  fascinated  in  perfection,  except  that  they  did  not  jump  into  the 
snake's  mouth,  which,  fortunately  for  them,  was  a  mile  distant.  I  have  frequently 
heard  it  asserted  that  the  snake,  after  fascinating  the  bird,  opens  its  mouth  and  the 
bird  jumps  into  it.  To  test  the  truth  of  this,  I  caught  a  black  adder,  and  tying  one 
end  of  a  piece  of  twine  around  his  neck,  I  made  the  other  end  fast  to  some  shrubbery 
in  which  a  pair  of  mocking-birds  had  made  their  nests.  The  snake  was  soon  dis- 
covered by  the  birds,  and  in  a  short  time  they  were  as  much  fascinated  as  birds  ever 
become.  They  approached  the  reptile  with  feathers  reversed,  uttering  their  notes  of 
alarm,  and  were  a  dozen  times  in  contact  with  him.  On  the  other  hand,  the  snake 
seemed  only  bent  on  escaping,  and  had  neither  time  nor  inclination  to  exert  his  famed 
power  of  fascination.  It  was  exerted,  however,  to  its  fullest  extent,  as  far  as  the  birds 
were  concerned.  At  length  the  snake,  in  his  efforts  to  escape,  brought  his  body  so  far 
through  the  loop  of  twine  around  his  neck  that  he  was  suffocated.  This  made  no 
difference,  and  the  birds  continued  to  be  as  much  fascinated  after  as  before  his  death. 
They  were  several  times  driven  away,  but  would  as  often  return.  In  these  instances 
*  Harper's  Magazine,  April,  1856. 


622 


THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 


what  becomes  of  the  alleged  wonderful  power  of  the  serpent's  eye  ?  Two  birds  were 
apparently  charmed  at  one  and  the  same  time  by  a  single  snake,  and  that  a  dead  one. 
The  real  fact  is,  that  the  so-called  fascination  is  seen  in  perfection  only  during  the 
period  of  incubation,  and  while  the  birds  are  rearing  their  young.  There  is  a  marked 
difference  between  the  actions  of  the  birds  during  this  period  and  at  other  times. 
Now,  animals  of  every  species  either  eat  or  are  eaten  by  other  species;  and  each  race 
has  its  own  peculiar  modes  of  attack,  defence,  and  escape.  The  snake  knows  that 
other  animals  hold  him  in  great  terror ;  but  that  birds  will  approach  him  if  he  remains 
perfectly  still.  When  he  perceives  that  the  birds  have  seen  him,  he  remains  perfectly 
still.  The  birds  know  that  their  young  will  approach  the  snake  and  fall  a  prey  to  him. 
If  it  be  in  the  breeding  season,  parental  instinct  or  affection  impels  them  to  attack  the 
enemy,  and  so  it  often  sacrifices  its  own  life  to  save  that  of  its  offspring.  Parental 
solicitude  overcomes  its  natural  timidity.  Indeed  the  birds  on  these  occasions  seem  to 
lose  their  senses  altogether,  precisely  as  a  human  parent  might  do  under  similar 
circumstances." 


RATTLESNAKE    CHARMING    A    RABBIT. 


>7/-if'''' 


Still,  however,  we  must  admit  that  the  subject  of  snake  fascination  is  in  a  measure 
an  open  question.  Mr.  T.  B.  Thorpe,  another  close  observer  of  the  habits  of  the 
animal  world,  is  fully  convinced  of  the  existence  of  this  power,  and  cites  many  inci- 


SERPENT   FASCINATION.  623 

dents  in  proof  of  his  theory,  accompanying  them  with  drawings  of  the  reptile  in  fiagrante 
delictu*  He  shows  one  snake  in  the  attitude,  as  he  believes,  of  charming  a  wild-cat; 
and  another  when  charming  a  rabbit.  In  this  latter  illustration  the  rabbit  certainly 
looks  as  though  he  was  fascinated.  He  believes  also  that  they  have  this  power 
over  man,  and  adduces  several  instances  in  corroboration.  And  even  further,  ho 
believes  that  this  power  exists  in  the  dead  reptile.  He  sums  up  his  conclusions  thus: 
"  The  food  of  the  rattlesnake  is  in  a  great  measure  composed  of  small  animals  or  birds 
superior  to  it  in  fleetness,  and  it  has  no  power  to  seize  its  prey  except  when  it  is  coiled 
up,  and  consequently  incapable  of  giving  chase.  In  addition,  the  reptile,  while 
attempting  to  seize  its  prey,  emits  a  strong  odor,  which  no  doubt  has  a  stupefying 
effect  upon  its  victim.  Now,  as  the  rattlesnake  never  steals  upon  any  object,  and  is 
perfectly  incapable  of  seizing  its  food  except  when  it  is  coiled  up  and  stationary,  how 
would  it  ever  obtain  subsistence  if  nature  had  not  given  it  the  power  to  attract  its 
prey  within  its  deadly  reach  ?  Although  it  is  disputed  by  most  naturalists  that  snakes 
have  the  power  of  fascination,  yet  to  me  it  seems  as  if  nothing  relating  to  their  natural 
history  is  more  fully  substantiated.  People  living  in  crowded  cities  who  receive  from 
abroad  '  specimens '  preserved  in  alcohol  and  bottled,  or  write  dissertations  from 
examination  of  the  '  stuffed  skin,'  must  be  assured,  from  what  they  see  before  them, 
that  the  power  of  fascination  is  a  fable ;  and  as  doubting  is  a  safe  form  of  unbelief,  it 
is  freely  expressed.  The  rattlesnake,  nevertheless,  has  cerfainly  an  eye  of  command 
as  had  Napoleon ;  and  the  power  of  the  reptile's  gaze  is  not  only  acknowledged  by 
the  humbler  class  of  animals,  but  man,  with  all  his  superior  powers,  has  felt  a  thrill 
of  helplessness  pass  through  his  soul  as  he  beheld  that  mysterious  eye  glaring  full 
upon  him.  Approach  a  rattlesnake,  and  with  the  first  convenient  thing  dash  out  his 
brains;  but  dare  not  to  make  a  close  examination  of  the  death-dealing  object  before 
you.  If  its  spiral  motions  once  find  a  response  in  the  music  tune-markings  of  your 
own  mind ;  if  you  look  into  those  strange  orbs  that  seem  to  be  the  openings  into 
another  world;  if  that  forked  tongue  plays  into  your  presence  until  you  find  it  as 
vivid  as  the  lightning's  flash ;  and,  meanwhile,  the  hum  of  those  rattles  begins  to  con- 
fu'se  your  absorbed  senses,  you  will  be  conscious  of  some  terrible  danger ;  that  you 
stand  upon  some  dread  precipice ;  that  your  blood  is  starting  back  from  your  heart ; 
and  you  can  only  break  through  the  charm  with  an  effort  that  requires  the  whole  of 
your  resolution." 

Paul  du  Chaillu  also — no  mean  authority  on  the  subject — firmly  believes  in  this 
power  of  fascination  ;  and  gives  an  instance  in  point  :t  "  I  shall  never  forget  that  one 
day,  as  I  lay  ill  under  that  big  tree,  I  spied  an  enormous  snake  folded  among  the 
branches  of  another  tree  not  far  from  me.  My  attention  had  been  drawn  to  that  tree 
by  the  cries  of  a  squirrel.  The  snake  was  charming  the  poor  little  squirrel.  How 
nice  the  squirrel  was ;  bow  beautiful  his  little  tail ;  how  black  and  bright  seemed  his 
little  eyes.  His  little  feet  were  moving  onward  toward  the  snake;  his  little  tail  was 
up,  and  he  chippered  as  he  advanced  toward  certain  death.  The  snake  was  still  as 
death ;  not  one  of  his  folds  could  have  been  seen  moving.  How  black  and  shiny  the 
ugly  creature  was,  and  what  a  contrast  with  the  green  leaves  of  the  trees.  Part  of 
his  body  was  coiled  on  the  limb  of  the  tree.  How  fixedly  he  looked  on  the  squirrel. 
His  head  was  triangular,  and  he  belonged  to  that  family  of  snakes  that  spend  the 
*  Harper's  Magazine,  March,  1855.  t  Wild  Life  Under  the  Equator,  161. 


624 


THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 


greatest  portion  of  their  lives  on  trees.  Nearer  and  nearer  the  squirrel  came ;  louder 
and  louder  were  his  chipperings;  he  tried  to  run  away,  but  could  not.  At  last  he 
came  within  a  foot  of  the  snake.  There  was  a  pause ;  then  suddenly,  like  a  flash  of 
lightning,  the  snake  sprang.  The  poor  little  squirrel  was  in  the  folds  of  the  ugly 
reptile,  and  I  soon  saw  his  body  gradually  disappearing  into  its  inflated  mouth,  and 
the  broken  silence  of  the  forest  resumed  its  sway."  Here  I  leave  the  vexed  question 
of  serpentine  fascination,  with  the  expression  of  my  own  opinion  that,  while  much  can 
be  said  on  both  sides,  yet,  upon  the  whole,  the  nays  have  it. 


CHARMIXG    THE    SQUIRREL. 


The  various  serpent  tribes  are  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  many  enemies,  who  fortu- 
nately keep  their  numbers  within  salutary  bounds,  and  avenge  the  death  of  the  count- 
less insects,  worms,  toads,  frogs,  and  lizards,  that  foil  a  prey  to  their  strength  or  their 
venom.  Several  species  of  rapacious  and  aquatic  birds  live  upon  snakes,  the  American 
ostrich  thins  their  ranks  wherever  he  can,  and  the  African  "  Secretary"  is  renowned  for 
his  prowess  in  serpentine  warfare.  "  The  battle  was  obstinate,"  says  Le  Vaillant, 
describing  one  of  these  conflicts,  "  and  conducted  with  equal  address  on  both  sides. 
The  serpent,  feeling  the  inferiority  of  his  strength,  in  his  attempt  to  flee,  and  regain 
his  hole,  employed  that  cunning  which  is  ascribed  to  him,  while  the  bird,  guessing  his 
design,  suddenly  stopped  him,  and  cut  off  his  retreat  by  placing  herself  before  him  at 
a  single  leap.  On  whatever  side  the  reptile  endeavored  to  make  its  escape,  his  enemy 
was  still  found  before  him.  Then,  uniting  at  once  bravery  and  cunning,  he  erected 
himself  boldly  to  intimidate  the  bird,  and  hissing  dreadfully,  displayed  his  menacing 
throat,  inflamed  eyes,  and  a  head  swollen  with  rage  and  venom.  Sometimes  this 
threatening  appearance  produced  a  momentary  suspension  of  hostilities,  but  the  bird 
soon  returned  to  the  charge,  and  covering  her  body  with  one  of  her  wings  as  a  buck- 


SOME    SERPENT-DESTROYERS.  625 

ler,  struck  her  enemy  with  the  horny  protuberances  upon  the  other,  which,  like  little 
clubs,  served  the  more  effectually  to  knock  him  down  as  he  raised  himself  to  the 
blow ;  at  last  he  staggered  and  fell,  the  conqueror  then  despatched  him,  and  with  one 
stroke  of  her  bill  laid  open  his  skull."  The  secretary-eagle  has  now  been  successfully 
acclimatized  in  the  West  Indies,  where  he  renders  himself  useful  by  the  destruction 
of  the  venomous  snakes  with  which  the  plantations  are  infested. 

Gravely,  "  with  measured  step  and  slow,"  like  a  German  philosopher  cogitating 
over  the  nature  of  the  absolute,  but,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  much  more  profitably 
engaged,  the  "  Adjutant  "  wanders  among  the  reeds  on  the  banks  of  the  muddy 
Ganges.  The  aspect  of  this  colossal  bird,  measuring  six  feet  in  hight  and  nearly 
fifteen  from  tip  to  tip  of  the  wings,  is  far  from  being  comely,  as  his  enormous  bill,  his 
naked  head  and  neck,  except  a  few  straggling  curled  hairs,  his  large  craw  hanging 
down  the  forepart  of  the  neck  like  a  pouch,  and  his  long,  naked  legs,  are  certainly  no 
features  of  beauty.  Suddenly  he  stops,  dips  his  bill  among  the  aquatic  plants,  and 
immediately  raises  it  again  triumphantly  into  the  air,  for  a  long  snake,  despairingly 
t\yisting  and  wriggling,  strives  vainly  to  escape  from  the  formidable  pincers  which 
hold  it  fast.  The  bird  throws  back  his  head,  and  the  reptile  appears  notably  dimin- 
ished in  size  ;  a  few  more  gulps,  and  it  has  entirely  disappeared.  And  now  the  sedate 
bird  continues  his  stately  promenade  with  the  self-satisfied  mien  of  a  merchant  who 
has  just  made  a  successful  speculation,  and  is  engaged  in  the  agreeable  calculation  of 
his  gains.  But  lo  !  again  the  monstrous  bill  descends,  and  the  same  scene  is  again 
repeated.  The  good  services  of  the  Giant  Heron  in  clearing  the  land  of  noxious  rep- 
tiles, and  the  havoc  he  is  able  to  make  among  their  ranks,  may  be  judged  of  by  the 
simple  fact,  that  on  opening  the  body  of  one  of  them,  a  land-tortoise  ten  inches  long 
and  a  large  black  cat  were  found  entire  within  it,  the  former  in  the  pouch,  as  a  kind 
of  stock  in  trade,  the  latter  in  the  stomach,  all  ready  for  immediate  consumption. 

Trusting  to  his  agility  and  the  certainty  of  his  eye,  the  Indian  Ichneumon  or  Mon- 
goos  attacks  without  hesitation  the  most  venomous  serpents.  The  cobra,  which  drives 
even  the  leopard  to  flight,  rises  before  the  little  creature  with  swelling  head  and  fury 
in  its  eye ;  but  swift  as  thought,  the  ichneumon,  avoiding  the  death-stroke  of  the  pro- 
jecting fangs,  leaps  upon  its  back,  and  fastening  his  sharp  teeth  in  the  head,  soon 
despatches  the  helpless  reptile. 

The  serpents  sometimes  even  feed  upon  their  own  brethren.  Thus  a  rat-snake  in 
the  Zoological  Gardens  was  once  seen  to  devour  a  common  Coluber  natrix,  but  not 
having  taken  the  measure  of  his  victim,  he  could  not  dispose  of  the  last  four  inches 
of  his  tail,  which  stuck  out  rather  jauntily  from  the  side  of  his  mouth,  with  very  much 
tlie  look  of  a  cigar.  After  a  quarter  of  an  hour  the  tail  began  to  exhibit  a  retrograde 
motion,  and  the  swallowed  snake  was  disgorged,  nothing  the  worse  for  his  living  sep- 
ulchre with  the  exception  of  the  wound  made  by  his  partner  when  he  first  seized  him. 
A  python  in  the  same  collection,  who  had  lived  for  years  on  friendly  terms  with  a 
lirother  nearly  as  large  as  himself,  was  found  one  morning  sole  tenant  of  his  den.  As 
the  cage  was  secure,  the  keeper  was  puzzled  to  know  how  the  serpent  had  escaped. 
At  last  it  was  observed  that  the  remaining  inmate  had  swollen  remarkably  during  the 
night,  when  the  truth  came  out.  It  was,  however,  the  last  meal  of  the  fratricide,  for 
in  some  months  he  died. 

When  we  consider  that  the  snakes  have  neither  legs,  wings,  nor  fins,  and  arc  indeed 
40 


626  THE   TROPICAL    WOULD. 

deprived  of  all  the  usual  means  of  locomotion,  the  rapidity  of  their  progress  is  not 
a  little  surprising.  On  examining  the  anatomical  structure  of  their  body,  however,  it 
will  be  remarked  that  while  we  have  only  twelve  pair  of  ribs  united  in  front  by  the 
breast-bone  and  cartilage,  the  snake  has  often  more  than  three  hundred,  unconnected 
in  front,  and  consequently  much  more  free  in  their  motions,  a  faculty  which  is  still  in- 
creased by  the  great  mobility  of  the  spondyli  of  the  backbone.  Between  the  ribs  and 
the  broad  transverse  scales  or  plates  which  exist  on  the  belly  of  all  such  serpents  as 
move  rapidly,  we  find  numerous  muscles  connecting  them  one  with  another,  and  thus, 
amply  provided  with  a  whole  system  of  strong  pulleys  and  points  of  attachment,  the 
reptile,  bringing  up  the  tail  towards  the  head,  by  bending  the  body  into  one  or  more 
curves,  and  then  again  resting  upon  the  tail  and  extending  the  body,  glides  swiftly 
along,  not  only  upon  even  ground,  but  even  sometimes  from  branch  to  branch,  as  the 
smallest  hold  suffices  for  its  stretching  out  its  body  a  foot's  length  into  the  air,  and 
thus  reaching  another  sallying  point  for  further  progress. 

The  anatomy  of  the  serpent's  jaws  is  no  less  remarkable  than  the  mechanism  of  its 
movements.  In  spite  of  their  proverbial  wisdom,  snakes  would  not  be  able  to  exist 
unless  they  were  able  to  swallow  large  animal  masses  at  a  time.  For,  however  rapid 
their  motions  may  be,  those  of  their  prey  are  in  general  still  more  active,  and  thus 
they  are  obliged  to  wait  in  ambush  till  a  fortunafi  chance  provides  them  with  a  copious 
meal.  The  victim  is  often  much  more  bulky  than  the  serpent  itself;  but  still,  without 
tearing  it  to  pieces,  it  is  able  to  engulph  it  in  his  swelling  maw.  For  the  two  halves 
of  its  lower  jaw  do  not  coalesce  like  ours  into  one  solid  mass,  but  are  merely  connected 
in  front  by  a  loose  ligament,  so  that  each  part  can  be  moved  separately.  The  bones 
of  the  upper  jaw  and  palate  are  also  loosely  attached  or  articulated  one  with  the 
other,  and  thus  the  whole  mouth  is  capable  of  great  distension.  By  this  mechanism, 
aided  by  the  numerous  sharp  teeth,  which  are  so  many  little  hooks  with  the  point 
curved  backwards,  each  side  of  the  jaws  and  mouth  being  able  to  act  as  it  were  inde- 
pendently of  the  other,  alternately  hooks  itself  fast  to  the  morsel,  or  advances  to  fasten 
itself  farther  on  in  a  similar  manner,  and  thu3  the  reptile  draws  itself  over  its  prey, 
somewhat  in  the  same  way  as  we  draw  a  stocking  over  our  leg,  after  having  first,  by 
breaking  the  bones,  fashioned  it  into  a  convenient  mass,  and  rendered  its  passage  more 
easy  by  lubricating  it  with  its  saliva.  Slowly  the  huge  lump  disappears  behind  the 
jaws,  descends  lower  and  lower  beneath  the  scales,  which  seem  ready  to  burst  asunder 
with  distension,  and  then  the  satisfied  monster  coils  himself  up  once  more  to  digest  his 
meal  in  quiet.  The  time  required  for  this  purpose  varies  of  course  according  to  the 
size  of  the  morsel ;  but  often  weeks,  or  even  months,  will  pass  before  a  boa  awakens 
from  the  lethargic  repose  in  which — the  image  of  disgusting  gluttony — he  lies  plunged 
after  a  superabundant  meal. 

A  huge  python  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  fasted  the  almost  incredible  time  of 
twenty-two  months,  having  probably  prepared  himself  for  his  abstinence  by  a  splendid 
gorge ;  and  Dumeril  mentions  a  rattlesnake  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  which  likewise 
took  no  nourishment  during  twenty-one  months,  but  then,  as  if  to  make  up  for  lost 
time,  swallowed  three  hares  within  five  days.  The  reptiles  in  the  British  Zoological 
Gardens  are  ofifered  food  once  a  week,  but  even  then  their  appetites  are  frequently  not 
yet  awakened,  though  great  care  is  taken  never  to  spoil  their  stomachs  by  excess. 
Though  generally  the  objects  of  abhorrence  and  fear,  yet  serpents  sometimes  render 


MAGNITUDE   OF    SNAKES.  027 

themselves  useful  or  agreeable  to  man.  Thus  the  rat-suake  of  Ceylon  (  Coryphodon 
Blnmenbachii),  in  consideration  of  its  services  in  destroying  vermin,  is  often  kept  as  a 
household  pet,  and  so  domesticated  by  the  natives  as  to  feed  at  their  table.  The  beau- 
tiful coral-snake  {Elaps  corallinus)  is  fondled  by  the  Brazilian  ladies,  but  the  domes- 
tication of  the  dreaded  cobras  as  protectors  in  the  place  of  dogs,  is  still  more  remark- 
able. They  glide  about  the  house,  going  in  and  out  at  pleasure,  a  terror  to  thieves, 
but  never  attempting  to  harm  the  inmates. 

The  Tree-snakes  offer  many  beautiful  examples  of  the  adaptation  of  color  to  the 
animal's  pursuits,  which  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  admire  in  our  brief  review 
of  the  tropical  insect  world.  They  are  frequently  of  an  agreeable  green  or  bluish 
hue,  so  as  hardly  to  be  distinguishable  from  the  foliage  among  which  they  seek  their 
prey,  or  where  they  themselves  are  liable  to  be  seized  upon  by  their  enemies.  They 
are  often  able  vertically  to  ascend  the  smoothest  trunks  and  branches,  in  search  of 
squirrels  and  lizards,  or  to  rifle  the  nests  of  birds. 

The  Water-snakes  which  infest  some  parts  of  the  tropical  seas,  though  far  from 
equalling  in  size  the  vast  proportions  of  the  fabulous  sea-serpent,  are  very  formidable 
from  their  venomous  bite.  They  have  the  back  part  of  the  body  and  tail  very  much 
compressed  and  raised  vertically,  so  as  to  serve  them  as  a  paddle  with  which  they 
rapidly  cleave  the  waters. 

Of  enormous  snakes,  whose  dimensions  exceed  all  credibility,  the  old  writers  are 
full.  One  can  there  find  them  of  any  length  he  pleases,  a  few  yards  more  or  less  being 
of  no  consequence.  Thus  the  famous  serpent  which  in  Africa  stopped  the  march  of 
the  Roman  army  of  Atilius  Regulus,  is  said  to  have  been  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet 
in  length.  A  recent  traveler  in  Ceylon,  while  acknowledging  that  thirty  feet  was  the 
utmost  for  which  he  was  prepared  to  vouch  personally,  was,  as  he  says,  credibly  assured 
that  one  had  been  lately  killed  which  measured  forty-five  feet  in  length,  with  a  circum- 
ference of  six  feet ;  and  he  was  told  of  another,  killed  in  India  not  long  ago,  which 
attained  the  respectable  length  of  sixty  feet.  But  passing  over  these  quite  suspicious 
narratives,  we  find  accounts  of  serpents  quite  long  enough  to  satisfy  any  reasonable 
desire. 

Equatorial  Africa  appears  to  be  a  favorite  abode  for  the  serpentine  family ;  and  if 
any  of  monstrous  size  exjst  there,  they  could  hardly  escape  the  keen  eyes  of  Paul  du 
Chaillu.  He  thus  describes  the  death  of  the  largest  one  of  which  we  notice  any 
mention  in  his  books:*  "After  resting  a  little  while  we  continued  our  course  till 
we  reached  the  top  of  a  very  high  mountain,  whence  I  could  see  all  the  country  round. 
I  was  sitting  under  a  very  large  tree,  when  suddenly  looking  up,  I  saw  an  immense 
serpent  coiled  upon  the  branch  of  a  tree  just  above  me.  I  rushed  out,  and  taking 
good  aim  with  my  gun,  I  shot  my  black  friend  in  the  head.  He  let  go  his  hold,  tum- 
bled down  with  great  force,  and  after  writhing  convulsively  for  a  time,  he  lay  before 
me  dead.  He  measured  thirteen  feet  in  length,  and  his  ugly  fangs  proved  that  he 
was  venomous.  My  men  cut  off  the  head  of  the  snake,  and  divided  the  body  into  as 
many  parts  as  there  were  people.  Then  they  lighted  a  fire,  and  roasted  and  ate  it  on 
the  spot.  They  offered  me  a  piece,  but  though  I  was  very  hungry,  I  declined.  When 
the  snake  was  eaten,  I  was  the  only  individual  in  the  company  that  had  an  empty 
stomach." 

*  Stories  of  the  Gorilla  Country,  59. 


628 


THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 


But  Wallace  goes  beyond  Du  Chaillu  in  his  accounts  of  the  actual  size  of  serpents 
existino-  in  the  almost  unexplored  Malayan  islands.  He  says:*  "  One  day  my  boy  Ali 
came  home  with  a  story  of  a  big  snake.  He  was  walking  through  some  high  grass, 
and  stepped  on  something  which  he  took  for  a  small  fallen  tree ;  but  it  felt  cold  and 
yielding  to  his  feet,  and  far  to  the  right  and  left  there  was  a  waving  and  rustling  of 
the  herbage.     He  jumped  back  in  afiright,  and  prepared  to  shoot  ;  but  could  not  get 


a  good  view  of  the  creature,  and  it  passed  away,  he  said,  like  a  tree  being  dragged 
through  the  grass.  As  he  had  several  times  already  shot  large  snakes,  which  he  de- 
clared were  all  as  nothing  compared  with  this,  I  am  inclined  to  believe  it  must  have 
really  been  a  monster.  Such  creatures  are  rather  plentiful  here,  for  a  man  close  by 
showed  me  on  his  thigh  the  marks  where  he  had  been  seized  by  one  close  to  his  house. 
*  Malay  Archipelago,  392. 


LIZARDS— GECKOES— ANOLIS.  629 

It  was  big  enough  to  take  the  man's  thigh  in  his  mouth,  and  he  would  probably  have 
been  killed  and  devoured  by  it,  had  not  his  cries  brouglit  out  his  neighbors  who 
destroyed  it  with  their  choppers.  As  far  as  I  could  make  out,  it  was  about  twenty 
feet  long;  but  All's  was  probably  much  larger." 

The  Tropical  World  may  well  be  called  the  head-quarters  of  the  lizard  race,  as 
nowhere  else  do  these  reptiles  appear  in  such  multitudes  or  in  such  diversified  forms 
of  genera  and  species.  The  stranger  is  astonished  "by  their  numbers  as  soon  as  he  sets 
foot  on  a  tropical  shore ;  for  on  all  sides,  on  the  sands  and  in  the  forests,  on  soft  banks 
and  hard  rocks,  on  trees  and  on  the  ground,  lizards  of  every  variety  of  size,  form,  and 
color,  are  seen  darting,  climbing,  crawling,  and  rustling. 

The  Geckoes,  one  of  the  family,  may  be  fairly  claimed  as  belonging  to  domestic 
animals,  since  they  take  up  their  abode  in  the  dwellings  of  man,  where  they  make 
themselves  useful  by  the  destruction  of  spiders,  flies,  and  other  noxious  or  disagreeable 
insects,  which  they  almost  always  swallow  whole,  their  throat  being  as  broad  as  the 
opening  of  their  jaws.  During  the  daytime  they  generally  remain  concealed  in  some 
dark  crevice  or  chink,  but  towards  evening  they  may  be  seen  running  along  the  steepest 
walls  with  marvelous  rapidity,  in  keen  pursuit  of  their  prey,  frequently  standing  still, 
nodding  with  their  head,  and  uttering  shrill  tones,  most  likely  by  smacking  their  tongue 
against  the  palate.  Their  flattened  flexible  body  seems  to  mould  itself  into  the  hol- 
lows, in  which  they  often  remain  motionless  for  hours,  and  their  generally  dull  color 
harmonizes  so  well  with  their  resting-places,  as  to  render  them  hardly  distinguishable; 
a  circumstance  which  answers  the  double  purpose  of  masking  their  presence  from  the 
prey  for  which  they  lie  in  wait,  and  from  the  enemies  that  might  be  inclined  to  feast 
upon  them.  Among  these,  some  of  the  smaller  birds  of  prey — hawks  and  owls — are 
the  most  conspicuous,  not  to  mention  man,  the  arch-persecutor  of  almost  every  -animal 
large  enough  to  attract  his  notice. 

How  comes  it  that  these  nocturnal  lizards,  seemingly  in  defiance  of  the  laws  of 
gravitation,  are  thus  able  to  adhere  to  our  ceilings  or  any  other  overhanging  surfaces  ? 
An  inspection  of  the  soles  of  their  broad  feet  will  soon  solve  the  enigma,  for  all  their 
toes  are  considerably  dilated  on  their  margins,  and  divided  beneath  into  a  number  of 
transverse  lamella?,  parallel  to  each  other,  and  generally  without  any  longitudinal  fur- 
row. From  these  a  fluid  exudes  which  serves  to  attach  the  animal  to  the  surface.  They 
are  also  generally  provided  with  sharp  and  crooked  claws,  retractile  and  movable,  like 
those  of  a  cat,  and  which  render  them  good  service  in  climbing  the  trees. 

In  spite  of  their  harmless  nature,  the  Geckoes — their  real  utility  being  forgotten 
over  imaginary  grievances — nowhere  enjoy  a  good  reputation,  probably  in  consequence 
of  their  ugliness  and  the  wild  expression  of  their  large  eyes.  They  are  accused  of 
tainting  with  a  virulent  secretion  every  object  they  touch,  and  of  provoking  an  erup- 
tion on  the  skin  merely  by  running  over  it — a  popular  prejudice  which  naturally  causes 
many  a  poor  inoffensive  Gecko's  death.  They  abound  all  over  the  torrid  zone,  even  in 
the  remote  islands  of  the  Pacific,  such  as  Tahiti  and  Vanikoro.  Dumeril  enumer- 
ates fifty-five  different  species,  only  two  of  which  are  indigenous  ia  Southern  Europe, 
while  India  monopolizes  no  less  than  thirteen  for  her  share. 

The  graceful  Anolis  are  peculiar  to  America.  By  the  structure  of  their  feet,  pro- 
vided with  long  unequal  toes,  they  are  related  to  the  Geckoes,  but  are  distinguished 


630  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

from  thprn  by  a  more  slender  form  of  body,  by  their  extremely  long  thin  tail,  and  a 
large  neck-pouch,  which  dilates  under  the  influence  of  excitement.  These  small  and 
nimble  creatures,  the  largest  species  seldom  exceeding  eight  inches  in  length,  are  as 
touchy  as  fighting  cocks.  On  approaching  them,  they  instantly  blow  up  their  pouch, 
open  widely  their  diminutive  jaws,  and  spring  upon  the  aggressor,  striving  to  bite  him 
with  their  teeth,  which,  however,  are  too  small  to  do  much  harm.  Among  each  other 
they  live  in  a  perpetual  state  of  warfare.  As  soon  as  one  Anolis  sees  another,  he 
makes  a  rapid  advance,  while  his  adversary  awaits  him  with  all  the  courage  of  a  gal- 
lant knight.  Before  beginning  the  conflict,  they  make  all  sorts  of  menacing  gestures, 
convulsively  nodding  their  heads,  pufiing  up  their  pouches,  until  finally  they  close  in 
desperate  struggle.  If  they  are  of  equal  strength,  the  battle  remains  for  some  time 
undecided.  At  length  the  vanquished  Anolis  turns  and  runs  away,  but  he  may  think 
himself  fortunate  if  he  escapes  with  the  loss  of  his  tail.  Many  of  them  are  thus 
deprived  of  this  ornamental  appendage,  which  they  voluntarily  leave  behind  to  avoid 
a  still  greater  disaster,  and  then  they  become  timid,  melancholy,  and  fond  of  retire- 
ment, as  if  ashamed  of  being  seen,  only  regaining  their  spirits  when,  by  a  wonderful 
power  of  reproduction,  the  amputated  tail  has  been  replaced  by  another. 

Like  many  other  lizards,  the  Anolis  possesses  the  faculty  of  changing  color  when 
under  the  influence  of  excitement;  but  of  all  animals,  whether  terrestrial  or  marine, 
none  is  more  farnous  or  remarkable  in  this  respect  than  the  Chameleon.  It  frequently 
happens  that  man,  not  satisfied  with  the  wonders  which  nature  everywhere  exposes  to 
his  view,  adds  to  their  marvels  others  of  his  own  invention,  and  thus  many  a  fable  has 
been  told  about  the  Chameleon.  It  has  been  said,  for  instance,  that  it  could  emulate 
all  the  colors  of  the  rainbow ;  but  the  more  accurate  observations  of  modern  natural- 
ists have  shown  that  the  whole  change,  which  takes  place  most  frequently  when  the 
Chameleon  is  exposed  to  'full  sunshine  or  under  the  influence  of  emotion,  consists  in  its 
ordinary  bluish-ash  color  turning  to  a  green  or  yellowish  hue,  with  irregular  spots  of  a 
dull  red.  Like  many  other  reptiles,  the  Chameleon  has  the  power  of  inflating  its 
lungs  and  retaining  the  air  for  a  long  time,  so  as  one  moment  to  appear  as  fat  and 
well  fed  as  an  alderman,  and  the  next  as  lean  and  bony  as  a  hungry  disciple  of  the 
muses.  These  alternating  expansions  and  collapses  seem  to  have  a  great  influence  on 
the  change  of  color;  which,  however,  according  to  Milne  Edwards,  is  principally 
owing  to  the  skin  of  the  animal  consisting  of  two  differently  colored  layers,  placed 
one  above  the  other,  and  changing  their  relative  positions  under  the  influence  of 
excitement. 

In  our  northern  regions  the  captive  Chameleon  cuts  but  a  sorry  figure ;  but  in  his 
own  sunny  regions,  which  extends  from  southern  Spain  and  Sicily  to  the  Cape,  and 
eastwards  from  Arabia  and  Hindostan  to  Australia,  it  is  said  to  be  by  no  means 
deficient  in  beauty,  in  spite  of  its  strangely-formed  keel-like  head,  its  enormously  pro- 
jecting eyes,  and  its  granulated  skin.  Its  manner  of  hunting  for  the  little  winged 
insects  that  form  its  principal  food  is  very  peculiar.  Although  the  movements  of  its 
head  are  very  limited,  on  account  of  the  shortness  of  its  neck,  this  deficiency  is  amply 
supplied  by  the  wide  range  of  its  vision,  each  eye  being  able  to  move  about  in  all 
directions  independently  of  the  other.  Thus,  while  one  of  them  attentively  gazes 
upon  the  heavens,  the  other  minutely  examines  the  ground,  or  while  one  of  them  rolls 
in  its  orbit,  the  other  remains  fixed  ;  nay,  their  mobility  is  so  great,  that  without  even 


THE   CHAMELEON— IGUANAS— THE  TEJU.  •     0;U- 

moving  its  stiff  head,  this  wonderful  lizard,  like  Janus,  the  double-faced  god  of  ancient 
Rome,  can  see  at  the  same  time  all  that  goes  on  before  and  behind  it.  When  an  in- 
sect comes  flying  along,  the  chameleon,  perched  on  a  branch,  and  half  concealed  between 
the  foliage,  follows  it  in  all  its  movements  by  means  of  his  powerful  telescopes,  until 
the  proper  njoment  for  action  appears.  Then,  quick  as  thought,  he  darts  forth,  even 
to  a  distance  of  five  or  six  inches,  his  long  fleshy  glutinous  tongue,  which  is  moreover 
furnished  with  a  dilated  and  somewhat  tubular  tip,  and  driving  it  back  with  the  same 
lightning-like  velocity,  engulfs  his  prey.  This  independence  of  the  eyes  is  owing  to 
the  imperfect  sympathy  which  subsists  between  the  two  lobes  of  the  brain  and  the  two 
sets  of  nerves  which  ramify  throughout  the  opposite  sides  of  its  frame.  Hence  also 
one  side  of  the  body  may  be  asleep  while  the  other  is  vigilant,  one  may  be  green 
while  the  other  is  ash-blue,  and  it  is  even  said  that  the  Chameleon  is  utterly  unable  to 
swim,  because  the  muscles  of  both  sides  are  incapable  of  acting  ia  concert.  Destined 
for  a  life  upon  trees,  he  is  provided  with  organs  beautifully  adapted  for  supporting 
himself  on  the  flexible  branches ;  for  besides  the  cylindrical  tail  nearly  as  long  as  his 
body  which  he  coils  round  the  boughs,  his  five  toes  are  united  two  and  three  by  a 
common  skin,  so  as  to  form,  as  it  were,  a  pair  of  pincers  or  a  kind  of  hand,  admirably 
suited  for  a  holdfast. 

Among  the  Iguanas,  a  huge  lizard  tribe,  characterized  by  a  keel-like  back  and 
tail,  and  a  large  full-toothed  throat-pouch,  the  common  or  great  American  Guana 
(Iguana  tuherculata)  deserves  particular  notice,  as  its  white  flesh  is  considered  a 
great  delicacy  in  Brazil  and  the  West  Indies.  Notwithstanding  its  large  size,  for  it 
not  seldom  attains  a  length  of  four  or  five  feet,  and  the  formidable  appearance  of  its 
serrated  back,  it  is  in  reality  by  no  means  of  a  warlike  disposition,  and  so  stupid  that, 
instead  of  endeavoring  to  save  itself  by  a  timely  flight,  it  merely  stares  with  its  large 
eyes,  and  inflates  its  pouch,  while  the  noose  is  passing  round  its  neck  to  drag  it  forth 
from  its  hole.  The  Bahama  islands  abound  with  Guanas,  which  form  a  great  part  of 
the  subsistence  of  the  inhabitants.  They  are  caught  by  dogs,  trained  for  the  purpose, 
in  the  hollow  rocks  and  trees  where  they  nestle,  and  are  either  carried  alive  for  sale  to 
Carolina,  or  kept  for  home  consumption.  They  feed  wholly  on  vegetables  and  fruit, 
particularly  on  a  kind  of  fungus,  growing  at  the  roots  of  trees,  and  on  the  fruits  of  the 
difierent  kinds  of  ananas,  whence  their  flesh  most  likely  acquires  its  dehcate  flavor. 

The  famous  South  American  monitory  lizard  or  Teju,  {Tejus  monitor,)  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  whole  race,  as  he  measures  po  less  than  five  feet  from 
the  snout  to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  which  is  nearly  twice  as  long  as  the  body,  while  his 
black  color,  variegated  with  bright  yellow  bands  and  spots,  produces  an  agreeable  and 
pleasing  effect.  The  head  is  small,  the  snout  gradually  tapers,  the  limbs  are  slender, 
and  the  tail,  which  is  laterally  compressed,  gradually  decreases  towards  the  extremity. 
The  Teju  lives  in  cavities  and  hollows,  frequently  under  the  roots  of  trees.  When 
pursued,  he  runs  rapidly  straight  forward  to  his  burrow;  but  when  his  retreat  is  inter- 
cepted, he  defends  himself  valiantly,  and  proves  a  by  no  means  contemptible  an- 
tagonist, as  he  is  able  to  bite  through  a  thick  boot,  and  a  stroke  with  his  strong  and 
muscular  tail  will  completely  disable  a  dog.  Though  the  Monitor  generally  lives  on 
land,  he  is  an  excellent  swimmer,  and  catches  many  a  fish  in  its  native  element.  His 
chief  food,  however,  consists  in  various  fruits,  rats,  mice,  birds,  and  he  also  devours  a 
large  number  of  the  eggs  and  young  of  the  alligator. 


632    *  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

The  large  Water-lizards  {Hydrosauri)  frequent  the  low  river  banks  or  the  margins 
of  springs,  and  although  they  may  be  seen  basking  on  rocks  or  on  the  dead  trunk  of 
some  prostrate  tree  in  the  heat  of  the  sun,  yet  they  appear  more  partial  to  the  damp 
weeds  and  undergrowth  in  the  neighborhood  of  water.  Their  gait  has  somewhat  more 
of  the  awkward  lateral  motion  of  the  crocodile,  than  of  the  lively  action  of  the  smaller 
saurians.  When  attacked,  they  lash  violently  with  their  tail,  swaying  it  sideways  with 
great  force  like  the  cayman.  These  modern  types  of  the  Mososaurus  and  Tguanodon 
have  a  graceful  habit  of  extending  the  neck,  and  raising  the  head  to  look  about  them, 
and  as  you  follow  them  leisurely  over  the  rocks,  or  through  the  jungle,  they  frequently 
stop,  turn  their  heads  round,  and  take  a  deliberate  survey  of  the  intruder.  They  are 
by  no  means  vicious,  though  they  bite  severely  when  provoked,  acting,  however,  al- 
ways on  the  defensive.  On  examining  their  stomachs,  crabs,  locusts,  beetles,  the 
remains  of  jumping  fish,  the  scales  of  snakes,  and  bones  of  frogs  and  other  small 
animals  are  discovered.  Like  that  of  the  Iguanas,  their  flesh  is  delicate  eating,  re- 
sembling that  of  a  very  young  sucking-pig. 

The  formidable  name  of  Flying  Dragons  has  been  given  to  a  genus  of  small  lizards, 
remarkable  for  the  expansible  cutaneous  processes  with  which  the  sides  are  furnished, 
and  by  whose  means  they  are  enabled  to  spring  with  more  facility  from  branch  to 
branch,  and  even  to  support  themselves  for  some  time  in  the  air,  like  the  bat  or  flying- 
squirrel.  The  tiny  painted  Dragon  of  the  East,  the  Flying  Lizard  of  the  woods,  is 
fond  of  clinging  with  its  wings  to  the  smooth  trunks  of  trees,  and  there  remaining 
immovable,  basking  in  the  sun.  When  disturbed,  it  leaps  and  shuffles  away  in  an 
awkward  manner.  One  Mr.  Adams  had  in  his  possession,  reminded  him  of  a  bat  when 
placed  on  the  ground.  Sometimes  the  strange  creature  would  feign  death,  and  re- 
main perfectly  motionless,  drooping  its  head,  and  doubling  its  limbs,  until  it  fancied 
the  danger  over,  then  cautiously  raising  its  crouching  form,  it  would  look  stealthily 
around,  and  be  off"  in  a  moment.  The  dragon  consumes  flies  in  a  slow  and  deliberate 
manner,  swallowing  them  gradually ;  its  various  species  belong  exclusively  to  India 
and  the  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago. 

Who  has  not  heard  of  the  fatal  glance  of  the  Basilisk,  which,  according  to  poetical 
fancy  obliged  all  other  poisonous  animals  to  keep  at  a  respectful  distance.  The  truth 
is,  that  the  lizards  that  bear  this  dreaded  name,  which  has  been  given  them  from  the 
fanciful  resemblance  of  their  pointed  occipital  crest  to  a  regal  crown,  are  quite  as 
harmless  and  inoffensive  fes  the  flying  dragon.  They  are  chiefly  inhabitants  of  South 
America,  where  they  generally  lead  a  sylvan  life,  feeding  on  insects. 

A  few  words  on  Frogs  and  Toads  shall  close  this  rather  miscellaneous  chapter.  Of 
the  former  there  is  none  more  famous  than  the  hideous  Pipa  Surinarnensis,  which 
considerably  exceeds  in  size  the  common  toad,  and  whose  deformity  is  often  aggra- 
vated by  a  phenomenon  unexampled  in  the  rest  of  the  animal  world,  namely,  the 
young  in  various  stages  of  exclusion,  proceeding  from  cells  dispersed  over  the  back 
of  the  parent.  It  was  for  a  long  time  supposed  that  the  ova  of  this  extraordinary 
reptile  were  produced  in  the  dorsal  cells  without  having  been  first  excluded  in  the 
form  of  spawn  ;  but  it  is  now  thoroughly  ascertained  that  the  female  Pipa  deposits 
her  eggs  or  spawn  at  the  brink  of  some  stagnant  water,  and  that  the  male  collects  or 
amasses  the  heap  of  ova,  and  deposits  them  with  great  care  on  the  back  of  the  female, 


FROGS   AND   TOADS.  633 

where,  after  impregnation,  they  are  pressed  into  the  cellules,  which  are  at  that  period 
open  for  their  reception,  and  afterwards  close  over  them ;  thus  retaining  them  till  the 
period  of  their  second  birth,  which  happens  in  somewhat  less  than  three  months,  when 
they  emerge  from  the  back  of  the  parent  in  their  complete  state.  This  species  inhabits 
the  obscure  nooks  of  houses  in  Cayenne  and  Surinam,  avoiding  the  light  of  day  as  if 
conscious  of  its  unrivaled  hideousness. 

A  Brazilian  tree-frog  {Hyla  crepitans),  which  adheres  to  the  large  leaves,  not  merely 
with  its  widened  toes,  but  with  its  constantly  viscid  body,  has  a  voice  which  sounds 
like  the  cracking  of  a  large  piece  of  wood,  and  generally  proceeds  from  many  throats 
at  a  time.  On  wandering  through  the  forests  of  Brazil,  Prince  Maximilian  of  Neu 
Wied  was  often  surprised  by  this  singular  concert  issuing  from  the  dark  shades  of  the 
forest.  A  Surinam  tree-frog  {Hyla  micans)  has  the  singular  property  of  secreting  a 
luminous  slime,  so  as  to  look  in  the  dark  like  a  yellowish  will-o'-the-wisp.  Its  voice 
is  most  disagreeable,  and  is  said  at  times  completely  to  overpower  the  orchestra  of  the 
theatre  in  Paramaribo,  thus  emulating  the  stentorian  achievements  of  the  Virginian 
bull-frog. 

Wallace  describes  a  Flying  Frog,  of  which  he  discovered  a  single  specimen  in  the 
Island  of  Borneo.  It  was  brought  to  him  by  a  Chinese  workman,  who  declared  that 
he  had  seen  it  coming  down  in  a  slanting  direction  from  the  top  of  a  high  tree  as  it 
flew.  Its  toes  were  long,  and  fully  webbed  to  the  very  extremities,  so  that  when 
expanded  they  offered  a  surface  much  larger  than  the  body.  As  the  toes  had  dilated 
discs  for  adhesion,  showing  the  creature  to  be  a  true  tree-frog,  it  is  diflBcult  to  imagine 
that  this  immense  membrane  of  the  toes,  occupying  in  all  twelve  square  inches,  could 
be  for  the  purpose  of  swimming  only,  which  rendered  the  Chinaman's  account  cred- 
ible. Wallace  believes  this  to  be  the  first  instance  known  of  a  flying  frog.  The  pic- 
ture which  he  gives  of  this  creature  is  very  remarkable.  One  can  get  a  fair  idea  of 
it  by  imagining  an  ordinary  frog,  with  a  large  expanded  fan  attached  to  each  of  the 
four  limbs. 

Mr.  Darwin  thus  describes  a  remarkable  species  of  toad  he  noticed  at  Bahia. 
"  Amongst  the  Batrachian  reptiles,  I  found  only  one  little  toad,  which  was  most  sin- 
gular from  its  color.  If  we  imagine,  first,  that  it  had  been  steeped  in  the  blackest 
ink,  and  then,  when  dry,  allowed  to  crawl  over  a  board  freshly  painted  with  the  bright- 
est vermilion,  so  as  to  color  the  sides  of  its  feet  and  parts  of  its  stomach,  a  good  idea 
of  its  appearance  will  be  gained.  If  it  is  an  unnamed  species,  surely  it  ought  to  be 
called  diabolicus,  for  it  is  a  fit  toad  to  preach  in  the  ear  of  Eve.  Instead  of  being 
nocturnal  in  its  habits  as  other  toads  are,  and  living  in  damp  and  obscure  recesses,  it 
crawls  during  the  heat  of  the  day  about  the  dry  sand  hillocks  and  arid  plains,  where 
not  a  single  drop  of  water  can  be  found.  It  must  necessarily  depend  on  the  dew  for 
its  moisture,  and  this  probably  is  absorbed  by  the  skin,  for  it  is  known  that  these  rep- 
tiles possess  great  powers  of  cutaneous  absorption.  At  Maldonado  I  found  one  in  a 
situation  nearly  as  dry  as  at  Bahia  Blanca,  and,  thinking  to  give  it  a  great  treat,  car- 
ried it  to  a  pool  of  water ;  not  only  was  the  little  animal  unable  to  swim,  but  I  think 
without  help  would  soon  have  been  drowned." 

The  giant-toad  (Bufo  gigas,  agua),  frequents  the  Brazilian  campos  in  such  numbers 
that  in  the  evening  or  after  a  shower  of  rain,  when  they  come  forth  from  their  hiding- 
places  to  regale  on  the  damp  and  murky  atmosphere,  the  earth  seems  literally  to  swarm 


634  THE   TROPICAL  WORLD. 

with  them.  They  are  double  the  size  of  our  common  toad,  and  are  even  said  to  attain, 
with  their  outstretched  hind  legs,  a  foot's  length,  with  a  proportionate  girth.  Covered 
with  unsightly  warts,  and  of  a  dull  gray  color,  their  aspect  is  repulsive,  and  when 
excited,  they  eject  a  liquid  which  is  very  much  feared  by  the  natives.  Their  voice  is 
loud  and  disagreeable,  while  Guinea  possesses,  in  the  Breviceps  gibbosus,  a  small  toad 
which  is  said  to  sing  delightfully,  "  charming  the  swamps  with  its  melodious  notes." 


i 


ALLIGATORS  AND   CROCODILES. 


CHAPTER   XL 

ALLIGATORS— CROCODILES— TORTOISES  AND  TURTLES. 

Alligators  and  Crocodiles:  Their  Habits — Caymen,  Gavials  and  Crocodiles — Mode  of  Seizing 
their  Prey — Size  of  Alligators — Alligators  on  the  Amazon — Alligator  and  Crane — Man- 
Eating  Alligators — Their  Contests — Tenacity  of  Life — Laying  their  Eggs — Tenderness  for 
their  Young — Their  Enemies — Torpidity  in  the  Dry  Season — "Playing  'Possum." — Tor- 
toises and  Turtles :  The  Galapago  Islands — The  Elephantine  Tortoise — Rate  of  Traveling — 
Marsh  Tortoises — Manufacture  of  Tortoise  Oil — Turtles  on  the  Amazon — Sea-Turtles — 
Their  Enemies— Modes  of  Capturing  Turtles— The  Green  Turtle— The  Hawksbill  Turtle 
—Barbarous  Modes  of  Removing  the  Shell,  and  Selling  the  Meat — The  Coriaceous  Turtle. 

THERE  was  a  time,  long  before  man  appeared  upon  the  scene,  when  huge  croco- 
diles swarmed  in  the  rivers  of  the  temperate  zone.  But  the  day  when  the 
ferocious,  bone-harnessed  Saurians  lorded  it  in  these  streams  has  passed,  never  to 
return ;  the  diminished  warmth  of  what  are  now  the  temperate  regions  of  the  globe 
having  long  since  confined  them  to  the  large  rivers  and  lagunes  of  the  torrid  zone. 
The  scourge  and  terror  of  all  that  lives  in  the  waters  which  they  frequent,  they  may 
with  full  justice  be  called  the  very  images  of  depravity,  as  perhaps  no  animals  in 
existence  bear  in  their  countenance  more  decided  marks  of  cruelty  and  malice.  The 
depressed  head,  so  significant  of  a  low  cerebral  development;  the  vast  maw,  garnished 
with  formidable  rows  of  conical  teeth,  entirely  made  for  snatch  and  swallow ;  the 
elongated  mud-colored  body,  with  its  long  lizard-like  tail,  resting  on  short  legs,  stamp 
them  with  a  peculiar  frightfulness,  and  proclaim  the  baseness  of  their  instincts.  The 
short-snouted,  broad-headed  Alligators,  or  Caymen,  belong  to  the  New  World;  the 
Gavials,  distinguished  by  their  straight,  long,  and  narrow  jaw,  are  exclusively  Indian ; 
while  the  oblong-headed  Crocodiles  are  not  only  found  in  Africa  and  Asia,  but  like- 
wise infest  the  swamps  and  rivers  of  America.  All  these  animals,  however,  though 
different,  in  form  and  name,  have  everywhere  similar  habits  and  manners ;  so  that,  in 
general,  what  is  remarked  of  the  one  may  be  applied  to  the  others. 

Awkward  and  slow  in  their  movements  on  the  land,  they  are  very  active  in  the 
water,  darting  along  with  great  rapidity  by  means  of  their  strong  muscular  tail  and 
their  webbed  hind  feet.  They  sometimes  bask  in  the  sunbeams  on  the  banks  of  the 
rivers,  but  oftener  float  on  the  surface,  where,  concealing  their  head  and  feet,  they 
appear  like  the  rough  trunk  of  a  tree,  both  in  shape  and  color,  and  thus  are  enabled 
the  more  easily  to  deceive  and  catch  their  prey.  In  America,  many  a  slow-paced 
Capybara,  or  Water-pig,  coming  in  the  dusk  of  evening  to  slake  its  thirst  in  the 
lagune,  has  been  suddenly  seized  by  this  insidious  foe;  and  the  Gangetic  Gavial  is. 
said  to  make  even  the  tiger  his  prey.  When  the  latter  quits  the  thick  cover  of  the 
jungle  to  drink  at  the  stream,  the  Gavial,  concealed  under  water,  steals  along  the 


636  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

bank,  and,  suddenly  emerging,  furiously  attacks  the  tiger,  who  never  declines  the 
combat ;  and  though  in  the  struggle  the  Gavial  frequently  loses  his  eyes  and  receives 
dreadful  wounds  on  the  head,  he  at  length  drags  his  adversary  into  the  water,  and 
there  devours  him. 

On  the  American  streams,  the  stillness  of  the  night  is  often  interrupted  by  the 
clacking  of  the  alligator's  teeth,  and  the  lashing  of  his  tail  upon  the  waters.  The 
singular  and  awful  sound  of  his  voice  can  also  readily  be  distinguished  from  that 
of  all  the  other  beasts  of  the  wilderness.  It  is  like  a  suppressed  sigh,  bursting  forth 
all  of  a  sudden,  and  so  loud  as  to  be  heard  above  a  mile  off.  First,  one  emits  this 
horrible  noise ;  then  another  answers  him ;  and  far  and  wide  the  repetition  of  the 
sound  proclaims  that  the  alligators  are  awake. 

As  in  the  case  of  snakes,  the  size  to  which  alligators  and  crocodiles  attain  is  grossly 
exaggerated.  Thorpe  was  gravely  assured  by  a  gentleman,  "  not  given  to  big  stories," 
that  he  once  saw  an  alligator  whose  jaws  opened  at  least  five  feet ;  and  another  gentle- 
man, and  a  Congressman  to  boot,  persisted  that  he  once  shot  in  the  Bay  of  Pascagoula 
an  alligator  twenty-one  feet  long.  But  a  planter  of  a  scientific  turn  of  mind,  residing  in 
the  noted  alligator  region  of  the  Bed  Biver  in  Arkansas  for  years,  made  a  standing  offer 
of  a  hundred  dollars  for  an  alligator  dead  or  alive,  of  more  than  twelve  feet  in  length. 
It  is  probable  that  since  the  introduction  of  steamers  upon  the  Mississippi,  and  its 
lower  tributaries,  that  the  alligator  finds  so  many  enemies  that  he  is  cut  off  before 
reaching  his  full  stature ;  for  Audubon  expressly  affirms  that  he  saw  one  who  he 
judged  to  be  some  centuries  old,  who  measured  seventeen  feet  in  length.  In  his  time 
these  monsters  must  have  had  a  jolly  time  of  it  in  the  Bed  Biver,  where  he  often  saw 
hundreds  of  them  at  once,  the  smaller  ones  riding  on  the  backs  of  the  larger,  and  all 
of  them  groaning  and  bellowing  like  so  many  mad  bulls  ready  for  a  fight,  and  so  ut- 
terly indifferent  to  the  presence  of  man  that,  unless  shot  at,  they  would  take  no  notice 
of  a  boat  at  a  few  yards'  distance. 

South  America  is  yet  a  secure  home  of  the  alligator,  where  undisturbed  by  man 
he  attains  his  full  size.  Orton  in  ascending  the  river  Guayas  on  the  western  coast, 
says  that*  "  the  chief  representative  of  animal  life  is  the  lazy,  ugly  alligator.  Large 
numbers  of  these  monsters  may  be  seen  on  the  mud-bank  basking  in  the  hot  sun,  or 
asleep  with  their  mouths  wide  open.  But  upon  the  Amazon  they  bear  the  palm  for 
ugliness,  size,  and  strength.  In  the  sum.mer  the  main  river  swarms  with  them ;  in 
the  wet  season  they  retreat  to  the  interior  lakes  and  forests.  About  Obidos  where 
many  of  the  pools  dry  up  in  the  fine  months,  the  alligator  buries  itself  in  the  mud, 
and  sleeps  till  the  rainy  season  returns.  It  is  scarcely  exaggerating  to  say  that  the 
waters  of  the  Solimoens  are  as  well  stocked  with  large  alligators  in  the  dry  season  as 
a  ditch  with  us  is  with  tadpoles  in  the  summer.  There  are  three  or  four  species  in 
the  Amazon.  The  largest,  the  Jucare  uassu  of  the  natives,  attains  a  length  of  twenty 
feet.  Sluggish  on  land,  the  alligator  is  very  agile  in  its  native  element.  It  never 
attacks  man  when  on  his  guard,  but  is  cunning  enough  to  know  when  it  may  do  this 
with  safety.  It  lays  its  eggs,  about  twenty,  at  some  distance  from  the  river  bank, 
covering  them  with  sticks.  They  are  about  four  inches  long,  of  an  elliptical  shape, 
with  a  rough  calcareous  shell.  Negro  venders  sell  them  cooked  in  the  streets  of 
Par^." 

*  The  Andes  and  the  Amazon,  35,  296. 


ALLIGATOR'S   MODE   OF   SEIZLNG   ITS   PREY. 


037 


Thorpe  gives  an  account  of  the  alligator's  mctliod  of  securing  his  prey  :*  "  The 
tail  of  the  alligator  is  his  most  efficient  weapon  of  defense  and  attack.  If  one  can 
keep  out  of  its  way,  comparatively  little  harm  may  be  expected.  If  any  animal  that 
he  seeks  for  his  prey  is  standing  upon  the  edge  of  the  water,  the  reptile  will  take  its 
bearing  and  swim  noiselessly  toward  the  shore,  occasionally  brino-ino-  an  eye  to  the 
surface  for  reconnoissance,  then  suddenly  rising  within  strikintr  distance  will  whirl 
round  his  tail  with  lightning  rapidity,  and  generally  bring  the  victim  into  his  jaws. 
I  was  fishing  on  one  occasion  upon  the  Bayou  Sara,  a  wild,  desolate  stream,  and  on 
the  opposite  bank  I  noticed  a  tall  crane  which  for  half  an  hour  had  been  standino- 
perfectly  still  and  half-leg  deep  in  the  water,  either  reflecting  upon  the  mutability  of 
ornitliological  affairs,  or  watching  for  minnows.  My  attention  was  also  arrested  by  the 
apparent  phenomenon  of  a  limb  of  a  tree  taking  upon  itself  motion,  and  cautiously 
moving  down  the  bank  of  the  bayou  toward  the  crane.  The  alligator — for  such  it 
was — by  a  strange  sidelong  motion,  gradually  reached  his  prey,  but  seemed  in  no 
haste  to  seize  it.  For  a  long  while  he  appeared  to  be  sleeping  on  the  bank  ;  when 
suddenly  he  contracted  himself  into  a  half-circle  around  the  bird,  opened  his  jaws, 
and  drove  the  bird  into  them  with  a  terrible  certainty,  and  then  with  a  nimble  spring 
disappeared  beneath  the  muddy  current." 


ALLIGATOR    AND    CRANE. 


The  statement  of  Orton,  that  alligators  rarely  attack  man.  is  hardly  borne  out  by 
other  authorities.  Indeed  it  is  said  that  as  in  the  case  of  the  lion,  when  they  have 
once  tasted  human  flesh  they  prefer  it  to  that  of  any  other  animal.  During  Hum- 
boldt's stay  at  Angostura,  a  monstrous  Cayman  seized  an  Indian  by  the  leg  while  he 
was  busy  pushing  his  boat  ashore  in  a  shallow  lagune,  and  immediately  dragged  him 
down  into  the  deeper  water.  The  cries  of  the  unfortunate  victim  soon  attracted  a 
large  number  of  spectators,  who  witnessed  the  astonishing  courage  with  which  he 
*  Harper's  Magazine,  December,  1854. 


638  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

searched  in  his  pocket  for  a  knife.  Not  finding  the  weapon,  he  then  seized  the  reptile 
by  the  head,  and '  pressed  his  fingers  into  its  eyes — a  method  which  saved  Mungo 
Park's  negro  from  a  similar  fate.  In  this  case,  however,  the  monster  did  not  let  go 
his  hold,  but  disappearing  under  the  surface  with  the  Indian,  came  up  again  with  hia^ 
as  soon  as  he  was  drowned,  and  dragged  the  body  to  a  neighboring  island.  "  One 
Sunday  evening,"  says  Waterton,  "  as  I  was  walking  with  Don  Felipe  de  Yriarte,  Gov- 
ernor of  Angostura,  on  the  bank  of  the  Orinoco — '  Stop  here  a  minute  or  two,'  said 
he  to  me,  '  while  I  recount  a  sad  accident.  One  fine  evening,  last  year,  as  the  people 
of  Angostura  were  sauntering  up  and  down  in  the  Alameda,  I  was  within  twenty 
yards  of  this  place,  when  I  saw  a  ^arge  Cayman  rush  out  of  the  river,  seize  a  man, 
and  carry  him  down,  before  anybody  had  it  in  his  power  to  assist  him.  The  screams 
of  the  poor  fellow  were  terrible,  as  the  Cayman  was  running  off"  with  him.  He  plunged 
into  the  river  with  his  prey ;  we  instantly  lost  sight  of  him,  and  never  saw  or  heard 
him  more.'  "  Humboldt  also  relates  that,  during  the  inundations  of  the  Orinoco,  alli- 
gators will  sometimes  make  their  appearance  in  the  very  streets  of  Angostura,  where 
they  have  been  known  to  attack  and  drag  away  a  human  prey. 

Even  among  each  other,  these  ferocious  animals  frequently  engage  in  deadly  con- 
flict. Thus  Schomburgk  once  saw  a  prodigiously  large  Cayman  seize  one  of  a 
smaller  species  by  the  middle  of  the  body,  so  that  the  head  and  tail  projected  on  both 
sides  of  its  muzzle.  Now  both  of  them  disappeared  under  the  surface,  so  that  only 
the  agitated  waters  of  the  otherwise  calm  river  announced  the  death-struggle  going  on 
beneath ;  and  then  again  the  monsters  reappeared,  wildly  beating  the  surface  ;  so  that 
it  was  hardly  possible  to  distinguish  here  a  tail,  or  there  a  monstrous  head,  in  the 
seething  whirlpool.  At  length,  however,  the  tumult  subsided,  and  the  large  Cayman 
was  seen  leisurely  swimming  to  a  sand-bank,  where  he  immediately  began  to  feed 
upon  his  prey. 

The  same  traveler  relates  an  interesting  example  of  the  Cayman's  tenacity  of  life. 
One  of  them  having  been  wounded  with  a  strong  harpoon,  was  dragged  upon  a  sand- 
bank. Here  the  rays  of  the  sun  seemed  to  infuse  new  life  into  the  monster,  for, 
awaking  from  his  death-like  torpidity,  he  suddenly  snapped  about  him  with  such  rage 
that  Schomburgk  and  his  assistants  thought  it  prudent  to  retreat  to  a  safer  distance. 
Seizing  a  long  pole,  the  bravest  of  the  Indians  now  went  towards  the  Cayman,  who 
awaited  the  attack  with  wide-extended  jaws,  and  plunged  the  stake  deep  into  his  maw 
— a  morsel  which  the  brute  did  not  seem  to  relish.  Meanwhile  two  other  Indians 
approached  him  from  behind,  and  kept  striking  him  with  thick  clubs  upon  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  tail.  At  every  blow  upon  this  sensitive  part,  the  monster  bounded  in  the 
air  and  extended  his  frightful  jaws,  which  were  each  time  immediately  regaled  with  a 
fresh  thrust  of  the  pole.  After  a  long  and  furious  battle,  the  Cayman,  who  measured 
twelve  feet  in  length,. was  at  last  slain.  Another  remarkable  instance  of  the  vitality 
of  the  common  crocodile  is  mentioned  by  Sir  E.  Tennent.  A  gentleman  at  Galle 
having  caught  on  a  baited  hook  an  unusually  large  one,  it  was  disembowelled  by  his 
coolies,  the  aperture  in  the  stomach  being  left  expanded  by  a  stick  placed  across  it. 
On  returning,  in  the  afternoon,  with  a  view  to  secure  the  head,  they  found  that  the 
creature  had  crawled  for  some  distance,  and  made  its  escape  into  the  water. 

Like  the  sea-turtles,  the  crocodiles  generally  deposit  their  eggs,  which  are  about  the 
size  of  those  of  a  goos6,  and  covered  with  a  calcareous  shell,  in  holes  made  in  the 


ENEMIES   OF   THE   ALLIGATOR.  G39 

sand,  leaving  them  to  be  hatched  by  the  warm  rays  of  the  tropical  sun.  In  some  parts 
of  America,  however,  they  have  been  observed  to  resort  to  a  more  ingenious  method, 
denoting  a  degree  of  provident  instinct  which  could  hardly  have  been  expected  in  a 
cold-blooded  reptile.  Raising  a  small  hillock  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  and  hollowing 
it  out  in  the  middle,  they  collect  a  quantity  of  leaves  and  other  vegetable  matters,  in 
which  they  deposit  their  eggs.  These  are  covered  with  the  leaves,  and  are  hatched 
by  the  heat  extricated  during  their  putrefaction,  along  with  that  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  female  Cayman  continues  for  some  time  after  their  birth  to  watch  over  her 
young  with  great  care.  One  day,  as  Schomburgk,  accompanied  by  an  Indian,  was 
busy  fishing  on  the  banks  of  the  Essequibo,  he  suddenly  heard  in  the  water  a  strange 
noise,  resembling  the  mewing  of  young  cats.  With  eager  curiosity  he  climbed  along 
the  trunk  of  a  tree  overhanging  the  river,  about  three  feet  above  the  water,  and  saw 
beneath  him  a  brood  of  young  alligators,  about  a  foot  and  a  half  long.  On  his  seizing 
and  lifting  one  of  them  out  of  the  water,  the  mother,  a  creature  of  prodigious  size,  sud- 
denly emerged  with  an  appalling  roar,  making  desperate  efforts  to  reach  her  wriggling 
and  screeching  offspring,  and  increasing  in  rage  every  time  Schomburgk  tantalized  her 
by  holding  it  out  to  her.  Having  been  wounded  with  an  arrow,  she  retired  for  a  few 
moments,  and  then  again  returned  with  redoubled  fury,  lashing  the  waters  into  foam  by 
the  repeated  strokes  of  her  tail.  Schomburgk  now  cautiously  retreated,  as  in  case  of  a 
fall  into  the  water  below,  he  would  have  had  but  little  reason  to  expect  a  friendly  re- 
ception, the  monster  pertinaciously  following  him  to  the  bank,  but  not  deeming  it  ad- 
visable to  land,  as  here  it  seemed  to  feel  its  helplessness.  The  scales  of  the  captured 
young  one  were  quite  soft  and  pliable,  as  it  was  only  a  few  days  old,  but  it  already  had 
the  peculiar  musk-like  smell  which  characterizes  the  full-grown  reptile. 

The  young  of  the  crocodiles  have  no  less  numerous  enemies  than  those  of  the 
snakes.  Many  an  egg  is  destroyed  in  the  hot  sand  by  small  carnivora,  or  birds,  before 
it  can  be  hatched ;  and  as  soon  as  the  young  creep  out  of  the  broken  shell,  and 
instinctively  move  to  the  waters,  the  Ichneumon — a  kind  of  weasel,  to  whom,  on  this 
account,  the  ancient  Egyptians  paid  divine  homage — or  the  long-legged  Heron  gobble 
up  many  of  them,  so  that  their  span  of  life  is  short  indeed.  In  the  water  they  are  not 
only  the  prey  of  various  sharp-toothed  fishes,  but  even  of  the  males  of  their  own  spe- 
cies, while  the  females  do  all  they  can  to  protect  them.  Even  the  full-grown  crocodile, 
in  spite  of  its  bony  harness,  is  not  exempt  from  attack.  Thus,  in  the  river  of  Tabasco, 
a  tortoise  of  the  genus  Oinyxis^  after  having  been  swallowed  by  the  alligator,  and, 
thanks  to  its  shelly  case,  arriving  unharmed  in  its  stomach,  is  said  to  have  eaten  its 
way  out  again  with  its  sharp  beak,  thus  putting  the  monster  to  a  most  excruciating 
death.  Even  man  not  only  kills  the  hideous  reptiles  in  self-defence,  or  for  the  sake  of 
sport,  but  for  the  purpose  of  regaling  upon  their  flesh.  In  the  Siamese  markets  and 
bazaars,  crocodiles,  large  and  small,  may  be  seen  hanging  in  the  butchers'  stalls,  instead 
of  mutton  or  lamb ;  and  Captain  Stokes,  who  more  than  once  supped  off  alligators 
steaks,  informs  us  that  the  meat  is  by  no  means  bad,  and  has  a  white  appearance  like 
veal. 

I  have  already  mentioned,  in  the  chapter  on  the  Llanos,  that  in  many  tropical  coun- 
tries the  aridity  of  the  dry  season  produces  a  similar  torpidity  in  reptile  life  to  that 
which  is  caused  by  the  cold  of  winter  in  the  higher  latitudes.  In  Ceylon,  when  the 
water-courses  begin  to  fail  and  the  tanks  become  exhausted,  the  marsh -crocodiles  are 


640  THE  TROPICAL  WORLD. 

sometimes  encountered  wandering  in  search  of  water  in  the  jungle  ;  but  generally, 
during  the  extreme  drought,  they  bury  themselves  in  the  sand  where  they  remain  in  a 
state  of  torpor,  till  released  by  the  recurrence  of  the  rains.  Sir  Emerson  Tennent, 
whilst  riding  across  the  parched  bed  of  a  tank,  was  shown  the  recess,  still  bearing  the 
form  and  impress  of  the  crocodile,  out  of  which  the  animal  had  been  seen  to  emerge 
the  day  before.  A  story  was  also  related  to  him  of  an  officer  who,  having  pitched  his 
tent  in  a  similar  position,  had  been  disturbed  during  the  night  by  feeling  a  movement 
of  the  earth  below  his  bed,  from  which,  on  the  following  day,  a  crocodile  emerged, 
making  its  appearance  from  beneath  the  matting. 

Like  many  other  of  the  lower  animals,  the  crocodile,  when  surprised,  endeavors  to 
save  itself  by  feigning  death.  Sir  Emerson  Tennent  relates  an  amusing  anecdote 
of  one  that  was  found  sleeping  several  hundred  yards  from  the  water.  "  The  terror 
of  the  poor  wretch  was  extreme  when  he  awoke  and  found  himself  discovered  and 
completely  surrounded.  He  was  a  hideous  creature,  upwards  of  ten  feet  long,  and 
evidently  of  prodigious  strength,  had  he  been  in  a  condition  to  exert  it;  but  consterna- 
tion completely  paralyzed  him.  He  started  to  his  feet,  and  turned  round  in  a  circle, 
hissing  and  clacking  his  bony  jaws,  with  his  ugly  green  eye  intently  fixed  upon  us. 
On  being  struck,  he  lay  perfectly  quiet  and  apparently  dead.  Presently  he  looked 
round  cunningly,  and  made  a  rush  towards  the  water ;  but  on  a  second  blow  he  lay 
again  motionless,  and  feigning  death.  We  tried  to  rouse  him,  but  without  eifect; 
pulled  his  tail,  slapped  his  back,  struck  his  hard  scales,  and  teased  him  in  every  way, 
but  all  in  vain.  Nothing  would  induce  him  to  move,  till,  accidentally,  my  son,  a  boy 
of  twelve  years  old,  tickled  him  gently  under  the  arm,  and  in  an  instant  he  drew  it 
close  to  his  side,  and  turned  to  avoid  a  repetition  of  the  experiment.  Again  he  was 
touched  under  the  other  arm,  and  the  same  emotion  was  exhibited,  the  great  monster 
twisting  about  like  an  infant  to  avoid  being  tickled." 

In  the  South  Sea,  exposed  to  the  vertical  beams  of  the  equatorial  sun,  lies  a  large 
group  of  uninhabited  islands,  on  whose  sterile  shores  you  would  look  in  vain  for  the 
palms,  bananas,  or  bread-fruit  trees  of  more  favored  lands,  as  rain  falls  only  upon 
the  bights,  and  never  descends  to  call  forth  plenty  on  the  arid  coasts.  And  yet  this 
desolate  group  offers  many  points  of  interest  to  the  naturalist,  for  the  Galapagos  or 
Tortoise  Islands  represent,  as  it  were,  a  little  world  in  themselves,  a  peculiar  creation 
of  animals  and  plants,  reminding  us,  more  strongly  than  the  productions  of  any  other 
land,  of  an  earlier  epoch  of  planetary  life.  Here  are  no  less  than  twenty-six  different 
species  of  land-birds,  which,  with  one  single  exception,  are  found  nowhere  else. 
Their  plumage  is  homely,  like  the  flora  of  their  native  country;  their  tameness  so 
great  that  they  may  be  killed  with  a  stick.  A  sea-mew,  likewise  peculiar  to  this 
group,  mixes  its  shriek  with  the  hoarse-resounding  surge ;  lizards,  existing  in  no  other 
country,  swarm  about  the  shore ;  and  the  gigantic  land-tortoise  ( Testudo  indica, 
elephantina) ,  although  now  spread  over  many  other  countries,  is  supposed  by  Mr. 
Darwin  to  have  had  its  original  seat  in  the  Galapagos,  where  it  was  formerly  found 
in  such  vast  numbers  as  to  have  given  the  group  its  Spanish  name.  If  the  seafarer 
visits  these  treeless  shores,  which  as  yet  produce  nothing  else  worth  gathering,  it  is 
chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  catching  a  few  of  these  huge  animals,  which,  in  spite  of 
frequent  persecutions,  still  amply  reward  a  short  sojourn  with  a  rich  supply  of  fresh 


TURTLES   ON   THE   AMAZON.  041 

meat.  Their  capture  costs  nothing  but  the  trouble,  for  man  has  not  yet  drawn  the 
boundary  marks  of  property  over  the  tenantless  land.  The  elephantine  tortoise 
inhabits  as  well  the  low  and  sterile  country,  where  it  feeds  on  the  fleshy  leaves  of  the 
cactus,  as  the  mountainous  regions  where  the  moist  trade-wind  calls  forth  a  richer 
vegetation  of  ferns,  grasses,  and  various  trees.  On  this  meagre  food,  which  seems 
hardly  sufficient  for  a  goat,  it  thrives  so  well  that  three  men  are  often  scarcely  able  to 
lift  it,  and  it  not  seldom  furnishes  more  than  200  pounds  of  excellent  meat. 

The  tortoises,  when  moving  towards  any  definite  point,  travel  by  night  and  day, 
and  arrive  at  their  journey's  end  much  sooner  than  would  be  expected.  The  inhabit- 
ants, from  observations  on  marked  individuals,  consider  that  they  can  move  a  distance 
of  about  eight  miles  in  two  or  three  days.  One  large  tortoise,  which  I  watched, 
1  found  walked  at  the  rate  of  sixty  yards,  in  ten  minutes,  that  is,  three  hundred  and 
sixty  in  the  hour,  or  four  miles  a  day,  allowing  also  a  little  time  for  it  to  eat  on  the 
road.  The  flesh  of  this  animal  is  largely  employed,  both  fresh  and  salted,  and  a  beau- 
tifully clear  oil  is  prepared  from  the  fat.  When  a  tortoise  is  caught,  the  man  makes  a 
slit  in  the  skin  near  its  tail,  so  as  to  see  inside  its  body,  whether  the  fat  under  the  dor- 
sal plate  is  thick.  If  it  is  not,  the  animal  is  liberated,  and  it  is  said  to  recover  soon 
from  this  strange  operation. 

The  marsh  tortoises,  or  Emydce,  have  their  chief  seat  in  tropical  America  and  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  where  an  abundance  of  swamps,  lagoons,  lakes,  pools,  and  gently- 
flowing  rivers  favors  the  increase  of  their  numbers.  They  play  an  important  part  in 
the  domestic  economy  of  the  Indians  along  the  great  streams  of  the  New  World,  the 
deep  rolling  Orinoco  or  the  thousand-armed  Amazon.  During  the  dry  season,  all 
the  neighboring  tribes  are  busy  collecting  the  countless  eggs  which  the  cold-blooded 
creatures  confide  to  the  life-awakening  powers  of  the  heated  sands :  partly  for  their 
own  consumption,  and  partly  for  the  manufacture  of  oil.  According  to  Herndon*  from 
five  to  six  thousand  jars  of  mantega,  or  tortoise-oil  are  annually  gathered  on  the  banks 
of  the  Marafion.  Each  animal  furnishes  on  an  average  eighty  eggs,  and  forty  tortoises 
are  reckoned  for  each  jar,  which  contains  forty-five  pounds,  and  is  worth  about  six  shil- 
lings on  the  spot.  The  manufacturing  process,  which  is  carried  on  in  a  most  primitive 
manner,  exhales  an  insupportable  stench.  The  eggs,  namely,  are  thrown  into  a  bout, 
and  trodden  to  pieces  with  the  feet.  The  shells  having  been  removed,  the  rest  is  left 
for  several  days  to  putrefy  in  the  sun.  The  oil  which  collects  on  the  surface  of  the  de- 
composing mass  is  then  skimmed  off,  and  boiled  in  large  kettles.*  The  neighboring 
strand  swarms  with  carrion  vultures,  and  the  smell  of  the  offal  attracts  a  number  of 
alligators,  all  hoping  to  come  in  for  their  share  of  the  feast. 

"Turtles,"  says  Orton.f  "are  perhaps  the  most  important  product  of  the  Amazon. 
The  largest  and  most  abundant  species  is  the  Tortaruga  grande.  It  measures,  when 
full  grown,  nearly  three  feet  in  length  and  two  in  breadth.  Every  house  has  a  little 
pond  in  the  back  yard  to  hold  a  stock  of  turtles  in  the  wet  season.  It  furnishes  the 
best  meat  on  the  Upper  Amazon.  We  found  it  very  tender,  palatable,  and  wholesome  : 
those  who  are  obliged  to  live  on  it  for  years,  however,  say  that  it  is  very  cloying.  Every 
part  of  the  creature  is  turned  to  account.  The  entrails  are  made  into  soup ;  sausages 
are  made  of  the  stomach  _:  steaks  are  cut  from  the  breast,  and  the  rest  is  roasted  in  the 
shell.     The  turtle  lays  its  eggs,  generally  between  midnight  and  dawn,  on  the  central 

*  Exploration  of  tlie  Valley  of  the  Amazon.  tThe  Andes  and  the  Amazon,  297. 

41 


642  THE   TROPICAL    WORLD. 

and  highest  part  of  the  islets  in  the  river,  or  about  a  hundred  feet  from  the  shore.  The 
Indians  say  it  will  lay  only  where  itself  was  hatched  out.  With  its  hind  flippers  it  digs 
a  hole  two  or  three  feet  deep,  and  deposits  in  it  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  and  sixty 
eggs.  These  are  covered  with  sand,  and  the  next  comer  makes  another  deposit  on 
the  top,  and  so  on  until  the  pit  is  full.  The  Indians  are  very  expert  in  finding  the 
nests.  Guided  approximately  by  the  tracks  of  the  turtle,  they  thrust  a  stick  into  the 
sand,  and  whenever  it  goes  down  easily  they  commence  digging  with  their  hands,  and 
invariably  strike  eggs.  The  turtles  are  caught  for  the  table  as  they  return  to  the  river 
after  laying  their  eggs.  To  secure  them  it  suffices  to  turn  them  over  on  their  backs. 
The  turtles  certainly  have  a  hard  time  of  it.  Alligators  and  large  fishes  swallow  the 
young  ones  by  hundreds ;  jaguars  pounce  upon  the  full  grown  ones  as  they  crawl  over 
the  plains,  and  vultures  and  ibises  attend  the  feast.  But  man  is  their  most  formidable 
foe.  The  destruction  of  turtle  life  on  the  Amazon  is  incredible.  It  is  calculated  that 
fifty  millions  of  eggs  are  annually  destroyed.  Thousands  of  those  that  escape  capture 
in  the  egg  are  collected  as  soon  as  hatched,  and  devoured ;  the  remains  of  the  yolk  in 
their  entrails  being  considered  a  great  delicacy.  An  unknown  number  of  full-grown 
turtles  are  eaten  by  the  natives  on  the  banks,  while  every  steamer,  schooner  and  canoe 
that  descends  the  Amazon  is  laden  with  turtles  for  the  tables  of  Manaos,  Santarem, 
and  Pard.  When  we  consider  also  that  all  the  mature  turtles  that  are  taken  are 
females,  we  wonder  that  the  race  is  not  well-nigh  extinct.  They  are  in  fact  rapidly 
decreasing  in  numbers.  A  large  turtle  which  twenty  years  'ago  could  be  bought  for 
fifty  cents,  now  commands  three  dollars.  One  would  suppose  that  the  males  being 
unmolested,  would  far  outt^umber  the  other  sex ;  but  they  are  in  fact  immensely  less 
numerous  than  the  females." 

The  marsh-tortoises  may  be  said  to  form  the  connecting  link  between  the  eminently 
aquatic  marine,  and  river  chelonians  and  the  Jand-tortoises,  as  the  formation  of  their 
feet,  armed  with  sharp  claws  or  crooked  nails^  and  furnished  with  a  kind  of  flexible 
web,  connecting  their  distinct  and  movable  toes,  allows  them  both  to  advance  much 
quicker  on  the  dry  land  than  the  latter,  and  to  swim  rapidly  either  on  the  surface  or  in 
the  depth  of  the  waters.  According  to  the  more  or  less  terrestrial  habits  of  the  vari- 
ous species,  the  feet  are  more  or  less  webbed,  for  in  those  that  habitually  remain  on  the 
banks  of  the  lagoons,  the  connecting  membrane  is  confined  to  the  basis  of  the  toes,  while 
in  others,  that  but  rarely  come  on  shore,  it  sometimes  reaches  to  the  extremity  of  the 
claws,  another  beautiful  example  of  the  foresight  of  the  Almighty  in  adapting  organic 
structure  to  the  wants  of  His  creatures.  The  marsh-tortoises,  being  endowed  with 
more  rapid  power  of  locomotion,  are  not  vegetarians  like  the  land-tortoises,  but  chiefly 
live  on  mollusks,  fishes,  frogs,  toads,  and  annelides.  Although  the  eggs  are  palatable, 
the  flesh  is  generally  too  coarse  even  for  the  craving  appetite  of  an  Indian. 

Sea  turtles  differ  in  many  respects  from  those  of  the  rivers.  During  the  Brazilian 
summer  (December,  January,  February),  colossal  turtles  are  seen  everywhere  swim- 
ming about  along  the  coast,  raising  their  thick  round  heads  above  the  water,  and  wait- 
ing for  the  approach  of  night  to  land.  The  neighboring  Indians  are  their  bitterest 
enemies,  killing  them  whenever  they  can.  Thus  these  dreary  sand  coasts,  bounded  on 
one  side  by  the  ocean  and  on  the  other  by  gloomy  primeval  forests,  offer  on  all  sides 
pictures  of  destruction,  for  the  bones  and  shells  of  slaughtered  turtles  everywhere  be- 
strew the  ground.     Two  parallel  grooves  indicate  the  path  of  the  turtle  after  landing; 


MODES   OF   CATCHING   TURTLES.  043 

they  are  the  marks  of  the  four  large  and  long  fin-shaped  feet  or  paddles,  and  between 
tliem  may  be  seen  a  broad  furrow  where  the  lioavy  body  trailed  along  the  ground.  On 
following  these  traces  about  thirty  or  forty  yards  shore-upwards,  the  huge  animal  may  be 
found  sitting  in  a  flat  excavation  formed  by  its  circular  movements,  and  in  which  one- 
half  of  its  body  is  imbedded.  It  allows  itself  to  be  handled  on  all  sides  without 
making  the  least  attempt  to  move  away,  being  probably  taught  by  instinct  how  useless 
all  endeavors  to  escape  would  be.  A  blowing  or  snorting  like  that  of  a  goose  when 
any  one  approaches  its  nest,  at  the  same  time  inflating  its  neck  a  little,  are  the  sole 
signs  of  defence  which  it  exhibits.  Similar  scenes  take  place  during  the  dry  season, 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  tropical  zone,  on  every  sandy,  unfi'cquented  coast  :  for  tUe 
same  instinct  which  prompts  the  salmon  to  swim  stream-upwards,  the  cod  to  seek  eleva- 
ted submarine  banks,  or  the  penguin  to  leave  the  high  seas  and  settle  for  the  sum- 
mer on  some  dreary  rock,  attracts  also  the  turtles  from  distauces  of  fifty  or  sixty 
leagues  to  the  shores  of  desert  islands  or  solitary  bays. 

The  enemies  of  the  marine  chelonians  are  no  less  numerous  than  those  of  the  terres- 
trial or  fluviatile  species.  While  the  full-grown  turtles,  as  soon  as  they  leave  the 
water,  are  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  many  ravenous  beasts,  from  the  wild  dog  to  the 
tiger  or  jaguar,  storks,  herons,  and  other  strand  or  sea-birds  devour  thousands  upon 
thousands  of  the  young  before  they  reach  the  ocean,  where  sharks  and  other  greedy 
fishes  still  further  thin  their  ranks,  so  that  but  very  few  escape  from  the  general  massa- 
cre, and  the  whole  race  can  only  maintain  itself  by  its  great  fecundity. 

Of  all  the  foes  of  the  turtle  tribe  there  is,  however,  none  more  formidable  than 
man,  as  even  on  the  most  lonely  islands  the  seafarer  lies  in  wait,  eager  to  relieve  the 
monotony  of  his  coarse  fare  by  an  abundant  supply  of  their  luscious  flesh.  On  the 
Isle  of  Ascension,  the  head-quarters  of  the  finest  turtle  in  the  world,  all  the  move- 
ments of  the  poor  creatures  are  carefully  watched,  and  when,  after  having  deposited 
tlieir  eggs  in  the  sand,  they  waddle  again  towards  the  sea,  their  retreat  is  often  inter- 
cepted, for  two  stout  men  running  up  to  the  unfortunate  turtle  after  the  completion 
of  her  task,  one  seizes  a  fore-flipper  and  dexterously  shoves  it  under  her  belly,  to  serve 
as  a  purchase  ;  whilst  the  other,  avoiding  a  stroke  which  might  lame  him,  cants  her 
over  on  her  back,  where  she  lies  helpless.  From  fifteen  to  thirty  are  thus  turned  in  a 
night.  In  the  bays,  when  the  surf  or  heavy  rollers  prevent  the  boats  being  beached 
to  take  on  board  the  turtles  when  caught,  they  are  hauled  out  to  them  by  ropes. 

The  way  by  which  the  turtles  are  most  commonly  taken  at  the  Bahama  Lslands  is 
by  striking  them  with  a  small  iron  peg  of  two  inches  long,  put  in  a  socket  at  the  end 
of  a  staff  of  twelve  feet  long.  Two  men  usually  set  out  for  this  work  in  a  canoe,  one 
to  row  and  gently  steer  the  boat,  while  the  other  stands  at  the  end  of  it  with  his 
weapon.  The  turtles  are  sometimes  discovered  by  their  swimming  with  their  head 
and  back  out  of  the  w-iter,  but  they  are  moie  often  seen  lying  at  the  bottom,  a  fathom 
or  more  deep.  If  a  turtle  perceives  he  is  discovered,  he  starts  up  to  make  his  escape ; 
the  men  in  the  boat,  pursuing  him,  endeavor  to  keep  sight  of  him,  which  they  often 
lose  and  recover  again  by  the  turtle  putting  his  nose  out  of  the  water  to  breathe. 

On  Keeling  Island,  Mr.  Darwin  witnessed  another  highly  interesting  method  of 
catching  turtle  :  "  The  channel  was  exceedingly  intricate,  winding  through  fields  of 
delicately-branched  corals.  We  saw  several  turtles,  and  two  boats  were  then  em- 
ployed in  catching  thcra.     The  method  is  rather  curious :  the  water  is  so  clear  and 


644  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

shallow  that,  although  at  first  a  turtle  quickly  dives  out  of  sight,  yet  in  a  canoe,  or 
boat  under  sail,  the  pursuers,  after  no  very  long  chase,  come  up  to  it,  A  man,  stand- 
ing ready  in  the  bows,  at  this  moment  dashes  through  the  water  upon  the  turtle's 
back ;  then  clinging  with  both  hands  by  the  shell  of  the  neck,  he  is  carried  away  till 
the  animal  becomes  exhausted  and  is  secured.  It  was  quite  an  interesting  chase  to 
see  the  two  boats  thus  doubling  about,  and  the  men  dashing  into  the  water  trying  to 
seize  their  prey." 

The  Green  turtle  ( Chelonia  midas),  which  has  been  known  to  attain  a  length  of 
seven  feet,  and  a  weight  of  900  lbs.,  is  most  prized  for  its  flesh ;  but  the  Hawksbill 
( Chelonia  imbricata),  which  hardly  reaches  one  third  of  the  size,  is  of  far  greater  com- 
mercial value,  the  plates  of  its  shell  being  stronger,  thicker,  and  clearer  than  those  of 
any  other  species.  It  is  caught  all  over  the  tropical  seas,  but  principally  near  the 
Moluccas,  the  West  Indian  and  the  Fiji  Islands,  where  it  is  preserved  in  pens  by  the 
chiefs,  who  have  a  barbarous  way  of  removing  the  valuable  part  of  the  shell  from  the 
living  animal.  A  burning  brand  is  held  close  to  the  outer  shell,  until  it  curls  up  and 
separates  a  little  from  that  beneath.  Into  the  gap  thus  formed  a  small  wooden  wedge 
is  then  inserted,  by  which  the  whole  is  easily  removed  from  the  back.  When  stripped, 
the  animal  is  again  put  into  the  pen,  where  it  has  full  time  for  the  growth  of  a  new 
shell — for  though  the  operation  appears  to  give  great  pain,  it  is  not  fatal. 

A  similar  cruel  method  of  removing  the  tortoise's  shell  by  heat  is  resorted  to  in 
Ceylon  ;  but  the  mode  in  which  the  flesh  of  the  edible  turtle  is  sold  piecemeal,  while 
it  is  still  alive,  by  the  fishermen  of  that  island,  is  still  more  repulsive,  and  a  disgrace 
to  the  Colonial  Government,  which  allows  it  to  be  openly  practised.  "  The  creatures," 
says  Sir  Emerson  Tennent,  "  are  to  be  seen  in  the  market-place  undergoing  this  fright- 
ful mutilation,  the  plastron' and  its  integuments  having  been  previously  removed,  and 
the  animal  thrown  on  its  back,  so  as  to  display  all  the  motions  of  the  heart,  viscera, 
and  lungs.  A  broad  knife,  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  length,  is  first  inserted 
at  the  left  side,  and  the  women,  who  are  generally  the  operators,  introduce  one  hand 
to  scoop  out  the  blood,  which  oozes  slowly.  The  blade  is  next  passed  round  till  the 
lower  shell  is  detached  and  placed  to  one  side,  and  the  internal  organs  exposed  in  full 
action.  Each  customer,  as  he  applies,  is  served  with  any  part  selected,  which  is  cut 
ofi"  as  ordered,  and  sold  by  weight.  Each  of  the  fins  is  thus  successively  removed, 
with  portions  of  the  fat  and  flesh,  the  turtle  showing  by  its  contortions  that  each  act 
of  severance  is  productive  of  agony.  In  this  state  it  lies  for  hours  writhing  in  the 
sun,  the  heart  and  head  being  usually  the  last  pieces  selected ;  and  till  the  latter  is 
cut  oflf,  the  snapping  of  the  mouth,  and  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  eyes,  show  that 
life  is  still  inherent,  even  when  the  shell  has  been  nearly  divested  of  its  contents." 

The  Coriaceous  turtle  {Sphargis  coriacea),  of  a  more  elongated  form  than  the  other 
species,  and  whose  outer  covering,  marked  along  its  whole  length  by  seven  distinct, 
prominent,  and  tuberculated  ridges,  is  not  of  a  horny  substance,  but  resembles  strong 
leather,  grows  to  the  greatest  size  of  all  the  marine  chelonians,  some  having  been  taken 
above  eight  feet  in  length,  and  weighing  no  less  than  1,600  lbs.,  so  that  even  the 
crocodile  can  hardly  be  compared  to  it  in  bulk.  While  the  land-tortoises  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  have  a  voice,  merely  hissing  or  blowing  when  irritated  or  seized,  the  coria- 
ceous turtle,  when  taken  in  a  net  or  seriously  wounded,  utters  loud  shrieks  or  cries 
which  may  be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance. 


BIRDS   OF   THE   TROPICAL   WORLD.  645 


CHAPTER  XIL 

BIRD-LIFE   IN   THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

Difficulties  of  tlie  Subject— Wide  Range  of  Birds— Tlie  Toucan— Huraming-Birds—Cotingas 
— Tlie  Campanero,  or  Bell-Bird— The  Realejo,  or  Organ-Bird— The  Manakins— The  Cock 
of  the  Rock — The  Troopials — The  Baltimore  Oriole — The  Cassiques — The  Mocking-Bird 
— The  Toropishu— The  Tunqui — Goat-Suckers — The  Cilgero— Flamingos— The  Ibis — 
SpoonBilis— Birds  of  the  New  and  the  Old  World— Sun-Birds— Honey-Eaters— The  Ocel- 
lated  Turkey— The  Lyre-Bird — Birds  of  Paradise — Fables  respecting  them— Tiieir  Cliar- 
acter  and  Habits— Their  Dancing-Parties— Mode  of  Shooting  and  Snaring  them — The 
Australian  Bower-Bird— The  Brush-Turkey — The  Adjutant— Tlie  Copper-Smith— The 
Indian  Baya — The  Tailor-Bird — The  Grosbeak — The  Korwe' — Parrots— The  Brazilian 
Love-Parrot — Their  Powers  of  Mimicry — Cockatoos — Macaws — The  Ara — Paroquets — 
The  Ostrich — His  Swiftness  of  Foot — Modes  of  Capturing  it — Stratagems  to  Save  its  Young 
—Its  Enemies — Its  Young — Resemblance  to  the  Camel— Its  Powers  of  Digestion — Uses  of 
its  Eggs — The  Rheas — The  Cassowary — The  Emu. 

T^SEFUL  in  many  respects  to  man,  no  class  of  animals  are  more  agreeable  to 
vJ  him  than  that  of  birds,  whether  they  are  considered '  for  the  beauty  of  their 
plumage,  the  grace  of  their  movements,  tke  melody  of  their  voice,  or  the  ingenuity 
with  which  they  construct  their  nests.  Their  study  forms  one  of  the  most  attractive 
departments  in  the  range  of  natural  history.  But  it  is  also  one  of  the  most  difficult, 
especially  in  regions  which  are  covered  with  dense  and  matted  forests.  Thus  it  is  by 
no  means  surprising  that  so  many  secrets  yet  veil  the  life  of  tropical  birds,  and  com- 
paratively little  is  known  of  their  habits  and  modes  of  existence.  "We  can  hope  only 
to  present  a  few  of  the  salient  features  of  bird-life  in  the  tropics,  reserving  for  another 
chapter  the  birds  of  prey. 

Many  families  of  birds  have  a  wide  range  over  the  whole  earth.  Falcons  hover 
over  the  Siberian  fir-woods  as  over  the  palm-forests  of  the  Amazon.  In  every 
zone  are  found  woodpeckers,  owls,  and  martins;  while  thrushes  enliven  with  their 
song  both  the  shades  of  the  beech-woods  and  the  twilight  of  the  cocoa-nut  groves.  In 
the  north  and  in  the  south,  fly-catchers  carry  destruction  among  the  numerous  insect 
tribes ;  in  every  latitude,  crows  cleanse  the  fields  of  vermin ;  and  swallows,  pigeons, 
^  ducks,  gulls,  petrels,  divers,  and  plovers  frequent  the  fields  and  lakes,  the  banks  and 
shores,  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Thus  the  class  of  birds  shows  us  a  great  similarity  in  the  distribution  of  its  various 
forms  all  over  the  earth ;  and  we  find  the  same  resemblance  extending  also  to  their 
mode  of  life,  their  manners,  and  their  voice.  The  woodpeckers  make  everywhere  the 
forest  resound  with  the  same  clear  note,  and  the  birds  of  prey  possess  in  every  clime 
the  same  rough  screech  so  consonant  to  their  habits,  while  a  soft  cooing  everywhere 
characterizes  the  pigeon-tribes.     But,  notwitlistanding  this  general  uniformity  and  this 


646  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

wide  range  of  many  families  of  birds,  each  zone  has  at  the  same  time  its  peculiar  orni- 
thological features,  that  blend  harmoniously  with  the  surrounding  world  of  plants  and 
animals,  and,  taking  a  prominent  part  in  the  aspect  of  nature,  at  once  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  the  stranger.  In  this  respect,  as  in  so  many  others,  the  warmer  regions  of  the 
globe  have  a  great  advantage  over  those  of  the  temperate  and  glacial  zones ;  and  here, 
where  warmth  and  moisture  call  forth  an  exuberant  vegetation,  they  produce  an  equal 
multiplicity  of  animal  forms,  among  which  many  birds  rival  the  most  gorgeous  flowers 
by  the  splendor  of  their  plumage. 

On  turning  to  each  continent  in  particular,  we  again  find  each  endowed  with  its 
peculiar  genera  of  birds,  and  thus,  though  tropical  America  has  many  of  its  feathered 
tribes  in  common  with  the  torrid  zone  of  the  Old  World,  it  enjoys  the  exclusive  pos- 
session of  the  Toucans,  Colibris,  Crotophagi,  Jacamars,  Anis,  Dendrocolaptes,  Mana- 
kins,  and  Tangaras ;  while  the  Calaos,  the  Souimangas,  the  Birds  of  Paradise,  and 
many  others,  are  confined  to  the  eastern  hemisphere.  A  complete  review  of  all  these 
various  forms  of  the  feathered  creation  would  fill  volumes.  My  narrow  limits  neces- 
sarily confine  me  to  a  brief  account  of  those  tribes  which  are  either  the  most  remark- 
able, or  the  most  widely  different  from  the  birds  which  we  are  accustomed  to  see  in  the 
temperate  zones. 

By  their  enormous  bill,  which  might  seem  rather  adapted  to  a  bird  of  ostrich-like 
dimensions  than  to  one  not  much  larger  than  a  crow,  the  toucans  are  distinguished 
from  all  the  other  feathered  races  of  America.  The  use  of  this  enormous  beak  puzzles 
naturalists.  "  How  astonishing  are  the  freaks  of  nature,"  writes  Sydney  Smith.  "  To 
what  purpose,  we  say,  is  a  bird  placed  in  the  woods  of  Cayenne,  with  a  bill  a  yard  long, 
making  a  noise  like  a  puppy-dog,  and  laying  eggs  in  hollow  trees  ?  The  toucan,  to  be 
sure,  might  retort,  'To  what  purpose  are  certain  foolish,  prating  members  of  Parliament 
created,  pestering  the  House  with  their  ignorance  and  folly,  and  impeding  the  business 
of  the  country  ? '  There  is  no  end  to  such  questions  ;  so  we  will  not  enter  into  the 
metaphysics  of  the  toucan."  The  bill,  though  certainly  much  less  than  a  yard  long, 
is  big  enough  to  give  the  bird  a  very  awkward  appearance ;  but  the  beauty  of  its  col- 
oring soon  reconciles  the  eye  to  its  disproportionate  size  :  for  the  brightest  red,  varie- 
gated with  black  and  yellow  stripes  on  the  upper  mandible,  and  a  stripe  of  the  liveliest 
sky-blue  on  the  lower,  contribute  to  adorn  the  bill  of  the  Bouradi,  as  one  of  the  three 
toucan  species  of  Guiana  is  called  by  the  Indians.  Unfortunately,  these  brilliant 
tints  fade  after  death.  The  plumage  of  this  strange  bird  rivals  the  beak  in  beauty  of 
coloring,  and  the  feathei's  are  frequently  used  as  ornaments  by  the  Brazilian  ladies,  as 
well  as  by  the  Indian  tribes  that  roam  through  the  vast  forests  of  South  America.  The 
toucans  are  generally  seen  in  small  flocks  or  troops,  and  from  this  it  might  be  supposed 
they  were  gregarious  ;  "  but  upon  a  closer  examination,"  says  Waterton,  "  you  will  find 
it  has  only  been  a  dinner-party  which  breaks  up  and  disperses  towards  roostingtime."  ^ 
While  thus  assembled,  discord  never  ceases  to  reign,  for  there  is  hardly  a  more  quarrel- 
some and  imperious  bird  than  the  toucan,  A  bird  with  so  strange  a  beak  must  natu- 
rally be  expected  to  feed  and  drink  in  a  strange  manner.  When  the  toucan  has  seized 
a  morsel,  he  throws  it  into  the  air  and  lets  it  fall  into  his  throat ;  when  drinking,  he 
dips  the  point  of  his  mandibles  into  the  water,  fills  them  by  a  powerful  inspiration,  and 
then  throws  back  the  head  by  starts.  The  tongue  is  also  of  a  very  singular  form, 
being  narrow  and  elongated,  and  laterally  barbed  like  a  feather.     The  toucans  are  very 


TOUCANS-HUMMING-BIRDS-BELL-BIRDS.  647 

noisy  birds.  In  rainy  weather  their  clamor  is  heard  at  all  hours  of  the  day,  and  in 
fair  weather  at  morning  and  evening.  The  sound  which  the  Bouradi  makes  is  like  the 
clear  yelping  of  a  puppy  dog,  and  you  fancy  he  says  •'  pia-po-oco,"  and  thus  the 
South  American  Spaniards  call  him  Piapoco. 

To  paint  the  Humming-bird  with  colors  worthy  of  its  beauty,  would  be  a  task  as 
difficult  as  to  fix  on  canvas  the  glowing  tints  of  the  rainbow,  or  the  glories  of  the 
setting  sun.  The  Indians  of  the  Amazon  call  it  "  a  living  sun-beam."  Unrivalled 
in  the  metallic  brilliancy  of  its  plumage,  it  may  truly  be  called  the  bird  of  paradise  ; 
and  had  it  existed  in  the  Old  World  it  would  no  (^oubt  have  claimed  the  title  instead  of 
the  splendid  bird  which  has  now  the  honor  to  bear  it.  See  with  what  lightning  speed 
it  darts  from  flower  to  flower  ;  now  hovering  for  an  instant  before  you,  as  if  to  give  you  an 
opportunity  of  admiring  its  surpassing  beauty,  and  now  again  vanishing  with  the  ra- 
pidity of  thought.  But  do  not  fancy  that  these  winged  jewels  of  the  air,  buzzing 
like  bees  round  the  blossoms  less  gorgeous  than  themselves,  live  entirely  on  the  honey- 
dew  collected  within  their  petals  ;  for  on  opening  the  stomach  of  one  of  them,  dead 
insects  are  almost  always  found  there,  which  its  long  and  slender  beak,  and  cloven  ex- 
tensile tongue,  like  that  of  the  woodpecker,  enable  it  to  catch  at  the  very  bottom  of 
the  tubular  corollas. 

The  torrid  zone  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  humming-birds,  but  in  summer  they  wander 
far  beyond  its  bounds,  and  follow  the  sun  in  his  annual  declensions  to  the  poles.  Thus, 
in  the  north,  they  appear  as  flying  visitors  on  the  borders  of  the  Canadian  lakes,  and 
on  the  southern  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Alaska ;  while  in  the  southern  hemisphere 
they  roam  as  far  as  Patagonia,  and  even  as  Tierra  del  Fuego ;  visiting  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  the  confines  of  the  walrus,  and  reaching  in  the  south  the  regions  of  the 
penguins  and  the  lion-seal ;  advancing  towards  the  higher  latitudes  with  the  advance 
of  summer,  and  again  retreating  at  the  approach  of  autumn.  All  attempts  to  trans- 
port them  alive  to  Europe  have  hitherto  been  fruitless.  Latham  relates  that  a  young 
man  cut  off  the  branch  on  which  a  humming-bird  was  breeding,  and  took  it  on  board 
the  ship  which  conveyed  him  to  England.  The  mother  soon  grew  tame,  and  took  the 
biscuit  and  honey,  that  was  offered  her ;  she  also  continued  to  breed  during  the  pas- 
sage, but  died  as  soon  as  the  young  crept  out  of  the  shell.  These  came  alive  to  Eng- 
land, and  withstood  during  two  months  the  uncongenial  climate. 

Next  to  the  humming-birds  the  Cotingas  display  the  gayest  plumage.  They  are, 
however,  not  often  seen,  for  they  lead  a  solitai-y  life  in  the  moist  and  shadowy  forests, 
where  they  feed  on  the  various  seeds  and  fruits  of  the  woods.  One  species  is  attired 
in  burning  scarlet,  others  in  purple  and  blue,  but  they  are  all  so  splendidly  adorned 
that  it  would  be  difficult  to  say  which  of  them  deserved  the  prize  for  beauty.  Most 
of  the  Cotingas  have  no  song ;  the  nearly  related  snow-white  Cainpanero  or  Boll-Bird, 
however,  amply  makes  up  for  the  deficient  voice  of  his  cousins,  by  the  singularity  and 
sweetness  of  his  note.  He  is  about  the  size  of  a  jay.  On  his  forehead  rises  a  singu- 
lar spiral  tube  nearly  three  inches  long.  It  is  jet  black,  dotted  all  over  with  small 
white  feathers.  It  has  a  communication  with  the  palate,  and  when  filled  with  air  looks 
like  a  spire,  when  empty  it  becomes  pendulous.  "  His  note  is  loud  and  clear,  like  the 
sound  of  a  bell,  and  may  be  heard  at  the  distance  of  three  miles,"  says  Waterton. 
"  Three  miles  !  "  exclaims  Sydney  Smith,  dubiously  ;  "  this  little  bird  being  more  pow- 
erful than  the  belfry  of  a  cathedral  ringing  for  a  new  dean  I     It  is  impossible  to  con- 


648  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

tradict  a  gentleman  who  has  been  in  Cayenne ;  but  we  are  determined  as  soon  as  a 
Campanero  is  brought  to  England,  to  make  him  toll  in  a  public  place,  and  have  the 
distance  measured."  "In  the  midst  of  these  extensive  wilds,"  continues  Waterton, 
"generally  on  the  dried  top  of  an  aged  mora,  almost  out  of  gun-reach,  you  will  see  the 
Campanero.  No  sound  or  song  from  any  of  the  winged  inhabitants  of  the  forest 
causes  such  astonishment  as  his  toll.  With  many  of  the  feathered  race  he  pays  the 
common  tribute  of  a  song  to  early  morn,  and  even  when  the  meridian  sun  has  shut  in 
silence  the  mouths  of  almost  the  whole  of  animated  nature,  the  Campanero  still  cheers 
the  forest ;  you  hear  his  toll,  and  t^jen  a  pause  for  a  minute ;  then  another  toll,  and 
then  a  pause  again,  and  then  a  toll  and  again  a  pause.  Then  he  is  silent  for  six  or 
eight  minutes,  and  then  another  toll,  and  so  on.  He  is  never  seen  to  feed  with  the  other 
Cotingas,  nor  is  it  known  in  what  part  of  Guiana  he  makes  his  nest."  But  the  most 
remarkable  songster  of  the  Amazonian  forest  is  the  Realejo,  or  Organ-Bird.  Its  notes 
are  as  musical  as  the  flageolet.  It  is  the  only  songster  which  makes  any  impression 
on  the  natives. 

In  the  deep  forests,  which  they  never  quit  for  the  open  plains,  reside  the  Manakins 
(Pipra,)  pretty  little  birds,  whose  largest  species  scarcely  attain  the  dimensions  of  the 
sparrow,  while  the  smallest  are  hardly  equal  to  the  wren.  The  plumage  of  the  full- 
grown  male  is  always  black,  enlivened  by  brilliant  colors,  that  of  the  female  and  of  the 
young  birds  greenish.  Their  flight  is  rapid  but  short,  and  they  generally  roost  on  the 
middle  branches  of  the  trees.  In  the  morning  they  unite  in  little  troops,  and  seek 
their  food,  which  consists  of  insects,  and  small  fruit,  uttering  at  the  same,  time  their 
weak  but  melodious  notes.  As  the  day  advances  they  separate  and  seek  the  deepest 
forest-shades,  where  they  live  in  solitude  and  silence. 

The  famous  orange-colored  Cock  of  the  Rock  of  Guiana  {Rupicola  aurantia,)  which 
owes  its  name  to  its  comb-like  crest,  is  nearly  related  to  the  manakins.  It  is  a  great 
rarity,  even  in  its  own  country,  and  as  it  dwells  in  the  most  secluded  forests,  is  but  sel- 
dom seen  by  travelers.  Schomburgk  relates  the  following  wonderful  story  of  the  bird, 
which,  if  not  proceeding  from  so  trustworthy  a  source,  might  almost  be  considered  fab- 
ulous. "A  troop  of  these  beautiful  birds  was  celebrating  its  dances  on  the  smooth 
surface  of  a  rock ;  about  a  score  of  them  were  seated  on  the  branches  as  spectators, 
while  one  of  the  male  birds,  with  proud  self-confidence,  and  spreading  tail  and  wings, 
was  dancing  on  the  rock.  He  scratched  the  ground  or  leaped  vertically  into  the  air, 
continuing  these  saltatory  movements  until  he  was  tired,  when  another  male  took  his 
place.  The  females,  meanwhile,  looked  on  attentively,  and  applauded  the  performance 
of  the  dancers  with  laudatory  cries.  As  the  feathers  are  highly  prized,  the  Indians  lay 
in  wait  with  their  blow-pipes  near  the  places  where  the  Rupicolas  are  known  to  dance. 
When  once  the  ball  has  begun,  the  birds  are  so  absorbed  by  their  amusement,  that  the 
hunter  has  full  time  to  shoot  down  several  of  the  spectators  with  his  poisoned  arrows, 
before  the  rest  take  the  alarm." 

On  penetrating  into  the  wilds  of  Guiana,  the  pretty  songsters  called  Troopials,  pour 
forth  a  variety  of  sweet  and  plaintive  notes.  Resembling  the  starling  by  their  habits, 
they  unite  in  troops,  and  live  on  insects,  berries,  and  seeds.  The  Variegated  Troopial 
( Oriolus  varius)  displays  a  wonderful  instinct  in  the  construction  of  his  nest,  which  he 
generally  builds  on  fruit-trees  ;  but  when  circumstances  force  him  to  select  a  tree  whose 
branches  have  far  less  solidity,  as,  for  instance,  the  weeping-willow,  his  instinct  almost 


TROOPIALS— ORIOLES— CASSIQUES— THE  MOCKING-BIRD.       649 

rises  to  a  higher  intelligence.  First,  he  binds  together,  by  means  of  bits  of  straw,  the 
small  and  flexible  branches  of  the  willow,  and  thus  forms  a  kind  of  conical  basket  m 
which  he  places  his  nest,  and  instead  of  the  usual  hemispherical  form,  he  gives  it  a  more 
elongated  shape,  and  makes  it  of  a  looser  tissue,  so  as  to  render  it  more  elastic  and  bet- 
ter able  to  conform  to  the  movements  of  the  branches  when  agitated  by  the  wind. 

The  neat  little  black  and  orange  Baltimore  Oriole  {Icterus  Baltimore)  constructs  a 
still  more  marvellous  nest  on  the  tulip  trees,  on  whose  leaves  and  flowers  he  seeks  the 
caterpillars  and  beetles  which  constitute  his  principal  food.  When  the  time  comes  for 
preparing  it,  the  male  picks  up  a  filament  of  the  TUlandsia  usneoides  and  attaches  it 
by  its  two  extremities  to  two  neighboring  branches.  Soon  after,  the  female  comes, 
inspects  his  work,  and  places  another  fibre  across  that  cf  her  companion.  Thus  by 
their  alternate  labors  a  net  is  formed,  which  soon  assumes  the  shape  of  a  nest,  and  as 
it  advances  towards  its  completion,  the  affection  of  the  tender  couple  seems  to  increase. 
The  tissue  is  so  loose  as  to  allow  the  air  to  pass  through  its  meshes,  and  as  the  parents 
know  that  tbe  excessive  heat  of  summer  would  incommode  their  young,  they  suspend 
their  nest  so  as  to  catch  the  cooler  breeze  of  the  north-east  when  breeding  in  Louisi- 
ana; while  in  more  temperate  regions,  such  as  Pennsylvania  and  New  York,  they 
always  give  it  a  southern  exposure,  and  take  care  to  line  it  with  wool  or  cotton.  Their 
movements  are  uncommonly  graceful ;  their  song  is  sweet ;  they  migrate  in  winter 
towards  more  southerly  regions,  Mexico  or  Brazil,  and  return  after  the  equinox  to  the 
United  States. 

The  Cassiques,  which  are  nearly  related  to  the  troopials  or  orioles,  are  no  less  remark- 
able for  their  architectural  skill.  They  suspend  their  large  pendulous  nests,  which  are 
often  above  four  feet  long,  at  the  extremities  of  branches  of  palm  trees,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible from  all  enemies  that  might  by  climbing  reach  the  brood,  often  choosing,  for  still 
further  protection,  trees  on  which  the  wasps  or  maribondas  have  already  built  their  nests, 
as  these  are  adversaries  whose  sharp  stings  no  tiger-cat  or  reptile  would  desire  to  face. 
The  nest  of  the  Cassicus  cristatus  is  artificially  woven  of  lichens,  bark-fibres,  and  the 
filaments  of  the  tillandsias,  while  that  of  the  Tupuba  (Cassicus  ruber),  which  is 
always  suspended  over  the  water,  consists  of  dry  grasses,  and  has  a  slanting  opening 
in  the  side,  so  that  no  rain  can  penetrate  it.  On  passing  under  a  tree,  which  often 
contains  hundreds  of  eassique  nests,  one  cannot  help  stopping  to  admire  them,  as  they 
wave  to  aiul  fro,  the  sport  of  every  storm  and  breeze,  and  yet  so  well  constructed  as 
rarely  to  be  injured  by  the  wind.  Often  numbers  of  one  species  may  be  seen  weaving 
their  nests  on  one  side  of  a  tree,  while  numbers  of  another  species  are  busy  forming 
theirs  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  same  plant ;  and  what  is,  perhaps,  even  still  more 
wonderful  than  their  architectural  skill,  though  such  near  neighbors,  the  females  are 
never  observed  to  quarrel ! 

The  Cassicus  persicus,  a  small  black  and  yellow  bird,  somewhat  larger  than  the 
starling,  has  been  named  the  Mocking-Bird,  from  his  wonderful  imitative  powers.  He 
courts  the  society  of  man,  and  generally  takes  his  station  on  a  tree  close  to  his  house, 
where  for  hours  together  he  pours  forth  a  succession  of  ever-varying  notes.  K  a 
toucan  be  yelping  in  the  neighborhood,  he  immediately  drops  his  own  sweet  song,  and 
answers  him  in  equal  strain.  Then  he  will  amuse  his  audience  with  the  cries  of  the 
difierent  species  of  the  woodpecker,  and  when  the  sheep  bleat  he  will  distinctly  answer 
them.     Then  comes  his  own  song  again,  and  if  a  puppy  dog  or  a  guinea  fowl  interrupt 


650  THE   TROPICAL  WORLD. 

him,  he  takes  them  off  admirably,  and  by  his  different  gestures  during  the  time,  you 
would  conclude  that  he  enjoys  the  sport. 

Wild  and  strange  are  the  voices  of  many  of  the  American  forest-birds.  In  the 
Peruvian  woods  the  black  Toropishu  ( Cephalopterus  ornatus)  makes  the  thicket  re- 
sound with  his  hoarse  cry,  resembling  the  distant  lowing  of  a  bull ;  and  in  the  same 
regions  the  fiery-red  and  black-winged  Tunqui  {Rupicola  Peruviana)  sends  forth  a 
note,  which  might  readily  be  mistaken  for  the  grunting  of  a  hog,  and  strangely  con- 
trasts with  the-  brilliancy  of  his  plumage.  But  of  all  the  startling  cries  that  issue 
from  the  depths  of  the  forest,  none  is  more  remarkable  than  the  Goatsucker's  lament- 
able wail.  "  Suppose  yourself  in  hopeless  sorrow,"  says  Waterton,  "  begin  with  a 
high  loud  note,  and  pronounce  ha,  ha,  ha,  ha,  ha !  each  note  lower  and  lower  till  the 
last  is  scarcely  heard,  pausing  a  moment  or  two  between  every  note,  and  you  will  have 
some  idea  of  the  mourning  of  the  largest  goatsucker  in  Demarara.  Four  other  species  of 
goatsucker  articulate  some  words  so  distinctly,  that  they  have  received  their  names  from 
the  sentences  they  utter,  and  absolutely  bewilder  the  stranger  on  his  arrival  in  these  parts- 
The  most  common  one  sits  down  close  by  your  door,  and  flies  or  alights  three  or  four 
yards  before  you,  as  you  walk  along  the  road,  crying,  "Who  are  you,  who-who-who- 
who  are  you?  "  Another  bids  you,  "  Work  away,  work-work-work  away."  A  third 
cries  mournfully,  ''  Willy  come  go,  Willy-Willy- Willy  come  go."  And  high  up  in 
the  country,  a  fourth  tells  you  to,  "  Whip-poor-Will,  whip  whip-whip  poor-Will." 

While  the  goatsucker  makes  the  forest  resound  with  his  funereal  tones,  other  birds 
of  the  forest  pour  forth  the  sweetest  notes.  Dressed  in  a  sober  cinnamon  brown  robe, 
with  blackish  olive-colored  head  and  neck,  the  Organist  ( Troglodytes  leucophrys)  en- 
livens the  solitude  of  the  Peruvian  forests.  The  astonished  wanderer  stops  to  listen 
to  the  strain,  and  forgets  the  impending  storm.  The  Cilgero,  a  no  less  delightful  song- 
ster, frequents  the  mountain  regions  of  Cuba,  and  the  beauty  of  his  notes  may  be 
inferred  from  the  extravagant  price  of  several  hundred  dollars,  which  the  rich  Hav- 
anese  are  ready  to  pay  for  a  captive  bird. 

The  same  beauty  of  plumage  which  characterizes  so  many  of  the  American  forest- 
birds,  adorns,  likewise,  the  feathered  tribes  of  the  swamp  and  the  morass,  of  the  river 
and  the  lake.  Nothing  can  exceed  in  beauty  a  troop  of  deep  red  Flamingos  ( Phoeni- 
copterus  ruber)  on  the  green  margin  of  a  stream.  Raised  on  enormous  stilts,  and 
with  an  equally  disproportionate  length  of  neck,  the  flamingos  would  be  reckoned 
among  the  most  uncouth  birds,  if  their  splendid  robe  did  not  entitle  them  to  rank 
among  the  most  beautiful.  They  always  live  in  troops,  and  range  themselves,  whether 
fishing  or  resting,  like  soldiers,  in  long  lines.  One  of  the  number  acts  as  sentinel,  and 
on  the  approach  of  danger  gives  a  warning  scream,  like  the  sound  of  a  trumpet,  when, 
instantly,  the  whole  troop,  expanding  their  flaming  wings,  rise  loudly  clamoring  into  the 
air.  These  strange-formed  birds  build  in  the  swamps  high  conical  nests  of  mud,  in 
the  shape  of  a  hillock  with  a  cavity  at  top,  in  which  the  female  generally  lays  two 
white  eggs  of  the  size  of  those  of  a  goose,  but  more  elongated.  The  rude  construc- 
tion is  sufficiently  high  to  admit  of  her  sitting  on  it  conveniently,  or  rather  riding,  as 
the  legs  are  placed  on  each  side  at  full  length.  Their  mode  of  feeding  is  no  less 
remarkable.  Twisting  their  neck  in  such  a  manner  that  the  upper  part  of  their  bill  is 
applied  to  the  ground,  they  at  the  same  time  disturb  the  mud  with  one  of  their  webbed 
feet,  thus  raising  up  from  the  water  insects  and  spawn,  on  which  they  chiefly  subsist. 


TROPICAL   BIRDS   OF   BOTH   IIEMISI'IIERES.  G'A 

The  Rose  colored  Flamingo,  with  red  wings  and  black  quills,  adorns  the  creeks  and 
rivers  of  tropical  Africa  and  Asia,  and  in  warm  summers  extends  his  migrations  as  far 
northwards  as  Strasburg  on  the  Rhine.  The  sight  of  a  troop  of  flamingos  approach- 
ing on  the  wing,  and  describing  a  great  fiery  triangle  in  the  air,  is  singularly  majestic. 
When  about  to  descend,  their  flight  becomes  slower,  they  hover  for  a  moment,  then 
their  evolutions  trace  a  conical  spire,  and,  finally  alighting,  they  immediately  arrange 
themselves  in  long  array,  place  their  sentinels,  and  begin  their  fishing  operations. 

The  scarlet  Americas  Ibis,  with  black-tipped  wings,  though  inferior  in  sfze  to  his 
celebrated  cousin,  the  sacred  bird  of  the  Egyptians,  far  surpasses  him  in  beauty.  Six 
feet  high,  stately  as  a  grenadier  of  the  guards,  the  American  Jabiru  stalks  along  the 
banks  of  the  morasses.  His  plumage  is  white,  but  his  neck  and  head  are  black,  like 
his  long  legs ;  his  conical,  sharp,  and  powerful  black  bill,  is  a  little  recurved,  while 
that  of  the  stork,  to  whom  he  is  closely  related,  is  straight.  He  destroys  an  incred- 
ible number  of  reptiles  and  fishes,  and,  being  very  shy,  is  difficult  to  kill.  Two  sim- 
ilar species,  respectively  inhabit  Western  Africa  and  Australasia.  The  roseate  Americaa 
Spoon-bill  is  particularly  remarkable  for  his  curious  large  beak,  dilating  at  the  top 
into  a  broad  spoon  or  spatula,  which,  though  not  possessed  of  great  power,  renders 
him  excellent  service  in  disturbing  the  mud  and  seizing  the  little  reptiles  and  worms 
he  delights  to  feed  on.  The  Jacana  possesses  enormously  long  and  slender  toes,  armed 
with  equally  long  spine-like  claws.  While  pacing  the  ground  they  seem  as  inconvenient 
as  the  snow-shoes  of  a  Laplander,  and  yet  nothing  can  be  more  suitable  for  a  bird  des- 
tined to  stalk  over  the  floating  leaves  of  the  Nelumbos  and  Nymphfeas,  and  to  seek 
for  water  insects  on  this  unstable  foundation.  The  jacana  is  found  all  over  tropical 
America,  and  is  also  called  the  "  Surgeon,"  from  the  nail  of  his  hinder  toe  being  sharp 
and  pointed  like  a  lancet. 

All  these  strange  and  wondrous  birds,  and  numberless  others,  whose  mere  enumer- 
ation would  be  fatiguing  to  the  reader,  justify  the  ornithological  reputation  of  the  woods 
and  swamps  of  tropical  America.  And  indeed  the  feathered  races  nowhere  find  a  richer 
field  for  their  development  than  here,  where  the  vegetable  world  revels  in  luxuriant 
growth  ;  and  myriads  of  insects,  peopling  the  forest,  the  field,  and  the  water,  furnish 
each  kind  according  to  its  wants  with  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  food.  The  circum- 
stance that  man  but  thinly  inhabits  these  wilds,  is  another  reason  which  favors  the  mul- 
tiplication of  the  feathered  tribes  ;  for,  in  Europe  also,  birds  would  no  doubt  be  far 
more  numerous,  if  the  farmer,  the  sportsman,  and  so  many  other  enemies  were  not 
continually  thinning  their  ranks.  To  these  elements  of  destruction  they  are  far  less 
exposed  in  tropical  America,  and  being  comparatively  but  little  disturbed,  they  reign, 
as  it  were,  over  the  forest  and  the  open  field,  over  the  mountain  and  the  plain,  over  the 
river  and  the  lake. 

Although  in  the  torrid  zone  we  hardly  ever  meet  with  a  single  aboriginal  species  of 
plant  or  animal  common  to  both  hemispheres,  yet  the  analogy  of  climate  everywhere 
produces  analogous  organic  forms,  and  when  on  surveying  the  feathered  tribes  of 
America,  we  are  struck  by  any  bird  remarkable  for  its  singularity  of  shape  or  mode  of 
life,  we  may  expect  to  find  its  representative  in  Asia,  Africa,  or  Australia.  Thus  the 
enormous  beak  of  the  toucan  is  emulated  or  surpassed  by  that  of  the  Indian  Calao,  or 
Rhinoceros  Ilornbill,  whose  twelve-inch  long,  curved,  and  sharp-pointed  bill  is,  moreover, 
surmounted  with  an  immense  appendage,  in  the  form  of  a  reverted  horn,  the  use  of 


652  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

which  belongs  as  yet  to  the  secrets  of  nature.  While  the  toucans  are  distinguished  by 
a  gaudy  plumage,  the  calaos  are  almost  entirely  decked  with  a  robe  black  as  that  of 
the  raven,  and  enhancing  the  beautiful  red  and  orange  colors  of  their  colossal  beak. 
Generally  congregating  in  small  troops  like  the  toucans,  they  inhabit  the  dense  forests, 
where  they  live  chiefly  on  fruits,  seeds,  and  insects,  which  they  also  swallow  whole, 
throwing  them  up  into  the  air  and  catching  them  as  they  fall.  The  clapping  together  of 
their  mandibles  causes  a  loud  and  peculiar  noise,  which  towards  evening  interrupts  the 
silence  of  the  forest.  The  flight  of  a  bird  burdened  with  such<»a  load  must  naturally  be 
short :  they  hop  upon  their  thick  clumsy  feet,  and  generally  roost  upon  the  highest  trees. 

The  brilliant  Sun-birds  or  Suimangas  ( Cinnyris,)  belonging  to  the  order  of  the  Cer- 
thias  or  creepers,  are  the  colibris  of  the  old  world,  equally  ethereal,  gay,  and  sprightly 
in  their  motions,  flitting  briskly  from  flower  to  flower,  and  assuming  a  thousand  lively 
and  agreeable  attitudes.  As  the  sunbeams  glitter  on  their  bodies,  they  sparkle  like  so 
many  gems.  As  they  hover  about  the  honey-laden  blossoms,  they  vibrate  rapidly  their 
tiny  pinions,  producing  in  the  air  a  slight  whirring  sound,  but  not  so  loud  as  the  hum- 
ming noise  produced  by  the  wings  of  the  colibris.  Thrusting  their  slender  beaks  into 
the  deep-cupped  flowers,  they  probe  them  with  their  brush-like  tongues  for  insects  and 
nectar.  Some  are  emerald  green,  some  vivid  violet,  others  yellow  with  a  crimson  wing, 
and  rivalling  the  colibris  by  the  metallic  lustre  of  their  plumage,  they  surpass  them  by 
their  musical  powers,  for  while  the  latter  can  only  hum,  the  sun-birds  accompany  their 
movements  with  an  agreeable  chirp. 

The  nearly-related  Melithreptes,  or  Honey-eaters  of  the  South  Sea  Islands,  distin- 
guished by  a  very  long  curved  beak,  and  a  tongue  split  into  two  slender  filaments,  fur- 
nish the  chief  ornaments  of  the  Polynesian  kings  and  chieftains.  Thus  the  famous 
royal  mantle  of  Tameharaeha  the  Great  is  completely  covered  with  the  golden  plumage 
of  the  AMithreptes  pacijicus,  and  as  this  not  very  common  brown-colored  bird  has  only 
three  or  four  yellow  feathers  in  each  wing,  it  may  easily  be  conceived  that  the  most 
costly  brocades  of  Lyons  are  far  from  equalling  in  value  this  splendid  robe  of  state, 
which  is  no  less  than  ten  feet  long  and  seven  feet  broad.  Even  the  small  diadems 
made  of  the  feathers  of  this  bird,  which  are  worn  by  the  ladies  of  rank  in  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  are  worth  several  hundred  dollars.  Idols  or  mantles  of  the  Polynesians,  deco- 
rated with  the  scarlet  feathers  of  the  Meliihreptes  vestiarius  are  frequently  met  with 
in  ethnographical  museums. 

While  the  superb  Ocellated  Turkey  of  Honduras  (^Mehagris  ocellata)  displays  with 
all  the  pride  of  a  peacock,  the  eye-like  marks  of  his  tail  and  upper  coverts,  the  no  less 
beautifully  spotted  Argus,  a  bird  nearly  related  to  the  gold  and  silver  pheasants  which 
have  been  introduced  from  China  into  the  European  aviaries,  conceals  his  splendor  in 
the  dense  forests  of  Java  and  Sumatra.  The  wings  of  this  magnificent  creature, 
whose  plumage  is  equally  remarkable  for  variety  and  elegance,  consist  of  very  large 
feathers,  nearly  three  feet  long,  the  outer  webs  being  adorned  with  a  row  of  large  eyes, 
arranged  parallel  to  the  shaft ;  the  tail  is  composed  of  twelve  feathers,  the  two  middle 
ones  being  about  four  feet  in  length,  the  next  scarcely  two,  and  gradually  shortening 
to  the  outer  ones.  Its  voice  is  plaintive  and  not  harsh,  as  in  the  Indian  peacock,  which 
Alexander  the  Great  is  said  to  have  first  introduced  into  Europe,  though  its  feathers 
had  many  centuries  before  been  imported  by  the  Phoenicians.  The  Peacock  is  still 
found  wild  in  many  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  but  more  particularly  in  the  fertile  plains 


THE  LYRE-BIRD— BIRDS   OF  PARADISE.  U5;5 

of  India.  Another  species,  nearly  similar  in  size  and  proportions,  but  distinguished  by 
a  much  longer  crest,  inhabits  the  Javanese  forests. 

Though  of  less  dazzling  splendor  than  this  peacock's  tail,  that  of  the  Menura,  or 
Lyre-bird,  is  unrivalled  for  its  elegance.  Fancy  two  large,  broad,  black  and  brown- 
striped  feathers,  curved  in  the  form  of  a  Grecian  lyre,  and  between  both,  other  feath- 
ers whose  widely-distanced  silken  barbs  envelope  and  surmount  them  with  a  light  and 
airy  gauze.  No  painter  could  possibly  have  imagined  anything  to  equal  this  master- 
piece of  nature,  which  its  shy  possessor  conceals  in  the  wild  bushes  of  Australia. 

The  lyre-bird  is  constantly  engaged  in  traversing  the  brush  from  mountain  top 
to  the  bottom  of  the  gullies,  whose  steep  and  rugged  sides  i)resent  no  obstacle  to 
its  long  legs  and  powerful  muscular  thighs.  When  running  quickly  through  the 
brush,  it  carries  the  tail  horizontally,  that  being  the  only  position  in  which  it  could  be 
Lome  at  such  times.  Besides  its  loud,  full  cry,  which  may  be  heard  at  a  great  distance, 
it  has  an  inward  and  varied  song,  the  lower  notes  of  which  can  only  be  heard  when 
you  have  stealthily  approached  to  within  a  few  yards  of  the  bird  when  it  is  singing. 
Its  habits  appear  to  be  solitary,  seldom  more  than  a  pair  being  seen  together.  It 
constructs  a  large  nest,  formed  on  the  outside  of  sticks  and  twigs,  like  that  of  a  magpie, 
and  lined  with  the  inner  bark  of  trees  and  fibrous  roots. 

But  of  all  the  tropical  birds  there  are  none  so  absolutely  distinctive  of  the  equatorial 
regions  as  the  Birds  of  Paradise,  which  are  found  only  in  some  of  the  islands  of  the 
Malay  Archipelago.  Until  about  1868  really  nothing  was  known  to  Europeans 
respecting  these  birds,  which  in  gorgeousness  of  coloring  and  elegance  of  form  and 
plumage  surpass  all  others.  Stufied  skins  of  these  birds,  curiously  prepared,  have 
long  been  found  in  European  museums,  and  from  these  the  strangest  descriptions  have 
been  given,  which  still  find  place  in  books  upon  Natural  History.  When  the  early 
navigators  reached  the  Moluccas  in  search  of  cloves  and  nutmegs,  they  were  presented 
with  dried  skins  of  a  kind  of  bird  so  beautiful  as  to  excite  even  their  wonder  and 
admiration.  Malay  traders  called  them  "God's  Birds,"  and  the  Portuguese  re-named 
them  "  Birds  of  the  Sun."  A  learned  Dutchman,  who  wrote  in  Latin,  gave  them  the 
name  which  they  now  IBear.  These  skins  were  always  without  feet  or  wings,  and  it 
was  said,  and  currently  believed,  that  no  one  had  ever  seen  one  of  them  alive ;  that 
they  lived  only  in  the  air,  and,  being  destitute  of  feet,  never  alighted;  but  as  they 
were  equally  without  wings,  how  they  managed  to  keep  afloat  in  the  air  was  a  mystery 
of  which  no  solution  was  attempted.  It  was  not  till  generations  had  passed  that  it 
was  discovered  that  the  natives,  in  preparing  the  skins,  cut  off  their  very  serviceable 
legs  and  wings,  and  so  arranged  what  was  left  as  to  give  the  greatest  possible  promi- 
nence to  their  flowing  tail-plumage.  One  fable  was  thus  displaced;  but  everything 
else  remained  unknown. 

In  1862  Mr.  Alfred  Russell  Wallace,  an  English  naturalii-t,  set  himself  seriously  at 
work  to  investigate  the  Natural  History  of  the  Malay  Islands ;  and  to  his  work,* 
published  in  18G8,  which  we  have  already  had  frequent  occasion  to  cite,  we  are 
indebted  for  about  all  that  is  really  known  respecting  the  Birds  of  Paradise ;  and  this 
cost  him  five  successive  voyages,  each  occupying  in  preparation  and  execution  nearly  a 
year.  He  describes  and  illustrates  eighteen  different  species.  In  all  of  these,  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  brilliant  colors  and  remarkable  plumage  bel6ng  to  the 
*  The  Malay  Archipelago. 


654 


THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 


males  ;  the  females  being  throughout  very  plain  looking  personages.  '•  The  Birds  of 
Paradise,"  he  says,  "are  a  group  of  moderate-sized  birds,  allied  in  structure  and 
habits  to  crows  and  starlings;  but  they  are  characterized  by  extraordinary  develop- 
ments of  plumage  which  are  unequaled  by  any  other  family  of  birds.     In  several 


NATIVES  OF  ARU  SHOOTING  THE  GREAT  BIRD  OF  PARADISE. 


species  large  tufts  of  delicate,  bright-colored  feathers  spring  from  each  side  of  the  body 
beneath  the  wings,  forming  trains,  fans,  or  shields ;  and  the  middle  feathers  of  the  tail 
are  often  elongated  into  wires,  twisted  into  the  most  fantastic  shapes,  or  adorned  with 
the  most  brilliant  metallic  tints.     In  another  set  of  species  these  accessory  plumes 


BIRDS   OF   PARADISE-THE   BOWER-BIRD.  g:,5 

spring  from  the  head,  the  back,  or  the  shoulders;  while  the  intensity  of  color  and 
of  metallic  lustre  displayed  by  their  plumage  is  not  to  be  equaled  by  any  other  birds. 
except  perhaps  by  the  Humming-birds,  and  is  not  surpassed  even  by  these." 

Of  the  eighteen  species  described  by  Mr.  Wallace,  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  is 
the  great  Bird  of  Paradise  {Paradisea  apoda)  which  measures  seventeen  or  eigliteen 
inches  from  the  beak  to  the  tip  of  the  tail.  The  body,  wings,  and  tail  are  brown, 
deepening  on  the  breast  to  purple.  The  head  is  yellow,  the  throat  of  emerald  "reen. 
From  each  side  of  the  body,  beneath  the  wings,  springs  a  dense  tuft  of  Ion"'  delicate 
plumes,  sometimes  two  feet  in  length,  of  the  most  intense  golden-orange  color,  very 
glossy,  but  changing  towards  the  tips  into  a  pale  brown.  This  tuft  of  plumage  can 
be  elevated  and  spread  out  at  pleasure,  so  as  almost  to  conceal  the  body  of  the  bird: 
They  moult  in  January  and  February ;  and  are  in  full  plumage  in  May.  At  this 
time  the  males  assemble  early  in  the  morning  to  exhibit  themselves  in  a  sinimlar  man- 
ner which  the  natives  call  their '■  Saccleli "  or  dancing-parties.  The  ball-room  is  a 
huge  tree,  whose  wide  branches  afford  them  abundant  space  for  display.  On  one  of 
fhese  trees  a  score  of  males  will  assemble,  raise  their  wings,  and  keep  them  in  constant 
vibration ;  flying  now  and  then  from  branch  to  branch,  so  that  the  whole  tree  is  alive 
with  their  waving  plumes.  When  at  the  utmost  point  of  excitement,  the  wings  are 
raised  over  the  head,  the  plumes  expanded  until  they  form  two  magnificent  fans,  over- 
shadowing the  whole  body,  while  the  yellow  head  and  green  throat  form  a  foundation 
and  support  for  the  golden  glory  which  waves  above.  When  seen  in  this  attitude  the 
Bird  of  Paradise  really  deserves  its  name,  and  must  be  ranked  as  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  living  things. 

This  habit  enables  the  natives  of  Aru  to  obtain  specimens  witli  more  ease.  As  soon 
as  they  find  that  the  birds  have  fixed  upon  a  tree  on  which  to  assemble,  they  build  a 
little  shelter  of  palm-leaves  in  a  convenient  place  among  the  branches,  and  the  hunter 
ensconces  himself  in  it  before  daylight,  armed  with  his  bow  and  a  number  of  arrows 
terminating  in  a  round  knob.  A  boy  waits  at  the  foot  of  the  tree,  and  when  the  birds 
come  at  sunrise,  and  a  sufficient  number  have  assembled,  and  have  begun  to  dance, 
the  hunter  shoots  with  his  blunt  arrow  so  strongly  as  to  stun  the  bird,  which  drops 
down  and  is  secured  without  its  plumage  being  injured  by  a  drop  of  blood.  The  rest 
take  no  notice,  «nd  fall  one  after  another  till  some  of  them  take  the  alarm. 

Another  species,  the  Red  Bird  of  Paradise,  found  in  some  parts  of  New  Guinea,  is 
caught  in  a  very  ingenious  manner.  There  is  a  large  tree  bearing  a  red  fruit  of  which 
these  birds  are  especially  fond.  The  hunters  fasten  this  fruit  on  a  stout  forked  stick, 
and  provide  themselves  with  a  fine  strong  cord.  They  then  find  out  some  tree  in  the 
forest  upon  which  these  birds  are  accustomed  to  perch  ;  and  combing  up  it,  fasten  the 
stick  to  a  branch,  and  arrange  the  cord  in  a  noose  so  ingeniously  that  when  the  bird 
comes  to  eat,  its  legs  are  caught ;  and  by  pulling  the  end  of  the  cord,  which  hangs  to 
the  ground,  it  comes  down  free  from  the  branch,  and  brings  down  the  bird.  5?ome- 
times  when  this  favorite  food  is  abundant  elsewhere,  the  hunter  sits  from  morning  to 
night  under  his  tree,  and  often  for  two  or  three  whole  days  in  succession,  without  get- 
ting even  a  bite  ;  while  at  other  times,  if  very  lucky,  he  may  get  two  or  three  birds 
a  day. 

The  ornithological  wonders  of  Australia  are  inferior  to  those  of  no  other  part  of  the 
world.     Can  anything,  for  instance,  be  more  extraordinary  than  the  constructions  of 


656  ,  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

the  Bower-birds,  which  are  built  not  for  the  useful  purpose  of  containing  the  young, 
but  purely  as  a  playing  place  or  an  assembly  room?  "  The  structures  of  the  spotted 
bower-bird,"  says  Mr.  Gould,  "  are  in  many  instances  three  feet  in  length.  They  are 
outwardly  built  of  twigs,  and  beautifully  lined  with  tall  grasses,  so  disposed  that  their 
heads  nearly  meet ;  the  decorations  are  very  profuse,  and  consist  of  bivalve  shells, 
crania  of  small  mammalia,  and  other  birds.  Evident  and  beautiful  indications  of  de- 
sign are  manifest  throughout  the  whole  of  the  bower  and  decorations  formed  by  this 
species,  particularly  in  the  manner  in  which  the  stones  are  placed  within  the  bower, 
apparently  to  keep  the  grasses  with  which  it  is  lined  fixed  firmly  in  their  places. 
These  stones  diverge  fi-om  the  mouth  of  the  run  on  each  side,  so  as  to  form  a  little 
path,  while  the  immense  collection  of  decorative  materials,  bones,  shells,  &c.,  are 
placed  in  a  heap  before  the  entrance  of  the  avenue,  this  arrangement  being  the  same 
at  both  ends.  I  frequently  found  these  structures  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
rivers,  from  the  borders  of  which  they  alone  could  have  procured  the  shells  and  small 
round  pebbly  stones ;  their  collection  and  transportation  must,  therefore,  be  a  task  of 
great  labor  and  diflSculty.  As  these  birds  feed  almost  entirely  upon  seeds  and  fruits, 
the  shells  and  bones  can  not  have  been  collected  for  any  other  purpose  than  ornament ; 
besides,  it  is  only  those  that  have  been  bleached  perfectly  white  in  the  sun,  or  such  as 
have  been  roasted  by  the  natives,  and  by  this  means  whitened,  that  attract  their  atten- 
tion." For  what  purpose  these  curious  bowers  are  made  is  not  yet,  perhaps,  fully 
understood ;  they  are  certainly  not  used  as  a  nest,  but  as  a  place  of  resort,  where  the 
assembled  birds  run  through  and  about  the  bower  in  a  playful  manner,  and  that  so 
frequently  that  it  is  seldom  entirely  deserted.  The  proceedings  of  these  birds  have 
not  been  sufficiently  watched  to  render  it  certain  whether  the  runs  are  frequented 
throughout  the  whole  year  or  not,  but  it  is  highly  probable  that  they  are  merely  re- 
sorted to  as  a  rendezvous  or  playing  ground  at  the  pairing  time,  and  during  the  period 
of  incubation. 

The  Talegalla  or  Brush-turkey  is  no  less  interesting.  In  appearance  it  is  very  like 
the  common  black  turkey,  but  is  not  quite  so  large  :  the  extraordinary  manner  in  which 
its  eggs  are  hatched  constitutes  its  singularity.  It  collects  together  a  great  heap  of  de- 
caying vegetables  as  the  place  of  deposit  of  its  eggs,  thus  making  a  hot-bed,  arising 
from  the  decomposition  of  the  collected  matter,  by  the  heat  of  which  \he  young  are 
hatched.  This  mound  varies  in  quantity  from  two  to  four  cart  loads,  and  is  of  a  per- 
fectly pyramidical  form  :  it  is  not,  however,  the  work  of  a  single  pair  of  birds,  but  is 
the  result  of  the  united  labor  of  many,  and  the  same  site  appears  to  be  resorted  to  for 
several  years  in  succession.  "The  mode,"  says  Mr.  Gould,  "in  which  the  materials 
composing  these  mounds  are  accumulated  is  equally  singular,  the  bird  never  using  its 
bill,  but  always  grasping  a  quantity  in  its  foot,  throwing  it  backwards  to  one  common 
center,  and  thus  clearing  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  a  considerable  distance  so  com- 
pletely that  scarcely  a  leaf  or  blade  of  grass  is  left."  The  heap  being  accumulated 
and  time  allowed  for  a  sufficient  heat  to  be  engendered,  the  eggs,  each  measuring  not 
less  than  four  inches  in  length — an  enormous  size,  considering  the  bulk  of  the  bird — 
are  deposited,  not  side  by  side,  as  is  ordinarily  the  case,  but  planted  at  the  distance  of 
nine  or  twelve  inches  from  each  other,  and  buried  at  nearly  an  arm's  depth  perfectly 
upright,  with  the  large  end  upwards;  they  are  covered  up  as  they  are  laid,  and 
allowed  to  remain  until  hatched.     After  six  weeks  of  burial,  the  eggs,  in  succession 


THE   BRUSH- TURKEY-THE   ADJUTANT-BIRD- CRIES.  (J57 

and  without  any  warning,  give  up  their  chicks—not  feeble,  but  full-fledged  and  strong, 
so  that  at  night  they  scrape  holes  for  themselves,  and  lying  dowH  therein  are  covered 
over  by  the  old  birds  and  thus  remain  until  morning.  The  extraordinary  strength  of 
the  newly-hatched  birds  is  accounted  for  by  the  size  of  the  shell,  since  in  so  large  a 
space  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  young  ones  would  be  much  more  developed 
than  is  usually  foubd  in  eggs  of  smaller  dimensions. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  in  the  tropical  world,  where  lizards,  snakes,  and 
frogs  attain  such  extraordinary  dimensions,  the  cranes  or  stork  tribes,  which  chiefly 
live  upon  these  reptiles,  should  also  grow  to  a  more  colossal  size  than  their  European 
representatives.  Thus,  while  torrid  America  boasts  of  the  Jabiru,  Africa  and  India 
possess  the  still  larger  Argala,  or  Adjutant,  whose  feeding  exploits  and  ugliness  have 
already  been  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  snakes.  His  beak,  measuring  sixteen  inches 
in  circumference  at  the  base,  corresponds  with  his  appetite.  He  is  soon  rendered  fa- 
miliar with  man,  and  when  fish  or  other  food  is  thrown  to  him,  he  catches  it  very  nim- 
bly and  immediately  swallows  it  entire.  A  young  bird  of  this  kind,  about  five  feet  in 
hight,  was  brought  up  tame  and  presented  to  a  chief  on  the  coast  of  Guinea,  where 
Mr.  Smeathman  lived.  It  regularly  attended  the  hall  at  dinner  time,  placing  itself 
behind  its  master's  chair,  frequently  before  any  of  the  guests  entered.  The  servants 
wer'e  dbliged  to  watch  it  carefully,  and  to  defend  the  provisions  by  beating  it  off"  with 
sticks ;  still  it  would  frequently  snatch  off"  something  from  the  table,  and  one  day  pur- 
loined a  whole  boiled  fowl,  which  it  swallowed  in  an  instant.  It  used  to  fly  about  the 
island,  and  roost  very  high  among  the  silk-cotton  trees  ;  from  this  station,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  two  or  three  miles,  it  could  see  when  the  dinner  was  carried  across  the  court, 
when,  darting  down,  it  would  arrive  early  enough  to  enter  with  some  of  those  who 
carried  in  the  dishes.  Sometimes  it  would  stand  in  the  room  for  half  an  hour  after 
dinner,  turning  its  head  alternately  as  if  taking  a  deep  interest  in  the  conversation. 
These  birds  are  found  in  companies,  and  when  seen  at  a  distance  near  the  mouths  of 
rivers,  advancing  towards  an  observer,  it  is  said  that  they  may  be  easily  mistaken  for 
canoes  on  the  surface  of  a  smooth  sea ;  and  when  on  the  sand-banks,  for  men  and 
women  picking  up  shell  fish  on  the  beach. 

The  tropical  forests  of  the  eastern  hemisphere  resound  with  bird-cries  no  less  appall- 
ing, wild,  or  strange  than  those  of  the  western  world.  In  the  close  jungles  of  Ceylon 
one  occasionally  hears  the  call  of  the  Copper-smith  (^M^galasara  Indica,)  whose  din 
resembles  the  blows  of  a  smith  hammering  a  caldron,  or  the  strokes  of  the  great 
orange-colored  Woodpecker  {Brachypterus  aiirantius,)  as  it  beats  the  decaying  trees 
in  search  of  insects ;  but  of  all  the  yells  that  fancy  can  imagine  there  is  none  to  equal 
that  of  the  Singhalese  Devil-bird,  or  Gualama.  "  Its  ordinary  cry,"  says  Mr.  Mit- 
ford,  "  is  a  magnificent  clear  shout  like  that  of  a  human  being,  and  which  can  be 
heard  at  a  great  distance,  and  has  a  fine  eff'ect  in  the  silence  of  the  closing  night.  It 
has  another  cry  like  that  of  a  hen  just  caught ;  but  the  sounds  which  have  earned  for 
it  its  bad  name,  and  which  I  have  heard  but  once  to  perfection,  are  indescribable ;  the 
most  appalling  that  can  be  imagined,  and  scarcely  to  be  heard  without  shuddering.  I 
can  only  compare  it  to  a  boy  in  torture,  whose  screams  are  being  stopped  by  being 
strangled.  On  hearing  this  dreadful  note  the  terrified  Singhalese  hurries  from  the 
spot,  for  should  he  chance  to  see  the  bird  of  ill  omen  he  is  sure  that  his  death  is  nigh. 
A  servant  of  Mr.  Baker's,  who  had  the  misfortune  of  seeing  the  dreaded  gualama, 
42 


658  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

from  that  moment  took  no  food,  and  thus  fell  a  victim  to  his  superstitious  despair. 
This  horror  of  the  natives  explains  the  circumstance  that  it  is  not  yet  perfectly  ascer- 
tained whether  the  devil  bird  is  an  owl  {Syrnium)  or  a  night-hawk. 

The  wonderful  pendulous  nests  of  the  American  Cassiques  are  equalled,  if  not 
surpassed,  by  those  of  the  Indian  Baya.  These  birds  are  found  in  most  parts  of 
Hindostan ;  in  shape  they  resemble  the  sparrow,  as  also  in  the  broWn  feathers  of  the 
back  and  wings ;  the  head  and  breast  are  of  a  bright  yellow,  and  in  the  rays  of  a 
tropical  sun  have  a  splendid  appearance  when  flying  by  thousands  in  the  same  grove. 
They  make  a  chirping  noise,  but  have  no  song ;  they  associate  in  large  communities, 
and  cover  clumps  of  palmyras,  acacias,  and  date  trees  with  their  nests.  These  are 
formed  in  a  very  ingenious  manner  by  long  grass  woven  together  in  the  shape  of  a 
bottle,  and  suspended  by  so  slender  a  thread  to  the  end  of  a  flexible  branch  that  even 
the  squirrel  dare  not  venture  his  body  on  so  fragile  a  support,  however  his  mouth  may 
water  at  the  eggs  and  prey  within.  These  nests  contain  several  apartments,  appro- 
priated to  different  purposes  :  in  one  the  hen  performs  the  office  of  incubation ;  another, 
consisting  of  a  little  thatched  roof,  and  covering  a  perch  without  a  bottom,  is  occupied 
by  the  male,  who  cheers  the  female  with  his  chirping  note. 

The  Tailor  bird  of  Hindostan  {Sylvia  sutoria)  is  equally  curious  in  the  structure 
of  its  nest,  ajid  far  superior  in  the  elegance  and  variety  of  its  plumage,  which  in  the 
male  glows  with  the  varied  tints  of  the  colibri.  The  little  artist  first  selects  a  plant 
with  large  leaves,  and  then  gathers  cotton  from  the  shrub,  spins  it  to  a  thread  by 
means  of  its  long  bill  and  slender  feet,  and  then,  as  with  a  needle,  sews  the  leaves 
neatly  together  to  conceal  its  nest. 

On  turning  to  the  wilds  of  Africa,  the  Grosbeak  affords  us  a  no  less  wonderful 
example  of  nest-building;  for  here  we  find,  not  one  single  pair,  but  hundreds  living 
under  the  same  roof,  perfectly  resembling  that  of  a  thatched  house,  and  with  a  project- 
ing ridge,  so  that  it  is  impossible  for  any  reptile  to  approach  the  entrances  concealed 
below.  "Their  industry,"  says  Paterson,  "seems  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  bee. 
Throughout  the  day  they  appear  to  be  busily  employed  in  carrying  a  fine  species  of  ^ 
grass,  which  is  the  principal  material  they  employ  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  this 
extraordinary  work,  as  well  as  for  additions  and  repairs.  Though  my  short  stay  in 
the  country  was  not  sufficient  to  satisfy  me,  by  ocular  proof,  that  they  added  to  their 
nest  as  they  annually  increased  in  numbers,  still  from  the  many  trees  which  I  have 
seen  borne  down  by  the  weight,  and  others  which  I  have  observed  with  their  boughs 
completely  covered  over,  it  would  appear  that  this  really  was  the  case..  When  the  tree 
which  is  the  support  of  this  aerial  city  is  obliged  to  give  way  to  the  increase  of  weight, 
it  is  obvious  they  are  no  longer  protected,  and  are  under  the  necessity  of  rebuilding  in 
other  trees.  One  of  these  deserted  nests  I  had  the  curiosity  to  break  down,  so  as  to 
inform  myself  of  its  internal  structure,  and  I  found  it  equally  ingenious  with  that  of 
the  external.  There  are  many  entrances,  each  of  which  forms  a  separate  street  with 
nests  on  both  sides,  at  about  two  inches  distant  from  each  other." 

Though  far  less  ingenious,  yet  the  nest  of  the  Korwe  {Tockus  erythrorynchiis)  is 
too  curious  to  be  passed  over  in  silence.  The  female  having  entered  her  breeding- 
place,  in  one  of  the  natural  cavities  of  the  mopane  tree,  a  species  of  bauhinia,  the 
male  plasters  up  the  entrance,  leaving  only  a  narrow  slit  by  which  to  feed  his  mate, 
and  which  exactly  suits  the  form  of  his  beak.     The  female  makes  a  nest  of  her  own 


HOUSE-BUJLDING   BIRDS.  059 

feathers,  lays  her  eggs,  hatches  them,  aod  remains  with  the  young  till  tliey  are  fully 
fledged.  During  all  this  time,  which  is  stated  to  be  two  or  three  months,  the  male 
continues  to  feed  her  and  the  young  family.  The  pri.soner  generally  becomes  quite 
flit,  and  is  esteemed  a  very  dainty  morsel  by  the  natives,  wliile  the  poor  slave  of  a 
husband  gets  so  lean  and  weak,  that  on  the  sudden  lowering  of  the  temperature,  which 
sometimes  happens  after  a  fall  of  rain,  he  is  benumbed,  falls  down,  and  dies. 

All  pensile  birds  are  remarkable  for  the  eccentricity  of  shape  and  design  which 
marks  their  nests  ;  though  they  agree  in  one  point,  that  they  dangle  at  the  end  of 
twigs,  and  dance  about  merrily  at  every  breeze.  Some  are  long,  others  short ;  some 
have  the  entrance  at  the  side,  others  at  the  bottom,  others  near  the  top.  Some  are 
hung  like  hammocks  from  one  twig  to  another  ;  others  are  suspended  to  the  extremity 
of  the  twig  itself;  while  others  built  in  palms,  which  have  no  true  branches,  and  no 
twigs  \it  all,  are  fastened  to  the  extremities  of  the  leaves.  Some  are  made  of  fine 
fibres,  and  others  of  the  coarsest  straws.  Some  are  so  loose  in  their  texture  that  the 
eggs  can  be  plainly  seen  through  them ;  while  others  are  so  strong  and  thick,  that  one 
might  suppose  them  to  be  constructed  by  a  professional  thatcher. 

The  illustration  on  the  following  page  presents  a  group  of  nests  of  several  species  of 
the  African  Weavers.  In  the  right-hand  upper  corner  are  the  cijrious  nests  of  the 
Mahali  Weaver  {Pliopasser  mahali)  accompanied  by  the  birds  themselves.  Although 
the  bird  measures  only  six  inches  in  length  its  nest  is  of  considerable  size,  and  is 
formed  of  quite  stout  substances.  In  shape  it  is  not  unlike  an  ordinary  Florence 
flask,  only  three  times  the  size,  with  the  neck  shortened  and  widened.  Its  surface, 
however,  is  rough,  the  large  straws  of  which  it  is  composed  pointing  downwards  to 
the  entrance  of  the  nest,  which  is  at  the  bottom.  Next  below  are  three  rows  of  the 
nests  of  the  Spotted-back  Weavers  {Ploceus  spilonatus),  which  are  represented  as  at- 
tacked by  monkeys,  some  of  whom,  assailed  by  the  birds,  are  getting  well-ducked  for 
their  pains.  Still  below,  rather  in  the  background,  are  two  nests  of  the  Ploceus  Ca- 
pensis,  woven  into  palm-leaves.  Below  this,  in  the  left  corner,  is  a  nest  of  the  Yellow- 
Weaver  {Ploceus  ocularms),  shaped  somewhat  like  a  chemist's  retort,  with  the  bulb 
uppermost,  or  more  nearly  like  a  huge  old-fashioned  pistol,  hanging  butt  upward.  The 
nest  is  made  of  grass  about  as  large  as  a  small  twine,  interwoven  with  great  skill. 
This  is  only  partly  shown.  At  the  right  corner  is  a  nest  of  the  Taha  Weaver  {Euplec- 
tes  taha),  a  pretty  little  bird,  which  is  no  great  favorite  with  the  African  farmers,  for 
it  is  very  numerous,  especially  in  cultivated  regions,  and  has  no  scruples  about  helping 
itself  to  the  produce  of  the  gardens,  whose  owners  are  obliged  to  keep  up  a  keen 
watch  if  they  expect  to  secure  a  fair  share  of  the  crops.  Lastly,  in  the  bottom  centre, 
is  the  nest  of  the  Yellow  capped  Weaver  {Ploceus  icterocephalus).  This  nest  is  re- 
markable for  the  extreme  neatness  and  compactness  of  its  structure.  The  body  of  the 
nest  is  of  seed-stems  so  closely  interwoven  that  it  can  be  handled,  or  even  kicked  like 
a  foot-ball,  without  being  destroyed.  The  interior  is  lined  with  layers  of  flat  leaves, 
kept  in  place  by  their  own  elasticity,  which  afford  a  smooth,  soft  resting-place  for  the 
eggs  and  young  birds. 

Parrots  have  so  many  points  of  resemblance  to  monkeys  in  their  tastes  and  habits, 
that  notwithstanding  their  dilferent  appearance,  one  might  almost  be  tempted  to  call 
them  near  relations.  As  the  monkey  never  sets  foot  on  the  ground  if  he  can  help  it, 
but  springs  from  branch  to  branch  of  trees,  so  the  parrot  is  rarely  seen  walking.      Ills 


660 


THE   TROPICAL  WORLD. 


AFRICAN    WEAVERS. 


PARROTS— MONKEYS.  GOl 

flight  is  rapid,  but  of  sbort  duration  ;  so  that  evidently  neither  the  groun  nor  the  air 
was  destined  for  his  habitual  abode.  In  climbing,  however,  he  shows  an  uncommon 
espertness  and  agility,  unlike  that  of  any  other  quadruped  or  bird,  as  the  organ  he 
chiefly  uses  for  the  purpose  is  his  beak.  He  first  seizes  with  his  powerful  mandibles 
the  branch  he  intends  to  ascend,  and  then  raises  his  body  one  foot  after  the  other ;  or, 
if  he  happens  to  have  a  sweet  nut  in  his  bill  which  he  is  anxious  to  preserve,  he  presses 
his  lower  mandible  firmly  upon  the  branch,  and  raises  himself  by  the  contraction  of  the 
muscles  of  his  neck.  On  descending,  he  first  bends  his  head,  lays  the  back  of  his  beak 
upon  the  branch,  and  while  the  extended  neck  supports  the  weight  of  the  body,  brings 
down  one  foot  after  the  other.  While  accidentally  walking  on  even  ground,  he  also 
frequently  uses  his  upper  mandible  as  a  kind  of  crutch,  by  fixing  its  point  or  its  back 
upon  the  ground ;  for  the  formation  of  his  toes  is  such,  that  he  can  walk  but  very 
slowly,  and  consequently  requires  the  aid  of  that  singular  support.  But  if  the  toes  of 
the  parrot  are  but  ill  adapted  for  walking,  they  render  him  valuable  services  in  seizing 
or  grasping  his  food.  They  even  form  a  kind  of  hand,  with  which,  like  the  monkey, 
he  conveys  the  morsel  to  his  beak.  This  easily  cracks  the  hardest  nutshells,  after 
which  the  broad  and  fleshy  tongue  adroitly  extracts  the  kernel. 

In  his  free  state  the  parrot  lives  only  upon  nuts  and  seeds ;  when  captive,  however, 
he  becomes  omnivorous,  like  man  his  master,  eats  bread  and  meat,  sugar  and  pastry, 
and  is  very  fond  of  wine,  which  has  a  most  exhilarating  efl'ect  on  his  spirits.  Like 
most  monkeys,  the  parrots  are  extremely  social.  At  break  of  day  they  generally  rise 
in  large  bands,  and  with  loud  screams  fly  away  to  seek  their  breakfast.  After  having 
feasted  together,  they  retire  to  the  shady  parts  of  the  forest  as  soon  as  the  heat  begins 
to  be  oppressive,  and  a  few  hours  before  the  setting  of  the  sun  reappear  in  large  troops. 

If  the  monkeys  are  distinguished  by  a  strong  aflPection  for  their  young,  the  parrots 
may  well  be  cited  as  models  of  connubial  love,  for  when  once  a  pair  has  been  united, 
its  attachment  remains  unaltered  unto  death.  Far  more  than  the  turtle-dove,  the  little 
passerine  parrot  (Psitlaciis  passerinus)  of  Brazil,  or  the  Psittacus  puUarius,  or  love- 
parrot  of  Guinea,  deserves  to  be  celebrated  by  poets  as  the  emblem  of  conjugal  afiijc- 
tion.  Never  seen  but  in  each  other's  company,  each  delights  to  imitate  the  actions  of 
the  other,  feeding,  sleeping,  bathing  together ;  and  when  one  dies,  the  other  soon  fol- 
lows its  partner.  A  gentleman  who  had  lost  one  of  a  pair  of  these  inseparables,  at- 
tempted to  preserve  the  other  by  hanging  up  a  looking-glass  in  its  cage.  At  first  the 
joy  of  the  poor  bird  was  boundless,  as  he  fancied  his  mate  restored  to  his  caresses ;  but 
soon  perceiving  the  deception,  he  pined  away  and  died. 

Another  point  of  resemblance  between  the  parrots  and  monkeys  is  their  talent 
for  mimicry  ;  but  while  the  latter,  favored  by  the  similarity  of  their  organization  to 
that  of  man,  strive  to  copy  his  gestures  and  actions,  the  former  endeavor  to  imitate  his 
voice  and  to  repeat  his  words,  an  attempt  facilitated  by  the  extreme  mobility  of  their 
tongue  and  upper  mandible,  no  less  than  by  the  peculiar  construction  of  their  larynx 
or  windpipe.  The  talent  of  speech  has  not  been  given  to  all  the  parrots  alike.  The 
beautiful  American  Aras,  for  instance,  are  in  this  respect  remarkably  stupid,  while  the 
purple  Lory  of  the  East  Indies,  and  the  gray  African  parrot  (  Psittacus  erithacus,)  are 
remarkable  for  their  linguistic  attainments.  They  are  often  able  to  retain  whole  songs 
and  sentences,  and  to  repeat  them  with  astonishing  exactness.  Thus  Le  Vaillant 
mentions  a  gray  parrot  he  saw  at  the  Cape,  who  was  able  to  repeat  the  whole  of  the 


662  THE   TROPICAL  WORLD. 

Lord's  Prayer  ia  Dutch,  throwing  himself  at  the  same  time  on  his  back,  and  folding 
the  toes  of  both  his  feet.  The  gray  parrot  not  only  imitates  the  voice  of  man,  but  has 
also  'a  strong  desire  to  do  so,  which  he  manifests  by  his  attention  in  listening,  and  by 
the  continuous  efforts  he  makes  to  rejieat  the  phrases  he  has  heard.  He  seems  to  im- 
pose upon  himself  a  daily  task,  which  even  occupies  him  during  sleep,  as  he  speaks  in 
his  dreams.  His  memory  is  astonishing,  so  that  a  cardinal  once  gave  a  hundred  gold 
crowns  for  one  of  these  birds  that  correctly  repeated  a  long  prayer;  and  M.  de  la 
Borde  told  BufFon  he  had  seen  one  that  was  fully  able  to  perform  the  duties  of  a  ship's 
chaplain.  . 

All  parrots  are  more  or  less  susceptible  of  education,  and,  particularly  when  caught 
young,  grow  very  much  attached  to  the  master  that  feeds  them.  Those  that  are  sent 
to  Europe  are  generally  taken  from  the  nest,  and  thus  never  have  experienced  the 
sweets  of  freedom ;  but  they  are  also  frequently  caught  full  grown.  The  South 
American  Indians  know  how  to  strike  them  with  small  arrows,  whose  points  are  blunted 
with  cotton,  so  as  to  stun  without  killing  them ;  or  else,  under  the  trees  on  which  they 
perch,  they  light  a  fire  of  strong-smelling  weeds,  whose  vapors  cause  them  to  drop  to 
the  ground.  These  captives  are  frequently  extremely  stubborn ;  but  blowing  the 
fumes  of  tobacco  into  their  face  until  they  fall  asleep  is  an  infallible  remedy  to  cure 
them  of  their  obstinacy,  this  operation  being  so  little  to  their  taste  that  it  need  hardly 
ever  be  repeated  twice.  Parrots  are  known  to  attain  a  very  great  age.  One  that  was 
brought  to  Florence  in  1633,  and  belonged  to  the  Grand  Duchess  of  Tuscany,  died  in 
1743,  having  thus  lived  more  than  a  century  in  exile.  Although  preeminently 
tropical,  like  the  colibris,  several  parrots  range  far  within  the  temperate  zone,  as  they 
are  found  in  the  Southern  hemisphere  at  the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  on  the  Macquarie 
Islands,  and  in  the  Northern,  in  Ohio  and  Kentucky,  where  the  Carolina  parrot  is 
often  seen  in  great  numbers  during  the  summer. 

The  Cockatoos  are  distinguished  from  the  other  parrots  by  a  crest  or  tuft  of  elegant 
feathers  on  tlie  head,  which  they  can  raise  and  depress  at  pleasure.  They  inhabit  the 
East  Indies  and  Australia,  and  have  generally  a  white  or  roseate  plumage.  Their 
chief  resorts  are  dense  and  humid  forests,  and  they  frequently  cause  great  devasta- 
tions in  the  rice  plantations,  often  pouncing  to  the  number  of  six  or  eight  hundred 
upon  a  single  field,  and  destroying  even  more  than  they  devour,  as  they  seem  to  be 
possessed  of  the  mania  to  break  and  tear  everything  their  beak  can  lay  hold  of.  They 
walk  less  awkwardly  than  most  other  parrots.  The  great  white  cockatoo  ( Oacatua 
cristata),  who  is  able  to  erect  his  beautiful  yellow  crest  to  the  hight  of  five  inches, 
as  a  cock  does  his  comb,  is  the  species  most  frequently  seen  in  Europe.  This  bird  is 
half-domesticated  in  several  parts  of  India,  as  it  builds  its  nest  under  the  roofs  of 
houses,  and  this  tameness  results  from  its  intelligence,  which  seems  superior  to  that 
of  other  parrots.  It  listens  attentively,  but  vainly  strives  to  repeat  what  is  said.  As 
Australia,  the  land  of  anomalies  in  natural  history,  possesses  a  black  swan,  it  also 
gives  birth  to  a  splendid  black  cockatoo  ( Cacatua  Banksii),  the  finest  and  the  rarest 
of  the  whole  genus. 

The  magnificent  Macaws,  or  Aras,  of  South  America  are  distinguished  by  having 
their  cheeks  destitute  of  feathers,  and  their  tail  feathers  long.  Their  size  and  splendid 
plumage  render  them  fit  ornaments  of  princely  gardens,  but  their  loud  and  piercing 
screams  would  prove  a  great  annoyance  to  the  inmates  of  humbler  dwellings.     "  Supc- 


]\f AC  A  WS— PAROQUETS-OSTRICHES.  Giii 

rior  in  size  and  beauty  to  evexj  parrot  of  South  America,"  says  Waterton,  "  the  Ara 
(Macrocercus  macao)  will  force  you  to  take  your  eyes  from  the  rest  of  animated  na- 
ture, and  gaze  at  him  :  his  commanding  strength ;  the  Haming  scarlet  of  his  body  ; 
the  lovely  variety  of  red,  yellow,  blue,  and  green,  in  his  wings ;  the  extraordinary 
length  of  his  scarlet  and  blue  tail,  seem  all  to  form  and  demand  for  him  the  title  of 
Binperor  of  all  the  parrots." 

The  Paroquets,  or  Parakeets,  are  smaller  than  the  common  parrots,  and  have  longer 
tails.  There  are  numerous  species,  some  distinguished  by  a  very  long  pointed  tail, 
and  collar-like  mark  round  the  neck,  which  inhabit  the  Asiatic  continent  and  islands  ; 
and  others,  natives  of  Australia,  which  are  distinguished  by  their  color  being  gor- 
geously variegated  and  peculiarly  mottled  on  the  back,  by  their  tail  feathers  not  being 
pointed,  and  by  their  being  furnished  with  elongated  tarsi  adapted  for  running  on  the 
ground.  To  the  former  belongs  the  beautiful  ring  pai'oquet,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  first  bird  of  the  parrot  kind  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks,  having  been 
brought  from  the  island  of  Ceylon,  after  the  Indian  expeditions  of  Alexander  the 
Great ;  to  the  latter,  the  elegant  green  parakeet,  which  in  the  hot  seasons  congregates 
about  the  pools  in  almost  incredible  numbers.  Though  capable  of  a  rapid  and  even 
flight,  and  frequently  at  great  altitudes,  it  is  generally  found  running  over  the  ground, 
and  treading  its  way  among  the  grasses  to  feed  on  the  seeds.  It  can  easily  be  domes- 
ticated, and  a  more  elegant  or  beautiful  pet  can  scarcely  be  conceived. 

It  is  a  strange  fact  that  the  parrots,  that  will  eat  nux  vomica  without  danger,  expire 
in  convulsions  after  having  tasted  parsley,  another  pjoof  of  the  truth  of  the  saying 
that  what  is  poison  for  one  creature  is  food  for  another. 

In  the  African  plains  and  wildernesses,  where  the  lion  seeks  his  prey,  where  the 
pachyderms  make  the  earth  tremble  under  their  weighty  strides,  where  the  girafle 
plucks  the  high  branches  of  the  acacia,  and  the  herds  of  the  antelope  bound  along : 
there  also  dwells  the  Ostrich,  the  king  of  birds,  if  size  alone  give  right  to  so  proud  a 
title ;  for  neither  the  condor  nor  the  albatross  can  be  compared  in  this  respect  to  the 
ostrich,  who  raises  his  head  seven  or  eight  feet  above  the  ground,  and  attains  a  weiirht 
of  from  two  to  three  hundred  pounds.  His  small  and  weak  wings  are  incapable  of 
carrying  him  through  the  air,  but  their  flapping  materially  assists  the  action  of  his 
legs,  and  serves  to  increase  his  swiftness  when,  flying  over  the  plain,  he  "  scorns  the 
horse  and  its  rider."  His  feet  appear  hardly  to  touch  the  ground,  and  the  length 
between  each  stride  is  not  unfrequently  from  twelve  to  fourteen  feet,  so  that  for  a  time 
he  might  even  outstrip  a  locomotive  rushing  along  at  full  speed. 

Not  only  by  his  speed  is  the  ostrich  able  to  baffle  many  an  enemy,  the  strength  of 
his  legs  also  serves  him  as  an  excellent  means  of  defence  ;  and  many  a  panther  or  wild 
dog  coming  within  reach  of  his  foot  has  had  reason  to  repent  of  its  temerity.  But  in 
spite  of  the  rapidity  of  his  flight,  during  which  he  frequently  flings  large  stones  back- 
wards with  his  foot,  and  in  spite  of  his  strength,  he  is  frequently  obliged  to  succumb 
to  man,  who  knows  how  to  hunt  him  in  various  ways.  Unsuspicious  of  evil,  and 
enjoying  the  full  liberty  of  the  desert,  a  troop  of  ostriches  wanders  through  the  plain, 
the  monotony  of  which  is  only  relieved  here  and  there  by  a  clump  of  palms,  a  patch 
of  candelabra-shaped  tree-euphorbias,  or  a  vast  and  solitary  baobab.  Some  leisurely 
feed  on  the  sprouts  of  the  acacias,  the  hard  dry  leaves  of  the  mimosas,  or  the  prickly 
naras,  whose  deep  .orange-colored  pulp  forms   one  of  their  favorite  repasts ;   others 


664  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

agitate  their  wings  and  ventilate  the  delicate  plumage,  the  possession  of  which  is  soon 
to  prove  so  fatal  to  them.  No  other  bird  is  seen  in  their  company — for  no  other  bird 
leads  a  life  like  theirs ;  but  the  zebra  and  the  antelope  are  fond  of  associating  with 
the  ostrich,  desirous  perhaps  of  benefiting  by  the  sharpness  of  his  eye,  which  is  capable 
of  discerning  danger  at  the  utmost  verge  of  the  horizon.  Bat  in  spite  of  its  vigilance, 
misfortunes  are  already  gathering  round  the  troop,  for  the  Bedouin  has  spied  them 
cut,  and  encircles  them  with  a  ring  of  his  fleetest  coursers.  In  vain  the  ostrich  seeks 
to  escape.  One  rider  drives  him  along  to  the  next,  the  circle  gradually  grows  nar- 
rower and  narrower,  and,  finally,  the  exhausted  bird  sinks  upon  the  ground,  and 
receives  the  death-blow  with  stoical  resignation.  But  the  exertion  of  a  long  protracted 
chase  is  not  always  necessary  to  catch  the  ostrich  ;  for  before  the  rainy  season,  when 
the  heat  is  at  its  bight,  he  is  frequently  found  upon  the  sand  with  outstretched  wings 
and  open  beak,  and  allows  himself  to  be  caught  after  a  short  pursuit  by  a  single  horse- 
man, or  even  by  a  swift-footed  Bushman. 

To  surprise  the  cautious  seal  the  Northern  Esquimaux  puts  on  a  skin  of  the  animal, 
and  imitating  its  motions  mixes  among  the  unsuspicious  herd ;  and,  in  South  Africa, 
we  find  the  Bushman  resort  to  a  similar  stratagem  to  outwit  the  ostrich.  He  forms  a 
kind  of  saddle-shaped  cushion,  and  covers  it  over  with  feathers,  so  as  to  resemble  the 
bird.  The  head  and  neck  of  an  ostrich  are  stuffed,  and  a  small  rod  introduced.  Pre- 
paring for  the  chase,  he  whitens  his  black  legs  with  any  substance  he  can  procure, 
places  the  saddle  on  his  shoulders,  takes  the  bottom  part  of  the  neck  in  his  right  hand, 
and  his  bow  and  poisoned  arrow.s  in  his  left.  Under  this  mask  he  mimics  the  ostrich 
to  perfection,  picks  away  at  the  verdure,  turns  his  head  as  if  keeping  a  sharp  look-out, 
shakes  his  feathers,  now  walks,  and  then  trots,  till  he  gets  within  bow-shot,  and  when 
the  flock  runs,  from  one  receiving  an  arrow,  he  runs  too.  Sometimes,  however,  it 
happens  that  some  wary  old  bird  suspects  the  cheat,  and  endeavors  to  get  near  the 
intruder,  who  then  tries  to  get  out  of  the  way,  and  to  prevent  the  bird  from  catching 
his  scent,  which  would  at  once  break  the  spell.  Should  one  of  the  birds  happen  to 
get  too  near  in  pursuit,  he  has  only  to  run  to  windward,  or  throw  off  his  saddle,  to 
avoid  a  stroke  from  a  wing  which  would  lay  him  prostrate. 

The  Bushman  frequently  has  recourse  to  a  much  simpler  plan.  Having  discovered 
the  nest  of  an  ostrich,  he  removes  the  eggs  as  the  first  fruits  of  conquest,  and  then, 
concealing  himself  in  the  empty  cavity,  patiently  waits  for  the  return  of  the  bird, 
which  he  generally  dispatches  with  one  of  those  poisoned  arrows  which  make  incred- 
ible havoc  among  the  wild  herds  of  the  bush  or  the  savannah.  According  to  Dr.  Liv- 
ingstone, the  venom  most  generally  employed  is  the  milky  juice  of  the  tree-euphorbia, 
which  is  particularly  hurtful  to  the  equine  race.  When  it  is  mixed  with  the  water  of 
a  pond,  a  whole  herd  of  zebras  will  fall  dead  from  the  effects  of  the  poison  before 
they  have  moved  away  two  miles ;  while  on  oxen  and  men  it  acts  as  a  drastic  purga- 
tive only.  This  substance  is  used  all  over  the  country,  though  in  some  places  the 
venom  of  serpents  and  a  certain  bulb,  Amaryllis  toxicaria,  are  added,  in  order  to 
increase  the  virulence.  A  slender  reed  only  slightly  barbed  with  bone  or  iron,  but 
imbued  with  this  poison,  is  sufficient  to  destroy  the  most  powerful  animal.  Thus  we 
find  the  African  savage  subdues  the  beasts  of  the  field  by  similar  means  to  those  which 
are  used  by  the  wild  nations  on  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco  or  the  Amazon. 

The  ostrich  generally  passscs  for  a  very  stupid  animal,  yet  to  protect  its  young  it 


HABITS   OF   THE   OSTRICH.  665 

has  recourse  lo  various  cunning  stratagems.  Thus  Andersson  and  Galton,  while  trav- 
ersing a  barren  plain,  once  hit  upon  a  male  and  female  ostrich,  with  a  brood  of  young 
ones  about  the  size  of  ordinary  barn-door  fowls.  This  was  a  sight  they  had  Ion"-  been 
looking  for,  having  been  requested  by  Professor  Owen  to  procure  a  few  craniums  of 
the  young  ostrich,  in  order  to  settle  certain  anatomical  questions;  so  forthwith  dis- 
mounting from  their  oxen,  they  gave  chase,  which  proved  of  no  ordinary  interest. 
Says  Andersson  :  "  The  moment  the  parent  birds  became  aware  of  our  intention,  they 
set  off  at  full  speed,  the  female  leading  the  way,  the  young  following  in  her  wake, 
and  the  male,  though  at  some  little  distance,  bringing  up  the  rear  of  the  family  party. 
It  was  very  touching  to  observe  the  anxiety  the  old  birds  evinced  for  the  safety  of 
their  progeny.  Finding  that  we  were  quickly  gaining  upon  them,  the  male  at  once 
slackened  his  pace,  and  diverged  somewhat  from  his  course ;  but,  seeing  that  we  were 
not  to  be  diverted  from  our  purpose,  he  again  increased  his  speed,  and  with  wino-s 
drooping,  so  as  almost  to  touch  the  ground,  he  hovered  round  us,  now  in  wide  circles, 
and  then  decreasing  the  circumference  till  he  came  almost  within  pistol-shot,  when  he 
abruptly  threw  himself  on  the  ground  and  struggled  desperately  to  regain  his  legs,  as 
it  appeared,  like  a  bird  that  had  been  badly  wounded.  Having  previously  fired  at 
him,  I  really  thought  he  was  disabled,  and  made  quickly  towards  him.  But  this  was 
only  a  ruse  on  his  part ;  for  on  my  nearer  approach  he  slowly  rose,  and  began  to  run 
in  an  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the  female,  who  by  this  time  was  considerably  ahead 
with  her  charge.  After  about  an  hour's  severe  chase,  we  secured  nine  of  the  brood  ; 
and  though  it  consisted  of  about  double  that  number,  we  found  it  necessary  to  be  con 
tented  with  what  we  had  bagged." 

While  breeding,  the  ostrich  likewise  resorts  to  various  artifices  to  remove  intruders 
from  its  rude  nest,  which  is  a  mere  cavity  scooped  out  a  few  inches  deep  in  the  sand 
and  about  a  yard  in  diameter.  Thus  Thunberg  relates  that  riding  past  a  place  where 
a  hen-ostrich  sat  on  her  nest,  the  bird  sprang  up  and  pursued  him,  in  order  to  draw 
off  his  attention  from  her  young  ones  or  her  eggs.  Every  time  the  traveler  turned  his 
horse  toward  her,  she  retreated  ten  or  twelve  paces,  but  as  soon  as  he  rode  on,  pursued 
him  again.  Is  it  not  truly  wonderful  how  parental  affection  at  the  approach  of  danger 
seems  to  rouse  the  intelligence  of  an  animal  to  higher  exertions,  and  to  raise  it  above 
its  usual  sphere  ! 

The  instinct  of  the  ostrich  in  providing  food  for  its  young  is  no  less  remarkable,  for 
it  is  now  proved  that  this  bird,  far  from  leaving  its  eggs,  like  a  cold  blooded  reptile,  to 
be  vivified  by  the  sun,  as  was  formerly  supposed,  not  only  hatches  them  with  the 
greatest  care,  but  even  reserves  a  certain  portion  of  eggs  to  provide  the  young  with 
nourishment  when  they  first  burst  into  life  :  a  wonderful  provision,  when  we  consider 
how  difficult  it  would  be  for  the  brood  to  find  any  other  adequate  food  in  its  sterile 
haunts.  In  Senegal,  where  the  beat  is  extreme,  the  ostrich,  it  is  said,  sits  at  night 
only  upon  those  eggs  which  are  to  be  rendered  fertile,  but  in  extra-tropical  Africa, 
where  the  sun  has  less  power,  the  mother  remains  constant  in  her  attentions  to  the 
eggs  both  day  and  night.  The  number  of  eggs  which  the  ostrich  usually  sits  upon  is 
ten ;  but  the  Hottentots,  who  are  very  fond  of  them,  upon  discovering  a  nest,  seize 
fitting  opportunities  to  remove  one  or  two  at  a  time  ;  this  induces  the  bird  to  deposit 
more,  and  in  this  manner  she  has  been  known,  like  the  domestic  hen,  to  lay  between 
forty  and  fifty  in  a  season. 


666  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

But  the  ostrich  has  other  enemies  besides  the  savage  or  the  hungry  traveler  to  fear 
for  its  young  brood.  Thus  the  natives  about  the  Orange  River  assert  that,  when  the 
birds  have  left  their  nest  in  the  middle  of  the  day  in  search  of  food,  a  white  vulture 
may  be  seen  soaring  in  mid  air,  with  a  stone  between  his  talons.  Having  carefully 
surveyed  the  ground  below  him,  he  suddenly  lets  fall  the  stone,  and  then  follows  it  in 
rapid  descent.  On  running  to  the  spot  you  will  find  a  nest  of  probably  a  score  of  eggs, 
some  of  them  broken  by  the  vulture  who  used  this  ingenious  device  for  procuring  him- 
self a  dainty  meal. 

Almost  as  soon  as  the  chicks  of  the  ostrich  (which  are  about  the  size  of  pullets) 
have  escaped  from  the  shell,  they  are  able  to  walk  about  and  to  follow  the  mother,  on 
whom  they  are  dependent  for  a  long  time.  And  here  again  we  find  a  wonderful  pro- 
vision of  nature  in  providing  the  young  of  the  ostrich  with  a  color  and  a  covering  ad- 
mirably suited  to  the  localities  they  frequent.  The  color  is  a  kind  of  pepper-and-salt, 
agreeing  well  with  the  sand  and  gravel  of  the  plains,  which  they  are  in  the  habit  of 
traversing,  so  that  you  have  the  greatest  difficulty  in  discerning  the  chicks  even  when 
crouching  under  your  very  eyes.  The  covering  is  neither  down  nor  feathers,  but  a 
kind  of  prickly  stubble,  which  no  doubt  is  an  excellent  protection  against  injury  from 
the  gravel  and  the  stunted  vegetation  amongst  which  they  dwell. 

The  ostrich  resembles  in  many  respects  the  quadrupeds,  and  particularly  the  camel, 
so  that  it  may  almost  be  said  to  fill  up  the  chasm  which  separates  the  mammalia  from 
the  birds,  and  to  form  a  connecting  link  between  them.  We  indeed  hesitated  in  this 
work  whether  to  place  the  ostrich  among  birds  or  animals.  Both  the  ostrich  and  the 
dromedary  have  warty  excrescences  on  the  breast  upon  which  they  lean  whilst  repos- 
ing, an  almost  similarly  formed  foot,  the  same  muscular  neck ;  and  when  we  consider 
that  they  both  feed  upon  the  most  stunted  herbage,  and  are  capable  of  supporting 
thirst  for  an  incredibly  long  time,  being,  in  fact,  both  equally  well  formed  for  living 
on  the  arid  plains,  it  is  certainly  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  ancients  gave  the 
ostrich  a  name  betokening  this  similitude  {Struthiocamelas,)  and  that  the  fancy  of  the 
Arabs  ascribes  its. original  parentage  to  a  bird  and  to  a  dromedary. 

It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  what  the  tastes  of  the  ostrich  may  be  while  roaming  the 
desert,  but  when  in  captivity  no  other  bird  or  animal  shows  less  nicety  in  the  choice  of 
its  food,  gobbling  down  with  avidity  stones,  pieces  of  wood  and  iron,  spoons,  knives, 
and  other  articles  of  equally  light  digestion  that  may  be  presented  to  it.  Thus  it  has 
always  been  far-famed  for  the  wonderful  powers  of  its  stomach,  and  many  amusing  an- 
ecdotes are  told  of  its  voracity.  A  batch  of  these  birds  having  once  been  brought  to 
a  small  town  for  the  inspection  of  the  curious,  a  respectable  matron,  anxious  to  obtain 
a  sight  of  the  strange  creatures,  hastily  shut  up  her  house,  and,  key  in  hand,  hurried 
to  the  spot  where  they  were  kept.  Scarcely  had  she  arrived,  when  one  of  them  gravely 
stalked  up,  as  if  to  thank  her  for  her  visit,  and  suddenly  bending  its  long  neck,  to  her 
horror,  snatched  the  key  out  of  her  hand,  and  swallowed  it  in  a  trice ;  so  that  the  in- 
dignant old  lady — thus  shut  out  of  her  own  house — vowed  that  if  all  the  beasts  of 
Africa  were  to  pass  her  door,  she  would  not  so  much  as  open  it  to  look  at  them. 
"  Nothing,"  says  Methuen,  speaking  of  a  domesticated  ostrich,  "  disturbed  its  diges- 
tion— dyspepsia  (happy  thing)  was  undreampt  of  in  its  philosophy.  One  day  a  Mus- 
covy-duck brought  a  promising  race  of  ducklings  into  the  world,  and  with  maternal  pride 
conducted  them  forth  into  the  yard.      Up  with  solemn  and  measured  stride  walked  the 


THE   OSTRICH— THE   E:\IU— THE   CASSOWARY.  W7 

ostrich,  and,  wearing  the  most  mild  and  benignant  cast  of  face,  swallowed  them  all, 
one  after  the  other,  like  so  many  oysters,  regarding  the  indignant  hissings  and  bristling 
plumage  of  the  hapless  mother  with  stoical  indifference."  Baron  Aucapitaine  relates 
that  he  every  evening  used  to  regale  a  tame  ostrich  with  a  newspaper,  which  the  bird 
completely  swallowed,  thus  literally  stuffing  itself  with  all  the  knowledge  of  the  day. 

The  costly  white  plumes  of  the  ostrich,  which  are  chiefly  obtained  from  the  wings, 
form  a  considerable  article  of  commerce,  having  been  prized  in  all  ages  fov  the  ele- 
gance of  their  long,  waving,  loose,  and  flexible  barbs.  The  thinner  the  quill  and  thi; 
longer  and  more  wavy  the  plume,  the  more  it  is  prized.  From  seventy  to  ninety 
feathers  go  to  the  pound ;  but  a  single  bird  seldom  furnishes  more  than  a  dozou,  as 
many  of  them  are  spoilt  by  trailing  or  some  other  accident. 

In  the  Tell,  or  the  cultivated  coast  districts  of  Algeria,  the  ostrich  is  often  domesti- 
cated, particularly  on  account  of  its  eggs,  which  weigh  three  pounds,  and  are  equiva- 
lent to  twenty-four  of  the  common  fowl's  eggs.  It  might  be  supposed  that  one  of 
these  giant  eggs  would  be  too  much  for  the  most  vigorous  appetite,  yet  Andersson  saw 
two  natives  despatch  five  of  them  in  the  course  of  an  afternoon,  besides  a  copious  al- 
lowance of  flour  and  fat.  According  to  the  taste  of  this  Swedish  Nimrod,  they  affjrd 
an  excellent  repast ;  while  Dr.  Livingstone  tells  us  they  have  a  strong,  disagreeable 
flavor,  which  only  the  keen  appetite  of  the  desert  can  reconcile  one  to.  But  as  there 
is  no  accounting  for  tastes,  the  Romans  seemed  to  have  prized  it ;  and  Firmus,  one  of 
their  pseudo-emperors,  most  likely  desirous  of  emulating  the  gormandizing  powers  of 
the  bird  on  which  he  fed,  is  said  to  have  devoured  a  whole  ostrich  at  one  sitting. 
Even  the  eggshell  has  its  value,  and  is  an  excellent  vessel  for  holding  liquids  of  any 
kind.  The  Bushmen  have  hardly  any  other  household  utensil.  By  covering  it  with 
a  light  network  it  may  be  carried  slung  across  the  saddle.  Grass  and  wood  serve  as 
substitutes  for  corks. 

Though  not  possessing  the  true  camel-bird,  America  has  the  large  Rheas,  which 
from  their  size  and  similar  habits  have  been  styled  the  ostriches  of  the  New  World, 
though  differing  in  niany  essential  characters  One  species,  the  Rhea  Barwinii,  in- 
habits Patagonia,  while  the  Emu  or  Nandu  {Rhea  Americana)  is  found  throughout 
the  whole  eastern  part  of  South  America,  from  Buenos  Ayres  to  the  Orinoco,  wherever 
open  plains,  pampas,  campos,  or  savannas,  invite  it  to  take  up  its  residence.  The 
nandu  is  not  near  so  tall  as  the  true  ostrich,  scarcely  rising  above  four  feet,  and  is  of 
a  uniform  gray  color  except  on  the  back,  which  has  a  brown  tint.  The  back  and  rump 
are  furnished  with  long  feathers,  but  not  of  the  same  rich  and  costly  kind  as  those 
which  adorn  the  African  ostrich.  Its  feeble  wings  merely  serve  to  accelerate  its  flight, 
serving  it  as  oars  or  sails,  particularly  when  running  with  the  wind.  It  is  not  easily 
caught,  as  it  not  only  runs  very  fast,  but  in  zigzag  lines,  so  that  the  horse,  rendered 
giddy  by  so  many  evolutions,  at  length  drops  down  with  its  rider. 

The  galeated  Cassowary,  (  Casuan'us  galeatus),  thus  called  from  its  head  being  sur- 
mounted by  a  kind  of  horny  helniet,  is  a  native  of  Java  and  the  adjacent  isles.  The 
skin  of  the  head  and  upper  part  of  the  neck  is  naked,  of  a  deep  blue  and  fiery  red 
tint,  with  pendant  caruncles  similar  to  those  of  the  turkey  cock.  It  is  much  inferior 
in  size  to  the  ostrich,  and  its  wings  are  reduced  to  so  rudimentary  a  state,  consisting 
merely  of  five  long  bristles,  without  any  plumes,  that  they  are  even  unable  to  assist  it 
in  running.     All  its  feathers  are  of  the  same  kind,  being  entirely  designed  for  cover- 


668 


THE  TROPICAL   WORLD. 


ing,  and  resemble  at  a  little  distauce  a  coat  of  coarse  or  hanging  hair.  It  feeds  on 
fruits  eo-2;s  of  birds,  and  tender  herbage,  and  is  said  to  be  as  voracious  as  the  ostrich. 
The  cassowary  is  a  very  swift  runner ;  striking  out  alternately  with  one  of  its  robust 
powerful  legs,  it  projects  its  body  violently  forward  with  a  bounding  motion  far  sur- 
passing the  speed  of  the  horse. 

The  Australian  Emu  {Dromaius  Novce  HoUandice)  is  allied  to  the  cassowary, 
thouo-h  differing  in  many  external  characters.  Both  the  helmet,  and  the  long  pens  or 
quills  observable  in  the  wings  of  the  latter,  are  here  wanting ;  its  neck  and  legs  are 
longer,  its  feathers,  for  the  most  part  gray  and  brown  mixed,  are  not  so  filiform,  and 
its  beak  also  is  differently  shaped.  In  size  it  more  nearly  approaches  the  ostrich, 
risino-  to  a  hight  of  seven  feet,  and  from  its  great  muscular  power  is  able  to  run  so 
quickly  as  to  distance  the  swiftest  greyhound.  Incessant  persecutions  have  driven  it 
far  away  from  the  colonized  parts  of  the  country ;  but  it  has  still  a  vast  range  in  the 
wilds  of  the  interior.  It  lives  on  fruits,  eggs,  and  even  small  animals,  which  it  swal- 
lows entire. 


THE   CLIMBERS   OF  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD.  u(J9 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

.     THE  CLIMBERS:  BATS,   SLOTHS,  AND   SIMIiE. 

Bats:  Their  Wonderful  Organization — The  Fox-Bat — Eaten  by  the  Malays— Vampire  Bat3 
— Their  Blood-sucliing  Propensities — The  Horseshoe  Bat — The  Nycteribia — The  Flying 
Squirrel — The  Galeopithecus — The  Anomalurus. —  The  Sloth:  Pitiful  Description  given 
of  Him — His  beautiful  Organization  for  his  peculiar  Mode  of  Life — His  rapid  Movements 
in  the  Trees — His  Means  of  Defense — His  Tenacity  of  Life — The  Unau — The  Ai — 
Gigantic  Primeval  Sloths. — Monkeys:  Good  Chnibers,  but  bad  Walkers — Imperfectly 
known  to  the  Ancients — Similitudes  and  Differences  between  Man  and  Apes — The  Cliim- 
panzee — The  Gorilla — Du  Chaillu's  First  Encounter  with  a  Gorilla — The  Gorilla  and  her 
Young — The  Orang-Utan,  or  Mias — Wallace's  Accounts  of  Shooting  the  Orang — Their 
Tenacity  of  Life— Size  of  the  Orang— The  Orang  as  a  Combatant— Tiie  Orang  fighting 
the  Crocodile  and  Python — Habits  of  the  Orang — Wallace's  Young  Pet  Orang — The 
Gibbons— Monkeys  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds — The  Semnopitheci — The  Proboscis 
Monkey — Tiie  Sacred  Ape  of  the  Hindus — The  Cercopitheci — The  Magots — The  Cyno- 
cephali,  or  Baboons — The  Maimon — The  Great  Baboon  of  Senegal— The  Derryas— The 
Loris— Monkeys  of  the  New  World — Monkeys  Distinguished  by  their  Tails  and  Teeth — 
The  Wourali  Poison — The  Indian  Blow  Pipe— Mildness  of  American  Monkeys— The 
Howling  Monkeys— The  Spider-Monkeys— The  Fox-tail  Monkeys— The  Saimaris— Noc- 
turnal Monkeys — The  Domesticated  Nocturnals — The  Squirrel-Monkey. 

'TTT'E  are  accustomed  to  consider  all  animals  as  embraced  in  one  of  three  great 
VV  divisions:  Beasts,  or  those  that  walk  upon  the  earth;  Birds,  or  those  that 
fly  in  the  air ;  Fishes,  those  that  swim  in  the  water.  But  closer  investigation  shows 
us  that  this  division  is  wholly  inaccurate.  There  are  walkers  upon  earth,  as  the 
ostrich,  which  are  not  beasts ;  swimmers  in  the  water,  as  the  whale,  which  are  not 
fishes ;  and  flyers  in  the  air,  like  the  bat,  which  are  not  birds.  Then  there  are  others 
whose  home  is  neither  upon  the  earth,  in  the  air,  nor  in  the  water.  Though  some  are 
able  to  fly  a  little  in  the  air,  others  to  walk  a  little  on  the  ground,  their  home  is  upon 
the  branches  of  trees,  their  occupation  is  climbing.  We  will,  regardless  of  other 
peculiarities,  designate  them  as  climbers  ;  and  will  in  this  chapter  group  together  a  few 
species  which  are  notably  characteristic  of  the  Tropical  World  ;  commencing  with  those 
which,  like  the  bat,  most  nearly  resemble  birds,  and  ending  with  those  which,  like  the 
monkey  tribe,  most  nearly  resemble  man. 

When  the  sun  has  disappeared  below  the  horizon,  and  night  falls  on  the  landscape, 
which  a  little  while  ago  was  bathed  in  light,  then  from  hollow  trees,  and  creviced  rocks, 
and  ruined  buildings,  a  strange  and  dismal  race  comes  forth.  Silently  liovering 
through  the  glades  of  the  woods,  or  skimming  along  the  surface  of  the  streams,  it 
catches  the  crepuscular  or  nocturnal  moths,  and  serves  like  the  swallow  by  day  to 
check  the  exuberant  multiplication  of   the  insect  tribes.     But  while  man  loves  the 


fi7()  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

swallow,  and  suffers  him  to  build  his  nest  under  the  eaves  of  his  dwelling,  he  abhors 
the  bat,  which  like  an  evil  spirit  avoids  the  light  of  day,  and  seems  to  feel  happy  only 
in  darkness.  The  painter  gives  to  his  angels  the  white  pinions  of  the  swan,  while  his 
demons  are  made  to  bear  the  black  wings  of  the  bat. 

And  yet  most  species  of  the  bat  are  most  inoffensive  creatures  ;  while  a  closer 
inspection  of  their  wonderful  organization  proves  them  to  be  far  more  deserving  of  ad- 
miration than  of  repugnance.  Can  anything  be  better  adapted  to  its  wants  than  the 
delicate  membrane,  which,  extending  over  the  long,  slim  fingers,  can  be  spread  and 
folded  like  an  umbrella,  so  as  to  form  a  wing  when  the  animal  wishes  to  fly,  and  to 
collapse  into  a  small  space  when  it  is  at  rest  ?  How  slight  the  bones,  how  light  the 
body,  how  beautifully  formed  for  •  flight !  Admire  also  the  tiny  unwebbed  thumb, 
which  serves  the  bat  to  hook  itself  fast  while  resting,  or  to  clip  off  the  wings  of  the 
flies  or  moths,  which  it  never  devours  with  the  rest  of  the  body.  But  the  exquisite 
acuteness  of  the  senses  of  smell,  feeling,  and  hearing  in  the  bat  is  still  more  wonder- 
ful than  its  delicate  flying  apparatus.  Naturalists,  more  curious  than  humane,  have 
blinded  bats,  and  seen,  to  their  astonishment,  that  they  continued  to  fly  about,  as  if 
still  possessed  of  the  power  of  vision.  They  always  knew  how  to  avoid  branches  sus- 
pended in  the  room  in  which  they  were  flitting,  and  even  flew  betwixt  threads  hung 
perpendicularly  from  the  ceiling,  though  these  were  so  near  each  other,  that  they 
were  obliged  to  contract  their  wings  in  order  to  pass  through  them.  To  explain  these 
wonderful  phenomena,  Spallanzani  and  other  naturalists  of  the  last  century  believed 
the  bats  to  be  endowed  with  a  sixth  sense ;  but  Carlyle  found  that,  on  closing  the  ears 
of  the  blinded  creatures,  they  lose  their  wonderful  power,  and  hit  against  the  sides  of 
the  room,  without  being  at  all  aware  of  their  situation.  How  they  are  able  to  distin- 
guish night  from  day  when  shut  up  in  a  dark  box,  is  a  fact  still  unexplained.  As 
long  as  the  sun  stands  above  the  horizon,  they  will  remain  perfectly  quiet,  but  as  soon 
as  twilight  begins  to  darken  the  earth,  a  strange  piping  and  chirping  and  scratching  is 
heard  within  the  lightless  dungeon,  and  scarcely  has  the  lid  been  raised,  when  the 
prisoners  rapidly  escape. 

Though  the  temperate  regions  possess  many  bats,  yet  they  are  most  numerous  and 
various  in  the  woody  regions  of  the  tropical  zone,  where  the  vast  numbers  of  the  insect 
tribes  and  forest  fruits  afford  them  a  never-failing  supply  of  food.  There  also  they 
attain  a  size  unknown  in  our  latitudes,  so  that  both  from  their  dimensions  and  their 
physiognomy,  many  of  the  larger  species  have  obtained  the  name  of  flying-dogs  or 
flying-foxes. 

On  approaching  a  Javanese  village,  you  will  sometimes  see  a  stately  tree,  from 
whose  branches  hundreds  of  large  black  fruits  seem  to  be  suspended.  A  strong  smell 
of  ammonia  aad  a  piping  noise  soon,  however,  convince  you  of  your  mistake,  and  a 
closer  inspection  proves  them  to  be  a  large  troop  of  Kalongs  or  Fox-bats  {Pteropus) 
attached  head  downwards  to  the  tree,  where  they  rest  or  sleep  during  the  day  time, 
and  which  they  generally  quit  at  sunset,  though  some  of  them  differ  so  much  from  the 
usual  habits  of  the  family  as  to  fly  about  in  the  broad  light  of  day. 

It  is  said  that  it  must  have  been  a  very  hungry  man  who  first  ate  an  oyster ;  and 
we  are  not  told  that  the  omniverous  Chinese  have  yet  got  as  far  as  to  include  bats 
among  their  edibles;  but  Mr.  Wallace*  assures  us  that  the  natives  of  Batchian,  one 
*  Malay  Arcliipelago,  341. 


FLYING-  FOXES-BATS- VAMPIRRS.  U71 

of  the  Malay  islands,  "  cousider  the  great  ugly  flying-foxes  an  especial  delicacy.  At 
about  the  beginning  of  the  year  they  come  in  large  flocks  to  eat  fruit,  and  congregate 
during  the  day  on  some  small  islands  in  the  bay,  hanging  by  thousands  on  the  trees, 
especially  on  dead  ones.  They  can  then  be  easily  caught  or  knocked  down  with  ^icks, 
and  are  brought  home  by  basketfuls.  They  require  to  be  carefully  prepared,  as  the 
skin  and  fur  has  a  powerful  foxy  odor ;  but  they  are  generally  cooked  with  abundance 
of  spices  and  condiments,  and  are  really  very  good  eating,  something  like  hare." 

The  phyllostoniidae,  a  species  of  bat  distinguished  by  having  the  orifices  of  the  nos- 
tril placed  in  a  kind  of  membranous  scutcheon,  surmounted  by  a  leaf-like  expansion, 
like  the  head  of  a  lance,  and  supposed  to  extend  in  an  extraordinary  degree  the  sense 
of  smelling,  are  exclusively  confined  to  the  western  continent.  These  phyllostomidix; 
are  remarkable  for  their  blood-sucking  propensities,  and  under  the  name  of  Vampires 
have  brought  the  whole  race  of  the  large  tropical  bats  into  evil  repute. 

Prince  Maximilian  of  Neu  Wied  often  saw  by  moonshine,  or  in  the  twilight,  the 
Guandiru  {Phyllostoma  hastatum),  a  bat  five  inches  long,  and  measuring  twenty-three 
inches  with  outstretched  wings,  hover  about  his  horses  and  mules  while  grazin"-  after 
their  day's  journey.  The  animals  did  not  seem  incommoded  by  its  presence,  but  on 
the  following  morning,  he  generally  found  them  covered  with  blood  from  the  shoulders 
to  the  hoofs.  The  muscular  under-iip  of  the  phyllostoma  can  be  completely  folded 
together  in  the  shajie  of  a  sucking-tube,  which,  after  the  sharp  canine  teeth  liavc  ])en- 
etrated  the  skin,  continues  to  pump  forth  the  blood.  Even  man  himself  is  liable  to 
the  attacks  of  the  larger  phyllostomidas. 

"  Some  years  ago,"  says  Mr.  Waterton,  "  I  was  in  Demarara  with  a  Scotch  gentle- 
man, by  name  Tarbet.  We  hung  our  hammocks  in  the  thatched  loft  of  a  planter's 
house.  Next  morning  I  heard  this  gentleman  muttering  in  his  hammock,  and  now 
and  then  letting  fall  an  imprecation  or  two,  just  about  the  time  he  ought  to  have  been 
saying  his  morning  prayers.  '  What  is  the  matter,  Sir  ?  '  said  I,  softly  :  '  is  anything 
amiss  ?  '  '  What's  the  matter  ?  '  answered  he  surlily  ;  '  why,  the  vampn-es  have  been 
sucking  me  to  death.'  As  soon  as  there  was  light  enough,  I  went  to  his  hammock, 
and  saw  it  mu.ch  stained  with  blood.  '  There,'  said  he,  thrusting  his  foot  out  of  the 
hammock,  '  see  how  these  infernal  imps  have  been  drawing  my  life's  blood.'  On  exam- 
ining his  foot,  I  found  the  vampire  had  tapped  his  great  toe  :  there  was  a  wound 
somewhat  less  than  that  made  by  a  leech ;  the  blood  was  still  oozing  from  it.  I  con- 
jectured he  might  have  lost  from  ten  to  twelve  ounces  of  blood.  Whilst  examining 
it,  I  think  I  put  him  into  a  worse  humor  by  remarking  that  an  European  surgeon 
would  not  have  been  so  generous  as  to  have  blooded  him  without  making  a  charge. 
He  looked  up  in  my  face,  but  did  not  say  a  word  ;  I  saw  he  was  of  opinion  that  I  had 
better  have  spared  this  piece  of  ill-timed  levity." 

Captain  Stedman,  while  in  Surinam,  was  attacked  in  a  similar  way.  "  On  waking," 
he  says,  "  about  four  o'clock  one  morning  in  my  hammock,  I  was  extremely  alarmed 
at  finding  myself  weltering  in  congealed  blood,  yet  without  feeling  any  pain  whatever. 
Having  started  up,  I  ran  for  the  surgeon,  with  a  fire-brand  in  one  hand,  and  all  over  be- 
smeared with  gore.  The  mystery,  however,  was  soon  solved,  for  I  then  found  I  had 
been  bitten  by  the  vampire  or  spectre  of  Guiana."  Other  instances  of  the  same  kind 
are  mentioned  by  Tschudi,  Schomburgk,  Azara  (who  was  phlebotomized  no  less  than 
four  times  by  the  vampire,)  and  other  naturalists  of  equal  repute,  so  tliat  there  is  no 


U72  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

reason  to  doubt  the  fact.  The  general  food  of  the  phyllostomidse  consists,  however,  in 
vespertine  and  nocturnal  moths,  and  Waterton  is  of  opinion  that  they  also  partake  of 
vegetable  food.  The  Vampire  {Phyllosfoma  spectrum,)  in  general,  measures  about 
twenty-six  inches  from  wing  to  wing  extended,  so  that  his  dimensions  are  not  equal  to 
those  of  the  oriental  kalong.  Like  the  flying  foxes,  he  may  sometimes  be  seen  in  the 
forest  hanging  in  clusters,  head  downwards,  from  the  branch  of  a  tree.  Some  of  the 
phyllostomidas  have  a  tongue  once  as  long  again  as  the  head,  and  armed  at  the  extrem- 
ity with  recurved  bristles,  like  that  of  the  wood-pecker,  no  doubt  a  very  serviceable 
instrument  for  extracting  insects  from  the  narrow  hollows  and  crevices  of  trees  and 
rocks. 

The  Rhinolophi  or  Horse-shoe  Bats  of  the  old  continent,  have  also  a  more  or  less 
complicated  nasal  appendage,  or  foliaceous  membrane  at  the  end  of  the  nose,  but  dif- 
fering in  its  conformation,  from  that  of  the  phyllostomidae.  They  are  insectivorous,  like 
most  of  their  order,  and  none  of  them  seem  to  indulge  in  the  blood-suckiag  propen- 
sities of  the  large  American  vampires.  They  .chiefly  inhabit  the  tropical  regions  of 
Africa  and  Asia,  and  more  particularly  the  Indian  archipelago,  but  the  Rhinolophus 
tmihastatus  ranges  in  Europe  as  far  as  England. 

Numerous  genera  and  species  of  tropical  bats,  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the 
formation  of  their  teeth,  lips,  nostrils,  heads,  wings,  and  tails,  have  already  been 
classified  by  naturalists ;  but  many,  no  doubt,  still  live  unknown  in  their  gloomy 
retreats,  for  who  is  able  to  follow  them  into  the  obscure  nooks  of  the  forest,  or  in  intri- 
cate caverns,  and  accurately  to  observe  them  during  their  nocturnal  rambles  ?  It  may 
give  an  idea  of  their  vast  numbers  throughout  the  torrid  zone,  when  we  hear  that  in 
Ceylon  alone  about  sixteen  species  have  been  identified,  and  of  these  two  varieties  are 
peculiar  to  the  island.  Unlike  the  sombre  bats  of  the  northern  climates,  the  colors  of 
some  of  them  are  as  brilliant  as  the  plumage  of  a  bird,  bright  yellow,  deep  orange,  or 
of  a  rich  ferruginous  brown,  thus  contradicting  the  general  belief  which  attires  noc- 
turnal animals  in  vestures  as  dark  as  their  pursuits. 

The  torrid  zone,  which  produces  the  largest  bats,  also  gives  birth  to  the  tiniest  repre- 
sentatives of  the  order,  such  as  the  minute  Singhalese  variety,  {Scotophilus  Coroman- 
delicus,)  which  is  not  much  larger  than  the  humble-bee,  and  of  a  glossy  black  color. 
"It  is  so  familiar  and  gentle,"  says  Sir  J.  E.  Tennent,  "that  it  will  alight  on  the 
cloth  during  dinner,  and  manifests  so  little  alarm  that  it  seldom  makes  any  eflbrt  to 
escape  before  a  wineglass  can  be  invented  to  secure  it."  The  fur  of  this  pretty  little 
creature,  like  that  of  many  other  bats,  is  frequently  found  infested  with  a  most  singuLir 
insect.  Unlike  most  parasites,  which  are  either  extremely  sluggish  in  their  movements, 
or  even  condemned  to  utter  immobility,  the  velocity  of  the  Nycteribia  is  truly  mar- 
vellous ;  and,  as  its  joints  are  so  flexible  as  to  yield  in  every  direction,  it  tumbles 
through  the  fur  of  the  bat,  rotating  like  a  wheel  on  the  extremities  of  its  spokes,  or 
like  the  clown  in  a  pantomime,  hurling  himself  forward  on  hands  and  feet  alternately. 
To  assist  its  mountebank  movements,  each  foot  is  armed  with  two  sharp  hooks,  with 
elastic  pads  opposed  to  them,  so  that  the  hair  can  not  only  be  rapidly  seized  and  firmly 
clasped,  but  as  quickly  disengaged  as  the  creature  whirls  away  in  its  headlong  career. 
But  the  strangest  peculiarity  of  the  Nycteribia  is  the  faculty  which  it  possesses  of 
throwing  back  or  inverting  its  head  so  completely,  that  the  under  side  becoming  upper- 
most, the  mouth,  the  eyes,  and  the  antennae  are  completely  hid  between  its  shoulders, 


FLYING  ANIMALS— THE   SLOTH.  (i7:i 

and  then  again  projecting  it  forward  by  a  sudden  jerk  of  its  long,  flexible  neck.  By 
means  of  this  wonderful  organization,  the  nimble  parasite  feels  completely  at  home  in 
the  furry  coat  which  has  been  assigned  to  it  as  a  pasture  ground,  and  wliisks  along  as 
easily  through  the  hairy  thicket  as  the  monkey  through  the  bush-ropes  of  the  forest. 

Though  incapable  of  a  prolonged  flight  like  the  bats,  several  other  tropical  quadrupeds 
have  been  provided  with  extensions  of  the  skin,  which  give  them  the  power  of  supporting 
themselves  for  some  time  in  the  air,  and  of  making  prodigious  leaps.  Thus,  by  means 
of  an  expansile  furry  membrane  reaching  from  the  fore  feet  to  the  hind,  the  Flying 
Squirrels  {Pteromys)  bound,  or  rather  swiftly  sail,  to  the  distance  of  twenty  fathoms 
or  more,  and  thus  pass  from  one  tree  to  another,  always  directing  their  flight  ob- 
liquely downwards.  They  very  rarely  descend  to  the  ground,  and  when  taken  or 
placed  on  it,  run  or  spring  somewhat  awkwardly  with  their  tail  elevated,  beginning  to 
climb  with  great  activity  as  soon  as  they  reach  a  tree. 

The  Galeopitheci  are  in  like  manner  enabled  to  take  long  sweeping  leaps  from  tree 
to  tree,  by  means  of  an  extension  of  their  skin  between  the  anterior  and  posterior 
limbs  on  each  side,  and  between  the  posterior  limbs,  including  also  the  tail.  These 
extraordinary  animals  are  natives  of  the  islands  of  the  Indian  archipelago.  They  in- 
habit lofty  trees  in  dark  woods,  to  which  they  cling  with  all  four  extremities.  During 
the  day  time,  they  suspend  themselves  like  bats  from  the  branches,  with  their  heads 
downwards,  but  at  night  they  rouse  themselves  and  make  an  active  search  for  food, 
which  consists  of  fruits,  insects,  eggs,  and  birds.  They  are  inoffensive,  but  on  at- 
tempting to  seize  them,  they  inflict  a  sharp  scratch  with  their  trenchant  nails. 

The  Anomaluri  of  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  which  have  only  been  known  to  the 
world  since  1842,  and  possess  a  most  remarkable  tail,  covered  on  the  lower  surface  of 
its  base  with  imbricated  horny  scales,  resemble  the  galeopitheci  by  the  wing-like  ex- 
pansion of  their  skin,  and  no  doubt  the  investigations  of  travelers  will  bring  to  light 
other  animals  endowed  with  similar  parachutes. 

"The  piteous  aspect,  the  sorrowful  gestures,  the  lamentable  cry  of  the  Sloth  all 
combine  to  excite  commiseration.  While  other  animals  assemble  in  herds,  or  roam  in 
pairs  through  the  boundless  forest,"  so  writes  an  eminent  naturalist,  "  the  sloth  leads 
a  lonely  life  in  those  immeasurable  solitudes,  where  the  slowness  of  his  movements 
exposes  him  to  every  attack.  Harmless  and  frugal,  like  a  pious  anchorite,  a  few 
coarse  leaves  are  all  he  asks  for  his  support.  On  comparing  him  with  other  animals, 
you  would  say  that  his  deformed  organization  was  a  strange  mixture  of  deficiency  and 
superabundance.  He  has  no  cutting  teeth,  and  though  possessed  of  four  stomachs* 
he  still  wants  the  long  intestines  of  ruminating  animals.  His  feet  are  without  soles' 
nor  can  he  move  his  toes  separately.  His  hair  is  coarse  and  wiry,  and  its  dull  color 
reminds  one  of  grass  withered  by  the  blasts  of  surly  winter.  His  legs  appear  de- 
formed by  the  manner  in  which  they  are  attached  to  the  body,  and  his  claws  seem 
disproportionately  long.  Surely  a  creature  so  wretched  and  illformed  stands  last  on 
the  list  of  all  the  four-footed  animals,  and  may  justly  accuse  Nature  of  step-motherly 
neglect !" 

When  seeing  a  captured  sloth  painfully  creeping  along  on  even  ground,  sighing  and 
moaning,  and  scarcely  advancing  a  few  steps  after  hours  of  awkward  toil,  the  observer 
might  well  be  disposed  to  acquiesce  in  the  foregoing  remarks,  and  to  fancy  ho  had 


674  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

discovered  a  flaw  among  the  general  beauty  of  the  Creator's  works ;  but  let  him  view 
the  animal  in  the  situation  for  which  it  was  ordained,  and  he  will  soon  retract  his  hasty 
judgment,  and  discover  it  to  be  no  less  perfect  in  its  kind,  and  no  less  admirably  fitted 
for  its  sphere  of  existence,  than  the  most  highly  organized  of  the  mammalian  tribes. 
For  the  sloth,  in  his  wild  state,  spends  his  whole  life  in  the  trees,  and  never  once 
touches  the  earth  but  through  force  or  by  accident.  Like  the  monkey,  he  has  been 
formed  for  an  exclusively  sylvan  life,  high  above  the  ground,  in  the  green  canopy  of 
the  woods ;  but  while  the  nimble  simi^  constantly  live  upon  the  branches,  the  sloth  is 
doomed  to  spend  his  whole  life  under  them.  He  moves,  he  rests,  he  sleeps  suspended 
from  the  boughs  of  trees,  a  wonderfully  strange  way  of  life,  for  which  no  other 
four-footed  animal  of  the  Old  or  the  New  World  has  been  destined. 

And  now  examine  his  organization  witTi  reference  to  this  peculiar  mode  of  exist- 
ence, and  all  his  seeming  deficiencies  and  deformities  will  appear  most  admirably 
adapted  to  his  wants,  for  these  strong,  muscular,  preposterously  long  fore-feet,  while 
the  hinder  extremities  are  comparatively  short  and  weak,  these  slender  toes  armed 
with  enormous  claws,  are  evidently  as  well  suited  for  clasping  the  rugged  branch  as 
the  enormous  hind  legs  of  the  kangaroo  for  bounding  over  the  arid  plain.  Indeed,  in 
every  case,  we  shall  find  the  fundamental  type  or  idea  of  the  four  extremities  belong- 
in  »•  to  the  vertebrated  animals  most  admirably  modified  according  to  their  wants  :  here 
shortened,  there  prolonged ;  here  armed  with  claws,  there  terminating  in  a  hoof;  here 
coalescing  to  a  tail,  there  assuming  the  shape  of  a  fin  ;  here  clothed  with  feathers  to 
cleave  the  air,  there  raised  to  the  perfection  of  the  human  hand,  the  wonderful  instru- 
ment of  a  still  more  wonderful  intelligence ;  and  who,  seeing  all  this,  can  possibly 
believe  that  the  world  is  ruled  by  chance,  and  not  by  an  all-pervading  and  almighty 
power  ?  Thus  the  sloth,  so  helpless  when  removed  from  his  native  haunts,  is  far  from 
exhibiting  the  same  torpidity  in  his  movements  when  seen  in  the  place  for  which  Na- 
ture fitted  him. 

"  One  day,  as  we  were  crossing  the  Essequibo,"  says  Mr.  Waterton,  "  I  saw  a  large 
sloth  on  the  ground  upon  the  bank ;  how  he  had  got  there  nobody  could  tell ;  the 
Indian  said  he  had  never  surprised  a  sloth  in  such  a  situation  before  :  he  would  hardly 
have  come  there  to  drink,  for  both  above  and  below  the  place  the  branches  of  the  trees 
touched  the  water,  and  afforded  him  an  easy  and  safe  access  to  it.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
though  the  trees  were  not  above  twenty  yards  from  hira,  he  could  not  make  his  way 
through  the  sand  time  enough  to  escape  before  we  landed.  As  soon  as  we  came  up 
to  him,  he  threw  himself  upon  his  back,  and  defended  himself  in  gallant  style  with 
his  fore-legs.  '  Come,  poor  fellow  ! '  said  I  to  him,  '  if  thou  hast  got  into  a  hobble 
to-day,  thou  shalt  not  suffer  for  it ;  I'll  take  no  advantage  of  thee  in  misfortune  ;  the 
forest  is  large  enough  both  for  thee  and  me  to  rove  in.  Go  thy  ways  up  above,  and 
enjoy  thyself  in  these  endless  wilds ;  it  is  more  than  probable  thou  wilt  never  have 
another  interview  with  man.  So  fare  thee  well.'  On  saying  this  I  took  up  a  long 
stick  which  was  lying  there,  held  it  for  him  to  hook  on,  and  then  conveyed  him  to  a 
high  and  stately  mora.  He  ascended  with  wonderful  rapidity,  and  in  about  a  minute 
he  was  almost  at  the  top  of  the  tree.  He  now  went  off  in  a  side  direction,  and  caught 
hold  of  the  branch  of  a  neighboring  tree ;  he  then  proceeded  towards  the  heart  of  the 
forest.  I  stood  looking  on,  lost  in  amazement  at  his  singular  mode  of  progress.  I 
followed  him  with  my  eye  till  the  intervening  branches  closed  in  betwixt  us,  and  then 


HABITS   OF   THE   SLOTH— MEGATHERIUMS— xMYLODONS.         070 

lost  sight  forever  of  the  sloth,  I  was  going  to  add  that  I  never  saw  a  sloth  take  to 
his  heels  in  such  earnest,  but  the  expression  will  not  do,  for  the  sloth  has  no  heels." 

The  Indians,  to  whom  no  one  will  deny  the  credit  of  being  acute  observers  of  animal 
life,  say  that  the  sloth  wanders  principally  when  the  wind  blows.  In  calm  weather  he 
remains  still,  probably  not  liking  to  cling  to  the  brittle  extremity  of  the  branches,  lest 
they  should  break  under  his  weight  in  passing  from  one  tree  to  another ;  but  as  soon 
as  the  breeze  rises,  the  branches  of  the  neighboring  trees  become  interwoven,  and  then 
he  seizes  hold  of  them  and  pursues  his  journey  in  safety.  There  is  seldom  an  entire 
day  of  calm  in  the  forests  of  Guiana.  The  trade-wind  generally  sets  in  about  ten 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  since  the  sloth,  as  we  have  just  seen,  is  able  to  travel  at  a 
good  round  pace  when  he  has  branches  to  cling  to,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  him 
making  a  considerable  way  before  the  sun  sinks  and  the  wind  goes  down.  During 
night,  and  while  reposing  in  the  day-time,  the  sloth  constantly  remains  suspended  by 
his  feet,  for  his  anatomy  is  such  that  he  can  feel  comfortable  in  no  other  position.  In 
this  manner  he  will  rest  for  hours  together,  expressing  his  satisfaction  by  a  kind  of 
purring,  and  from  time  to  time  his  dismal  voice  may  be  heard  resounding  through  the 
forest,  and  awakening  at  a  distance  a  similar  melancholy  cry. 

The  color  of  the  sloth's  hair  so  strongly  resembles  the  hue  of  the  moss  which  grows 
on  the  trees,  that  the  European  finds  it  very  difficult  to  make  him  out  when  he  is  at 
rest,  and  even  the  falcon-eyed  Indian,  accustomed  from  his  earliest  infoncy  to  note  the 
slightest"  signs  of  forest  life,  is  hardly  able  to  distinguish  him  from  the  branches  to 
which  he  clings.  This  no  doubt  serves  him  as  a  protection  against  the  attacks  of  many 
enemies;  but,  far  from  being  helpless,  his  powerful  claws  and  the  peculiarly  enduring 
strength  of  his  long  arms,  make  very  efficient  weapons  of  defence  against  the  large  tree- 
snakes  that  may  be  tempted  to  make  a  meal  of  him. 

The  sloth  possesses  a  remarkable  tenacity  of  life,  and  withstands  the  dreadful  effects 
of  the  wourali  poison  of  the  Macushi  Indians  longer  than  any  other  animal.  Schom- 
burgk  slightly  scratched  a  sloth  in  the  upper  lip,  and  rubbed  a  minimum  of  the  venom 
in  the  wound,  which  did  not  even  emit  a  drop  of  blood ;  he  then  carried  the  animal  to 
a  tree,  which  it  began  to  climb,  but  after  having  reached  a  hight  of  about  twelve  feet, 
it  suddenly  stopped,  and  swinging  its  head  about  from  side  to  side,  as  if  uncertain 
which  way  to  go,  tried  to  continue  its  ascent,  which,  however,  it  was  unable  to  accom- 
plish. First  it  let  go  one  of  its  fore-feet,  then  the  other,  and  remained  attached  with 
its  hind  legs  to  the  tree  until,  these  also  losing  their  power,  it  fell  to  the  ground, 
where,  without  any  of  the  convulsive  motions  or  the  oppressive  breathing  which  gener- 
ally mark  the  effect  of  the  wourali,  it  expired  in  the  thirteenth  minute  after  the  poison 
had  been  administered. 

The  sloths  attain  a  length  of  about  two  feet  and  a  half,  and  form  two  genera — the 
Unaus,  with  two-toed  fore-feet,  and  three-toed  hinder  extremities,  and  the  Ais,  with 
three  toes  on  each  foot.  The  former  have  forty-eight  ribs,  the  latter  only  thirty-two. 
Their  way  of  living  is  the  same,  and  their  range  is  limited  to  the  forests  of  Guiana 
and  the  Brazils.  They  bring  forth  and  suckle  their  young  like  ordinary  quadrupeds, 
and  the  young  sloth,  from  the  moment  of  its  birth,  adheres  to  the  body  of  its  parent 
till  it  acquires  sufficient  size  and  strength  to  shift  for  it.self. 

Sloth-like  animals  of  colossal  dimensions — Megatheriums,  Mylodons — extinct  long 
before  man  appeared  upon  the  scene,  inhabited  the  forests  of  South  America  during 


676  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

the  tertiary  ages  of  the  world.  From  the  dentition  of  the  mylodon,  it  may  be  con- 
cluded that,  like  the  sloth  of  the  present  day,  this  monstrous  animal  fed  on  the  leaves 
or  slender  terminal  twigs  of  trees ;  but  while  the  former,  from  the  comparatively  light 
weio-ht  of  his  body,  is  enabled  to  run  along  the  under  side  of  the  boughs  till  he  has 
reached  a  commodious  feeding-place,  the  elephantine  bulk  of  the  mylodon  evidently 
rendered  all  climbing  utterly  itapossible.  First  scratching  away  the  soil  from  the  roots 
of  the  tree  on  whose  foliage  he  intended  to  feast,  he  next  grasped  it  with  his  long  fore- 
legs, and  rocking  it  to  and  fro,  to  right  and  left,  soon  brought  it  to  the  ground,  for 
"extraordinary  must  have  been  the  strength  and  proportions  of  that  tree,"  says 
Professor  Owen,  "which  in  such  an  embrace  could  long  withstand  the  efforts  of  its 
ponderous  assailant." 

In  the  midst  of  tropical  vegetation,  the  Simiae,  or  Monkey  and  Ape  tribes,  lead  a  free 
forest  life,  for  which  they  might  well  be  envied.  The  green  canopy  of  the  woods 
protects  them  at  every  season  of  the  year  from  the  burning  rays  of  a  vertical  sun, 
flowers  of  the  most  delicious  fragrance  embalm  the  air  they  breathe,  and  an  endless 
supply  of  fruits  and  nuts  never  allows  them  to  know  want,  for  should  the  stores  near 
at  hand  be  exhausted,  an  easy  migration  to  some  other  district  soon  restores  them  to 
abundance.  With  an  agility  far  surpassing  that  with  which  the  sailor  ascends  the 
rigging,  and  climbs  even  to  the  giddy  top  of  the  highest  mast,  they  leap  from  bush- 
rope  to  bush-rope,  and  from  bough  to  bough,  mocking  the  tiger-cat  and  the  boa,  which 
are  unable  to  follow  them  in  their  rapid  evolutions.  Formed  to  live  on  trees,  and  not 
upon  the  ground,  they  are  as  excellent  climbers  as  they  are  bad  pedestrians.  Both 
their  fore  and  hind  feet  are  shaped  as  hands,  generally  with  four  fingers  and  a  thumb, 
so  that  they  can  seize  or  grasp  a  bough  with  all  alike. 

Buffon  erroneously  remarks  of  the  chimpanzee,  that  he  always  walks  erect,  even 
when  carrying  a  weight ;  but  this  ape,  as  well  as  the  other  anthropomorphous  simi«, 
proves  by  the  slowness  and  awkwardness  of  his  movements,  when  by  chance  he  walks 
upon  even  ground,  that  this  position  is  by  no  means  natural  to  him,  or  congenial  to  his 
organization.  Man  alone,  of  all  creatures,  possesses  an  upright  walk  ;  the  ape,  on  the 
contrary,  always  stoops,  and  not  to  lose  his  equilibrium  when  walking,  is  obliged  to 
place  his  hands  upon  the  back  of  his  head,  or  on  his  loins.  Thus,  in  his  native  wilds, 
he  rarely  has  recourse  to  this  inconvenient  mode  of  progression,  and  when  forced  by 
some  chance  or  other  to  quit  the  trees,  he  leans  while  walking  upon  the  finger-knuckles 
of  his  anterior  extremities,  a  position  which  in  fact  very  much  resembles  walking  on 
all-fours.  It  is,  indeed,  only  necessary  to  compare  the  long,  robust,  and  muscular 
arms  of  the  chimpanzee  with  his  weaker  and  shorter  hind-feet,  to  be  at  once  convinced 
that  he  was  never  intended  for  walking.  But  see  with  what  rapidity,  with  what  power 
and  grace  he  moves  from  branch  to  branch,  his  hind-legs  serving  him  only  as  holdfasts, 
while  his  chief  strength  is  in  his  arms.  The  tree  is,  without  all  doubt,  for  him  what 
the  earth  is  for  us,  the  air  for  the  bird,  or  the  water  for  the  fish. 

We  cannot  wonder  at  the  ancients  having  known  but  few  species  of  the  simire,  as 
these  animals  chiefly  belong  to  the  torrid  zone,  with  which  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
were  so  imperfectly  acquainted.  It  is  only  since  a  wide  extent  of  the  tropical  regions 
has  been  opened  by  trade  or  conquest  to  European  research,  that  many  of  the  mys- 
teries of  monkey-existence  have  been  brought  to  light  from  the  darkness  of  the  pri- 


MONKEYS— DIFFERENCE   BETWEEN   TIIEAI   AND  MEN.  077 

meval  forest,  and  particularly  withia  the  last  twenty  years,  naturalists  and  travelers 
have  devoted  so  much  attention  to  this  interesting  family,  that  while  in  the  year  1840 
only  128  species  were  known,  their  numbers  had  increased  in  1852  to  no  less  than 
210,  a  stately  list,  to  which,  since  then,  many  more  have  been  added,  and  which  even 
now  is  far  from  being  closed. 

The  simias  of  the  Old  World  are  all  distinguished  by  the  common  character  of  a 
narrow  septum  or  partition  of  the  nose  like  that  of  man,  and  by  the  same  number  of 
teeth,  each  jaw  being  provided  with  ten  grinders,  two  canine  teeth,  and  four  incisors, 
as  in  the  human  race. 

The  large  apes,  or  tailless  monkeys,  resemble  us  besides  in  many  other  respects,  as 
well  in  their  external  appearance  as  in  their  anatomical  structure;  and  form,  as  it 
were,  the  caricature  of  man,  both  by  their  gestures  and  by  glimpses  of  a  higher  intel- 
ligence. 

Creatures  so  remarkably  endowed  have  naturally  at  all  times  attracted  a  great  share 
of  attention,  for  if  even  the  lowest  links  in  the  chain  of  animated  beings  lay  claim  to 
our  interest,  how  much  more  must  this  not  be  the  case  with  beings  whose  faculties 
seem  almost  to  raise  them  to  the  rank  of  our  relations.  The  question  how  far  this 
similarity  extends  has  naturally  given  rise  to  many  acute  investigations  and  been  differ- 
ently answered,  according  as  naturalists  were  more  or  less  inclined  to  depress  man  to 
the  level  of  the  ape,  or  to  widen  the  gulf  between  them.  The  former,  pointing  to  the 
brutality  of  the  lowest  savages,  would  willingly  make  us  believe  that  we  are  nothing 
but  an  improved  edition  of  the  Uran,  while  the  latter  complacently  cite  in  favor  of 
their  opinion,  the  incommensurable  distance  which  exists  between  even  the  most  de- 
graded specimens  of  humanity  and  the  most  perfect  quadrumana.  Man  alone  is  capable 
of  continually  progressive  improvement ;  in  him  alone  each  generation  inherits  the  ac- 
quirements of  its  fathers  and  transmits  the  growing  treasure  to  its  sons,  while  the  ape, 
like  all  other  animals,  constantly  remains  at  the  same  point.  The  lowest  savage  knows 
how  to  make  fire ;  the  ape,  though  he  may  have  seen  the  operation  performed  a  thou- 
sand times,  and  have  enjoyed  the  genial  warmth  of  the  glowing  embers,  will  never 
learn  the  simple  art.  His  hairy  skin  is  a  sufficient  proof  of  his  low  intellect,  an 
infallible  sign  that,  as  he  never  would  be  able  to  provide  himself  with  an  artificial 
clothing.  Nature  was  obliged  to  protect  him  against  the  inclemencies  of  the  cold  nights 
and  the  pouring  rain.  As  man  advances  in  age,  his  mind  acquires  a  greater  depth 
and  a  wider  range.  In  the  ape,  on  the  contrary,  signs  of  a  livelier  intelligence  are 
only  exhibited  during  youth,  and  as  the  animal  waxes  in  years,  its  physiognomy  ac- 
quires a  more  brutal  expression  ;  its  forehead  recedes,  its  jaws  project,  and  instead  of 
expanding  to  a  higher  perfection,  its  mental  faculties  are  evidently  clouded  by  a  pre- 
mature decline. 

Both  in  Africa  and  Asia,  we  find  large  anthropomorphous  apes,  but  while  the  chim- 
panzee and  the  gorilla  exclusively  belong  to  the  African  wilds,  the  orang  and  the  gib- 
bons are  confined  to  the  torrid  regions  of  South  Asia. 

The  Chimpanzee  {Simia  troglodytes)  attains  a  bight  of  about  five  feet,  but  seems 
much  smaller  from  his  stooping  attitude.  He  inhabits  the  dense  forests  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  particularly  near  the  river  Gaboon,  and  as  his  travels  arc  facilitated 
by  his  fatherland  not  being  too  far  distant  from  Europe,  there  is  hardly  a  Zoological 
Garden  of  any  note  that  does  not  exhibit  a  chimpanzee  among  its  lions.     One  of  the 


678  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

finest  specimens  ever  seen  was  kept  a  few  years  since  in  the  Jardln  des  Plantes  in 
Paris,  where  the  mild  climate,  agreeable  diet  (he  drank  his  pint  of  Bordeaux  daily), 
and  lively  society  of  the  French  maintained  him  in  wonderful  health  and  sph-its. 

The  body  of  the  chimpanzee  is  covered  with  long  hair  on  the  head,  shoulders,  and 
back,  but  much  thinner  on  the  breast  and  belly.  The  arms  and  legs  are  not  so  dis- 
proportionate as  those  of  the  orang,  the  forefingers  not  quite  touching  the  knees  when 
the  animal  stands  upright.  The  upper  part  of  the  head  is  very  flat,  with  a  retiring 
forehead,  and  a  prominent  bony  ridge  over  the  eye-brows,  the  mouth  is  wide,  the  ears 
large,  the  nose  flat,  and  the  face  of  a  blackish-brown  color. 

From  this  short  notice  it  will  be  seen  at  once  that  while  the  Chimpanzee  has  not 
the  least  claim  to  beauty,  he  is  yet  far  from  equalling  the  hideous  deformity  of  the 
Gorilla,  whom  M.  Du  Chaillu,  the  first  white  man  who  ever  saw  the  creature  alive,  has 
so  prominently  introduced  to  public  notice.  This  savage  animal,  which  is  covered 
with  black  hair  like  the  chimpanzee,  and  resembles  it  in  the  proportion  of  its  body  and 
limbs,  though  its  form  is  much  more  robust,  unites  a  most  ferocious  and  undaunted 
temper  with  an  herculean  bodily  strength,  and  is  said  to  hold  undisputed  dominion 
of  the  hill-forests  in  the  interior  of  Lower  Guinea,  forcing  even  the  panther  to 
io-nominious  flight.  To  kill  a  gorilla  is  considered*  by  the  negroes  as  a  most  courageous 
exploit ;  and  Dr.  Savage,  an  American  missionary  on  the  coast  of  Guinea,  who,  in  a 
memoir  published  at  Boston  in  the  year  1847,  was  the  first  to  point  out  the  generic 
differences  between  this  formidable  ape  and  the  chimpanzee,  tells  us  that  a  slave  having 
shot  a  male  and  female  gorilla,  whose  skeletons  afterwards  came  into  his  possession, 
was  immediately  set  at  liberty  and  proclaimed  the  prince  of  hunters. 

Du  Chaillu's  description*  of  his  first  encounter  with  an  adult  gorilla,  which  entirely 
agrees  with  the  accounts  given  to  Dr.  Savage  by  the  natives  of  the  mode  of  attack 
of  this  monstrous  creature,  shows  that  this  distinction  was  by  no  means  unmerited,  and 
that  it  requires  all  the  coolness  and  determination  of  an  accomplished  sportsman  to 
face  an  animal  of  such  appalling  ferocity  and  power. 

"The  underbrush  swayed  rapidly  just  ahead,  and  presently  before  us  stood  an 
immense  male  gorilla.  He  had  gone  through  the  jungle  on  his  all-fours,  but  when  he 
saw  our  party  he  erected  himself,  arid  looked  us  boldly  in  the  face.  He  stood  about  a 
dozen  yards  from  us,  and  was  a  sight  I  think  I  shall  never  forget.  Nearly  six  feet 
high  (he  proved  four  inches  shorter,)  with  immense  body,  huge  chest,  and  great 
muscular  arms,  with  fiercely  glaring,  large,  deep-gray  eyes,  and  a  hellish  expression 
of  face,  which  seemed  to  me  like  some  nightmare  vision ;  thus  stood  before  us  the 
king  of  the  African  forest.  He  was  not  afraid  of  us.  He  stood  there  and  beat  his 
breast  with  his  huge  fists,  till  it  resounded  like  an  immense  bass-drum,  which  is  their 
mode  of  offering  defiance,  meantime  giving  vent  to  roar  after  roar.  The  roar  of  the 
gorilla  is  the  most  singular  and  awful  noise  heard  in  these  African  woods.  It  begins 
with  a  sharp  bark  like  an  angry  dog,  then  glides  into  a  deep  bass  roll  which  literally 
and  closely  resembles  the  roll  of  distant  thunder  along  the  sky,  for  which  I  have 
been  sometimes  tempted  to  take  it  when  I  did  not  see  the  animal.  So  deep  is  it  that 
it  seems  to  proceed  less  from  the  mouth  and  throat  than  from  the  deep  chest  and  vast 
paunch.  His  eye  began  to  flash  deeper  fire  as  we  stood  motionless  on  the  defensive, 
and  the  crest  of  short  hair  which  stands  on  his  forehead  began  to  twitch  rapidly  up  and 
*  Explorations  and  Adventnres  in  Equatorial  Africa,  98. 


THE   GORILLA.  G79 

down,  while  his  powerful  fangs  were  shown  as  he  again  sent  forth  a  thunderous  roar. 
And  now  truly  he  reminded  me  of  nothing  but  some  hellish  dream-creature  ;  a  being 
of  that  hideous  order,  half-man,  half-beast,  which  we  find  pictured  by  old  artists  in 
some  representations  of  the  infernal  regions.  He  advanced  a  few  steps,  then  stopped 
to  utter  that  hideous  roar  again,  advanced  again,  and  finally  stopped  when  at  a 
distance  of  about  six  yards  from  us.  And  here,  just  as  he  began  another  of  his  roars, 
beating  his  breast  in  rage,  we  fired  and  killed  him.  With  a  groan  wliich  had  something 
terribly  human  in  it,  and  yet  was  full  of  brutishness,  he  fell  forward  on  his  face.  The 
body  shook  convulsively  for  a  few  minutes,  the  limbs  moved  about  in  a  struggling  way, 
and  then  all  was  quiet — death  had  done  its  work,  and  I  had  leisure  to  examine  the 
huce  body.  It  proved  to  be  five  feet  eight  inches  high,  and  the  muscular  development 
of  the  arms  and  bi'east  showed  what  immense  strength  he  had  possessed." 

Du  Chaillu's  account  of  the  gorilla  was  at  first  received  with  incredulity  by  some 
prominent  British  naturalists ;  they  could  not  believe  that  it  was  left  for  a  young 
American  to  bring  to  light  a  creature  so  far  exceeding  in  size  and  ferocity  anything 
of  the  kind  before  known.  But  fortunately  he  had  brought  home  with  him  a  number 
of  skeletons,  skulls,  and  stuffed  skins  of  the  creatures ;  and  among  them,  as  it  hap- 
pened, was  the  skin  of  the  very  one  whose  death  is  described  above.  This  skin 
measured  about  five  feet  eight  inches  as  it  stood  stuffed.  Had  the  lower  limbs  of  the 
animal  been  as  long  in  proportion  to  its  hight  as  those  of  a  man,  the  whole  hight 
would  have  considerably  exceeded  six  feet ;  while  the  muscular  developments  were 
enormous.  If  one  will  imagine  a  boxing-glove  furnished  with  huge  fingers  and  claws, 
he  will  get  a  fair  idea  of  the  paw.  This  collection  after  having  been  inspected  by 
thousands  in  America,  was  shipped  to  London,  and  the  impugners  of  Du  Chaillu 
came  to  signal  grief.  Many  of  these  specimens  were  purchased  for  the  British  IMu- 
seum,  where  they  now  are.  Du  Chaillu,  in  another  work,*  gives  some  account  of  the 
gorilla  at  home,  and  in  the  bosom  of  his  family : 

"  Now  and  then  I  could  see  the  foot- prints  of  gorillas  that  had  wandered,  like 
myself,  through  the  woods,  but  these  foot-prints  were  several  days  old.  I  came  to  a 
place  where  pine-apple  plants  were  abundant,  and  where  the  gorillas  had  evidently 
feasted  on  the  leaves,  for  thousands  of  them  had  been  plucked  out,  and  only  the  white 
part  eaten.  Here  and  there  a  young  pine-apple  had  been  partially  eaten  away,  one  or 
two  bites  taken,  and  the  fruit  then  thrown  aside.  I  had  to  be  very  careful  in  walking, 
for  fear  of  making  a  noise,  for  the  forest  not  being  dense,  gorillas  could  have  seen  me 
at  a  long  distance.  After  awhile  I  came  to  a  place  where  a  large  male  gorilla  had 
been.  The  foot-prints  were  of  enormous  size,  and  he  must  have  been  a  monstrous  fel- 
low. I  could  see  by  the  foot  prints  of  the  monster  that  he  had  been  on  all-fours,  and 
suddenly  had  raised  himself  to  an  erect  posture  ;  while  the  bending  of  a  branch  about 
eight  or  nine  feet  high,  just  above  the  marks,  showed  that  the  animal  had  supported 
himself  by  it.  I  left  the  place,  and  continued  my  ramble;  when  in  the  far  distance 
I  spied  a  gorilla.  It  was  a  female,  and  she  did  not  see  me.  I  hid  myself  behind  a 
tree,  and  watched  r.ll  her  movements  unseen.  She  was  seated  on  the  ground  before 
a  cluster  of  pine-apples,  quietly  eating  one.  She  soon  threw  it  away,*  and  plucked 
some  of  the  leaves.  She  grinned  now  and  then,  probably  from  the  pleasure  the  food 
gave  her ;  when  suddenly,  to  my  utter  astonishment,  a  little  gorilla,  about  two  and  a 
*  Wild  Life  under  the  Equator,  78. 


080 


THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 


half  feet  in  bight,  came  running  to  its  mother,  who  gave  a  kind  of  chuckle  that  very 
much  resembled  the  '  click '  of  the  Bushmen  of  Southern  Africa,  I  began  to  be 
terribly  excited.  I  must  kill  the  mother,  and  try  to  capture  the  young  one.  Unfortu- 
nately there  were  many  intervening  trees,  and  she  was  about  a  hundred  yards  oflf. 
How  could  the  bullet  from  my  rifle  reach  her  ?  I  had  just  left  my  place  of  concealment, 
when  ghe  perceived  me.  She  uttered  a  piercing  cry,  and  disappeared,  with  her  young 
one  following  her." 


FEMALE    GOKILLA   AND    YOUNG 


Du  Chaillu,  in  his  various  expeditions,  which  occupied  in  all  twelve  years,  brought 
away  thirty-one  gorilla  skins  and  skeletons,  captured  more  than  a  dozen  young  ones, 
and  altogether  saw  more  than  three  hundred  of  the  animals.  We  give  from  his  book 
last  cited  one  more  picture  of  the  domestic  life  of  the  gorilla  : 

"  The  bog  was  like  one  of  the  worst  kind  we  have  in  America  in  the  overflowed 
and  woody  land  of  the  Western  country  ;  only  here  were  creepers,  thorny  bushes, 
hanging  lianas,  and  grass  that  cuts  like  a  razor.  We  entered  the  swamp,  and  came 
to  a  dry  spot,  when  we  spied  a  female  gorilla  and  her  young  baby.  The  baby  was 
very  small,  and  a  very  dear  little  baby  it  was  to  its  mother,  for  she  appeared  to  look 
at  it  with  great  fondness.  I  was  spell-bound,  and  could  not  raise  my  gun  to  fire  ;  there 
was  something  too  human  in  that  mother  and  her  offspring.  It  hung  by  her  breast ; 
but  unlike  our  babies,  who  have  to  be  entirely  supported,  its  little  hands  clutched  its 
mother's  shoulder  and  helped  to  support  itself.  The  little  fellow  gave  a  shrill  and 
plaintive  cry,  and  crawled  from  its  mother's  arms  to  her  breast  to  be  fed  ;  and  the 
mother  lowered  her  head  and  looked  at  her  child,  while  with  its  little  fingers  it  pressed 
her  breast  so  that  the  milk  should  come  more  freely.  On  a  sudden  the  mother  gave 
a  tremendous  cry,  and  before  I  knew  it  she  had  disappeared  in  the  forest." 

As  the  gorilla  is  wholly  confined  to  a  belt  in  equatorial  Africa,  so  the  great  Orang- 
outang (Simra  satyrus)  or  Mias,  as  it  is  called  by  the  natives,  is  only  found  in  Borneo 


THE   ORANG-OUTANG,  OR  MIAS.  681 

and  Sumatra.  To  Mr.  Wallace  we  are  indebted  for  by  far  the  most  reliable  account 
of  this  great  ape,  which  until  Du  Chaillu's  discovery  of  the  gorilla  was  supposed  to  be 
the  largest  of  the  species.     We  give,  much  abridged,  portions  of  his  account : 

"I  was  out  collecting  insects,  not  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  house, 
when  I  heard  a  rustling  in  a  tree  near,  and  looking  up  saw  a  large  red-haired  animal 
moving  slowly  along,  hanging  from  the  branches  by  its  arms.  It  passed  on  from  tree 
to  tree  till  it  was  lost  in  the  jungle.  About  a  fortnight  afterward  I  heard  that  one 
was  feeding  in  a  tree  in  the  swamp,  and  taking  my  gun  I  was  fortunate  enough  to  find 
it.  As  soon  as  I  approached,  it  tried  to  conceal  itself  among  the  foliage  ;  but  I  got 
a  shot  at  it,  and  the  second  barrel  caused  it  to  fall  down  almost  dead,  the  two  balls 
having  entered  the  body.     This  was  a  male,  about  half-grown,  being  scarcely  three 


FEMALE    ORANG-OUTANG. 

feet  high.  Soon  after  I  shot  another  about  the  same  size.  I  gave  it  two  shots,  one 
of  which  lodged  in  the  body,  the  other  broke  its  arm.  Two  Dyaks  ran  up  to  it,  and 
each  seized  hold  of  a  hand.  But  although  one  arm  was  broken,  and  it  was  only  half- 
grown,  it  was  too  strong  for  them,  drawing  them  up  towards  its  mouth  notwithstanding 
all  their  efforts  so  that  they  were  obliged  to  let  go.  It  now  began  climbing  the  tree, 
and  I  shot  it  through  the  heaxt.  A  week  after,  I  fired  at  one  on  a  high  tree.  On 
seeing  me  it  began  howling  ia  a  strange  voice  like  a  cough,  and  seemed  in  a  great 
rage,  breaking  off  branches  with  its  hands,  and  throwing  them  down,  and  then  made 
off  over  the  tree-tops.  A  week  after  I  found  another,  which  behaved  in  a  similar 
manner.  I  shot  at  it  five  times,  and  it  remained  dead  on  the  top  of  the  tree,  sup- 
ported in  a  fork,  whence  it  was  brought  down  by  some  Dyaks  who  climbed  up  for  it. 
This  was  the  first  full-grown  specimen  I  had  obtained  ;  but  it  was  a  female,  and  not 
nearly  so  large  or  remarkable  as  the  full-grown  males.  It  was,  however,  three  feet  six 
inches  high,  and  its  arms  stretched  out  to  a  width  of  six  feet  six  inches.  I  preserved 
the  skin  of  this  animal,  from  which  the  above  picture,  from  a  photograph,  was  taken. 
"Ten  days  after,  I  succeeded  in  shooting  a  full  grown  male.     My  assistant  told 


682  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

me  that  a  great  mias  was  feeding  in  the  woods.  Accompanied  by  two  Dyaks, 
we  hurried  to  the  place.  I  heard  a  slight  rustling  sound  overhead,  but  could  see 
nothing.  Then  I  again  heard  the  rustling,  but  louder,  and  perceived  a  great  red  hairy 
body  and  a  huge  black  face  gazing  down  from  a  great  hight,  as  if  wanting  to  know 
what  was  making  such  a  disturbance  below,  I  fired,  and  he  made  off,  so  that  I  could 
not  then  tell  whether  I  had  hit  him.  We  followed  and  I  got  four  more  shots  at 
him,  but  he  was  always  more  or  less  protected  by  a  huge  branch  on  which  he  was 
walking.  Once,  while  loading,  I  had  a  splendid  view  of  him,  moving  along  the  limb 
in  a  semi-erect  posture,  and  showing  him  to  be  an  animal  of  the  largest  size.  At 
length  he  got  to  one  of  the  loftiest  trees  of  the  forest,  and  we  could  see  one  leg 
hanging  down  useless,  having  been  broken  by  a  ball.  He  now  fixed  himself  in  a  fork, 
and  seemed  disinclined  to  move.  I  therefore  fired  again,  when  he  moved  off,  and  was 
obliged  to  get  on  some  lower  trees,  on  the  branches  of  one  of  which  he  fixed  himself 
in  such  a  position  that  he  could  not  fall,  and  lay  all  in  a  heap,  as  if  dead  or  dying.  I 
sent  for  axes,  and  the  tree  was  soon  cut  through  ;  but  it  was  so  held  up  by  jungle-ropes 
and  climbers  to  the  adjoining  trees  that  it  only  fell  in  a  sloping  position.  The  mias 
did  not  move,  and  I  began  to  fear  that  after  all  we  should  not  get  him,  as  it  was  near 
evening,  and  half  a  dozen  more  trees  would  have  to  be  cut  down  before  the  one  he  was 
on  would  fall.  As  a  last  resource,  we  all  began  pulling  at  the  creepers,  which  shook 
the  tree  very  much,  and  he  came  down  with  a  crash  and  a  thud  like  the  fall  of  a  giant. 
And  a  giant  he  was,  his  head  and  body  being  full  as  large  as  a  man's.  His  hight, 
measuring  fiiirly  from  the  top  of  the  head  to  the  heel,  was  four  feet  two  inches.  The 
body  just  below  the  arras  was  three  feet  two  inches  round,  and  was  quite  as  long  as  a 
man's,  the  legs  being  exceedingly  long  in  proportion.  On  examination  we  found  he 
had  been  terribly  wounded.  Both  legs  were  broken,  one  hip-joint  and  the  root  of  the 
spine  completely  shattered,  and  two  bullets  were  found  flattened  on  his  neck  and  jaws  ; 
yet  he  was  still  alive  when  he  fell.  Another  individual  of  about  the  same  size  was 
afterwards  twice  shot,  causing  him  to  loose  his  hold  of  the  branch  and  fall  flat  on  his 
face  half  buried  in  the  swamp,  where  he  lay  for  some  minutes  groaning  and  panting. 
Suddenly  he  raised  himself  up  nearly  erect,  and  catching  hold  of  a  small  tree,  began  to 
ascend  it.  Another  shot  through  the  back  caused  him  to  fall  down  dead.  A  flattened 
bullet  was  found  in  his  tongue,  having  entered  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen,  and 
completely  traversed  the  body,  fracturing  the  first  cervical  vertebra.  Yet  it  was  after 
receiving  this  fearful  wound  that  he  had  risen  and  began  climbing  with  considerable 
facility." 

These  two  orangs  are  the  largest  of  which  we  have  any  reliable  accounts  ;  although 
there  are  doubtful  stories  in  various  books  of  individuals  much  larger — as  high  as  five 
feet  two  inches.  How  easy  it  is  to  be  deceived  in  estimating,  without  actual  measure- 
ment, the  hight  of  these  animals,  is  shown  in  the  case  of  a  Suraatran  orang,  whose 
skin  is  now  in  the  Calcutta  museum.  The  captain  and  crew  who  killed  him  declared 
that  he  looked  taller  than  the  tallest  man,  and  they  supposed  him  to  be  at  least  seven 
feet  high ;  but  when  he  was  killed  and  lay  upon  the  ground,  they  found  that  he  was 
only  about  six  feet.  The  skin  shows  that  he  was  really  less  than  four  feet.  Mr. 
Wallace  admits  that  the  largest  orangs  are  much  less  than  the  gorilla.  "I  have 
myself,"  he  says,  "  examined  seventeen  freshly-killed  orangs,  all  of  which  were  care- 
fully measured  ;  and  also  obtained  skeletons  of  two  killed  by  others.     Of  these  sixteen 


HABITS   OF  THE   ORANG-OUTANG.  G83 

were  adults,  nine  being  males  and  seven  females.  The  large  adult  males  only  varied 
from  four  feet  one  inch  to  four  feet  two  inches  in  higlit,  measured  fairly  to  the  heel,  so 
as  to  give  the  hight  of  the  animal  as  if  it  stood  perfectly  erect.  The  extent  of  the 
outstretched  arms  was  from  seven  feet  two  inches  to  seven  feet  eight  inches ;  and  the 
width  of  the  face  from  ten  to  thirteen  and  a  half  inches.  The  largest  orang  measured 
by  Temminck  was  four  feet  high.  Of  twenty-five  specimens  collected  by  Schlcgel 
and  M idler,  the  largest  measured  four  feet  one  inch ;  and  the  largest  skeleton  in  the 
Calcutta  museum  was  four  feet  one  and  a  half  inch.  IMy  specimens  were  all  from  the 
north-west  coast  of  Borneo,  those  of  the  Dutch  from  the  south  and  west  coasts ;  and 
i!0  specimen  has  yet  reached  Europe  exceeding  these  dimensions,  although  the  total 
number  of  skins  and  skeletons  must  exceed  a  hundred." 

The  orang  is  a  formidable  opponent.  "One  day,"  says  Wallace,  "some  Dyaks 
saw  a  large  orang  feeding  by  the  river  side.  On  being  alarmed  he  fled  to  the  jungle, 
and  a  number  of  men  armed  with  spears  and  choppers  ran  out  to  intercept  him.  The 
man  in  front  tried  to  run  his  spear  through  the  animal's  body ;  but  the  orang  seized  it 
in  his  hands,  and  in  an  instant  got  hold  of  the  man's  arm,  which  he  seized  in  his 
mouth,  making  the  teeth  meet  iu  the  flesh  above  the  elbow,  which  he  tore  and  lacerated 
in  a  dreadful  manner.  Had  not  the  others  been  close  behind,  the  man  must  have 
been  more  seriously  injured,  if  not  killed,  for  he  was  quite  powerless ;  but  they  soon 
destroyed  the  creature  with  their  spears  and  choppers.  The  man  remained  ill  for  a 
long  time,  and  never  fully  recovered  the  use  of  his  arm.  The  Dyaks  declare  that  the 
orano-  is  attacked  by  only  two  creatures.  One  old  chief,  of  whom  I  inquired,  said  to 
me,  '  No  animal  is  strong  enough  to  hurt  the  mias,  and  the  only  creature  he  ever 
fiffhts  with  is  the  crocodile.  "When  he  goes  to  seek  food  by  the  river,  the  crocodile 
sometimes  tries  to  seize  him  ;  but  the  mias  gets  upon  him  and  beats  him  with  his  hands 
and  feet,  and  tears  him  and  kills  him.  I  once  saw  such  a  fight,  and  believe  that  the 
mias  is  always  the  victor.'  Another  chief  told  me,  ^The  mias  has  no  «nemies ;  no 
animals  dare  attack  it  but  the  crocodile  and  the  python.  He  always  kills  the  croco- 
dile by  main  strength,  standing  upon  it,  pulling  open  its  jaws,  and  ripping  up  its 
throat.  If  a  python  attacks  a  mias,  he  seizes  it  with  his  hands,  and  then  bites  it,  and 
soon  kills  it.  The  mias  is  very  strong ;  there  is  no  animal  in  the  jungle  so  strong 
as  he.'  " 

The  habits  of  the  orang,  as  described  by  Wallace  are  somewhat  peculiar:  "la 
making  his  way  through  the  forest,  he  walks  deliberately  along  some  of  the  larger 
branches,  in  the  semi-erect  attitude  which  the  great  length  of  his  arms  and  the  shortness 
of  his  legs  cause  him  naturally  to  assume ;  and  the  disproportion  between  these  limbs 
is  increased  by  his  walking  on  his  knuckles,  and  not  on  the  palm  of  his  hand,  as  we 
should  do.  He  seems  always  to  choose  those  branches  which  intermingle  with  an 
adjoining  tree,  on  approaching  which  he  stretches  out  his  long  arms,  and  seizing  the 
opposing  boughs  grasps  them  together  with  both  hands,  and  then  deliberately  swings 
across  to  the  next  branch,  on  which  he  walks  along  as  before.  He  never  jumps  or 
springs,  or  appears  to  hurry  himself,  and  vet  manages  to  get  along  almost  as  fast  as 
a  person  can  run  through  the  forest  beneath.  He  makes  a  nest  in  which  to  sleep,  by 
breaking  off"  boughs  and  laying  them  across  each  other.  The  natives  say  that  he  makes 
a  new  one  each  night,  but  I  think  this  hardly  probable,  or  their  remains  would  be 
much  more  abundant.     The  Dyaks  say  that  when  it  is  very  wet,  he  covers  himself 


684  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

over  with  large  leaves  or  ferns,  which  has  perhaps  led  to  the  story  of  his  making  a 
hut  in  the  trees.  He  does  not  leave  his  bed  till  the  sun  has  well  risen,  and  has  dried 
the  dew  upon  the  leaves.  He  feeds  all  through  the  middle  of  the  day,  but  seldom 
returns  to  the  same  tree  two  days  in  succession.  They  do  not  seem  much  alarmed  at 
man,  as  they  often  stared  down  upon  me  for  several  minutes,  and  then  only  moved 
away  slowly  to  an  adjoining  tree.  I  never  saw  two  full-grown  animals  together  ;  but 
both  males  and  females  are  sometimes  accompanied  by  half-grown  young  ones,  while 
at  other  times  three  or  four  young  ones  were  seen  in  company.  Their  food  consists 
almost  wholly  of  fruit,  with  occasionally  leaves,  buds,  and  young  shoots.  They  seem 
to  prefer  unripe  fruits,  some  of  which  are  very  sour,  others  intensely  bitter.  In  'other 
cases  they  eat  only  the  small  seeds  of  a  large  fruit,  and  they  almost  always  waste  and 
destroy  more  than  they  eat.  The  durion*  is  an  especial  favorite,  and  quantities 
of  this  delicious  fruit  are  destroyed  whenever  it  grows  surrounded  by  forest,  but  they 
will  not  cross  clearings  to  get  at  them.  It  seems  wonderful  how  the  animal  can  tear 
open  this  fruit,  the  outer  covering  of  which  is  so  thick  and  tough,  and  closely  covered 
with  strong  conical  spines.  They  probably  bite  oflf  a  few  of  these  at  first,  and  then, 
making  a  small  hole,  tear  open  the  fruit  with  their  powerful  fingers.  The  orang 
rarely  descends  to  the  ground  except  when,  pressed  by  hunger,  it  seeks  for  succulent 
shoots  by  the  river-side,  or  in  very  dry  weather,  has  to  seai-ch  for  water,  which  it 
generally  finds  in  the  hollows  of  leaves.  Once  only  I  saw  two  half-grown  orangs  on 
the  ground  in  a  dry  hollow.  They  were  playing  together,  standing  erect,  and  grasping 
each  other  by  the  arms.  It  may  be  safely  stated,  however,  that  the  orang  never  walks 
erect,  unless  when  using  its  hands  to  support  itself  by  branches  overhead,  or  when 
attacked.     Representations  of  its  walking  with  a  stick  are  entirely  imaginary." 

Mr.  "Wallace  once  caught  a  very  young  orang,  not  more  than  a  foot  long,  which 
proved  a  very  amusing  pet,  quite  unlike  a  young  gorilla  which  Du  Chaillu  attempted 
to  tame.  "While  carrying  it  home,"  he  says,  "it  got  his  fingers  in  my  beard,  and 
grasped  so  tightly  that  I  had  great  diflSculty  in  getting  free,  for  the  fingers  are  habit- 
ually bent  inward  at  the  last  joint,  so  as  to  form  complete  hooks.  I  had  no  milk  to 
give  it,  and  was  obliged  to  feed  it  with  rice-water  from  a  bottle  with  a  quill  in  the 
cork,  which  after  a  few  trials  it  learned  to  suck  very  well.  When  I  put  my  finger  in 
its  mouth,  it  sucked  with  great  vigor,  drawing  in  its  cheeks  with  all  its  might,  and 
only  after  persevering  a  long  time  would  it  give  up  in  disgust,  and  set  up  a  scream, 
very  like  that  of  a  baby  in  similar  circumstances.  When  handled  or  nursed,  it  was 
very  quiet  and  contented,  but  when  laid  down  by  itself  would  invariably  cry.  I  found 
it  necessary  to  wash  it  every  day,  and  it  soon  began  to  like  the  operation,  and  when  it 
was  dirty  would  begin  crying,  and  not  leave  off  until  I  carried  it  to  the  spout,  when 
it  immediately  became  quiet,  though  it  would  wince  a  little  at  the  first  rush  of  the 
cold  water,  and  make  ridiculously  wry  faces  while  the  stream  was  running  over  its 
head.  It  enjoyed  the  wiping  and  rubbing  dry  amazingly,  and  when  I  brushed  its 
hair  seemed  to  be  perfectly  happy.  After  the  first  week  I  found  I  could  feed  it  better 
with  a  spoon,  and  gave  it  a  little  more  varied  and  more  solid  food.  Well-soaked  bis- 
cuit, mixed  with  a  little  egg  and  sugar,  and  sometimes  sweet  potatoes  were  readily 
eaten.  It  would  lick  its  lips,  draw  in  its  cheeks,  and  turn  up  its  eyes  with  an  expres- 
sion of  the  most  supreme  satisfaction  when  it  bad  a  mouthful  particularly  to  its  taste ; 
*  Concerning  this  fruit  see  ante,  557. 


A  PET   ORANG-OUTANG— THE   GIBBONS.  685 

but  •when  its  food  was  not  sufficiently  sweet  or  palatable,  it  would  turn  the  mouthful 
about  with  its  tongue  for  a  moment,  as  if  trying  to  extract  what  flavor  there  was,  and 
then  push  it  all  out  between  its  lips.  If  the  same  food  was  continued,  it  would  set 
up  a  scream,  and  kick  about  violently  exactly  like  a  baby  in  a  passion.  After  I  had 
had  the  little  mias  about  three  weeks  I  obtained  a  young  monkey  which,  though  small 
was  very  active,  and  could  feed  itself.  I  placed  it  in  the  same  box  with  the  mias,  and 
they  soon  became  excellent  friends,  neither  exhibiting  the  least  fear  of  the  other.  The 
little  monkey  would  sit  upon  the  other's  stomach,  or  even  on  its  face,  without  the 
least  regard  for  its  feelings.  While  I  was  feeding  the  mias,  the  monkey  would  sit  by, 
picking  up  all  that  was  spilt,  and  as  soon  as  I  had  finished  would  pick  off  wliat  was 
left  sticking  to  the  mias's  lips,  and  then  pull  open  its  mouth  to  see  if  any  was  left 
inside ;  afterwards  lying  down  on  the  poor  creature's  stomach  as  on  a  comfortable 
cushion.  The  little  helpless  mias  would  submit  to  all  these  insults  with  the  most  exem- 
plary patience,  only  too  glad  to  have  something  warm  near  it,  which  it  could  clasp 
affectionately  in  its  arms.  After  five  weeks  it  cut  its  two  upper  front  teeth  ;  but  in  all 
this  time  it  had  not  grown  the  least  bit,  remaining  both  in  size  and  weight  the  same  as 
when  I  first  procured  it.  This  was  no  doubt  owing  to  the  want  of  milk  or  other 
equally  nourishing  food.  At  length  it  was  taken  seriously  ill,  the  symptoms  being 
exactly  those  of  intermittent  fever,  accompanied  by  watery  swellings  on  the  feet  and 
head.  It  lost  all  appetite  for  its  food,  and  after  lingering  a  week,  a  most  pitiable 
object,  it  died,  having  been  in  my  possession  nearly  three  months.  I  much  regretted 
the  loss  of  my  little  pet,  which  I  had  at  one  time  looked  forward  to  bringing  up  to 
years  of  maturity,  and  taking  home  to  England.  It  had  afllbrded  me  daily  amusement 
by  its  curious  ways  and  the  inimitably  ludicrous  expression  of  its  little  countenance. 
Its  weight  was  three  pounds  nine  ounces,  its  hight  fourteen  inches,  and  the  spread  of 
its  arms  twenty-three  inches." 

We  have  dwelt  at  some  length  upon  the  Gorilla  and  the  Orang-outang,  because  they 
are  the  largest  of  the  monkey  tribes ;  and  because  until  within  a  few  years  very  little 
has  been  positively  known  of  them ;  and  it  is  believed  that  no  living  specimen  of 
either  has  ever  been  seen  away  from  their  native  homes.  We  shall  pass  rapidly  over 
a  few  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  monkey  tribes. 

The  series  of  the  large  anthropomorphous  apes  closes  with  the  Gibbons.  Their 
arms,  which  reach  to  the  ankle  joints  when  the  animal  is  standing  erect,  are  longer 
than  those  of  the  uran  ;  their  brain,  and  consequently  their  intelligence,  is  less  devel- 
oped ;  and  moreover,  like  all  the  following  simiae  of  the  Old  World,  they  possess  cal- 
losities on  each  side  of  the  tail.  Their  size  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  orang,  and  their 
body  is  covered  with  thicker  hair,  gray,  brown,  black,  or  white  —  according  to  the 
species  —  but  never  parti-colored,  as  is  the  case  with  many  of  the  long  tailed  monkeys. 
To  the  gibbons  belong  the  black  Siamang  of  Sumatra  — who,  assembled  in  large 
troops,  bail  the  first  blush  of  early  morn,  and  bid  farewell  to  the  setting  sun  with 
dreadful  clamors  —  the  black,  white-bearded  Lar  of  Siam  and  Malacca,  and  the  Wou- 
Wou  {Hylohates  leuciscus)  who,  hanging  suspended  by  his  long  arms,  and  swinging  to 
and  fro  in  the  air,  allows  one  to  approach  within  fifty  yards,  and  then,  suddenly  drop- 
ping  upon  a  lower  branch,  climbs  again  leisurely  to  the  top  of  the  tree.  He  is  a  quiet, 
solitary  creature  of  a  melancholy  peaceful  nature,  pursuing  a  harmless  life,  feeding 
upon  fruits  in  the  vast  untrodden  recesses  of  the  forest ;  and  his  peculiar  noise  is  ia 


686  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

harmony  with  the  sombre  stillness  of  these  dim  regions,  commencing  like  the  gurgling 
of  water  when  a  bottle  is  being  filled,  and  ending  with  a  long,  loud  wailing  cry,  which 
resounds  throughout  the  leafy  solitude  to  a  great  distance,  and  is  sometimes  responded 
to  from  the  depths  of  the  forest  by  another  note  as  wild  and  melancholy. 

We  shall  see  that  the  American  monkeys  are  totally  different  from  those  of  the  Old 
World  ;  but  also  in  the  eastern  hemisphere,  each  part  of  the  world  has  its  peculiar 
families  and  genera  of  simiae.  Thus,  besides  the  orang-outang  and  the  gibbon,  Asia 
exclusively  possesses  the  semnopitheci  and  the  macaques,  while  Africa,  besides  the 
chimpanzee  and  the  gorilla,  enjoys  the  undivided  honor  of  giving  birth  to  the  families 
of  the  cercopitheci,  mangabeys,  colobi,  magots,  and  baboons.  The  Semnopitheci  are 
characterized  by  a  short  face,  rounded  ears,  a  slender  body,  short  thumbs,  and  a  strong 
muscular  tail,  terminated  by  a  close  tuft  of  hair,  and  surpassing  in  length  that  of  all 
the  other  quadrumana  of  the  Old  World.  To  this  genus  belongs  the  celebrated  Pro- 
boscis Monkey  (^Semnopithecus  nasicus)  of  Borneo,  who  is  distinguished  from  all 
other  simia)  by  the  possession  of  a  prominent  nasal  organ,  which  lends  a  highly  ludi- 
crous expression  to  the  melancholy  aspect  of  his  physiognomy.  When  excited  and 
angry,  the  female  resembles  some  tanned  and  peevish  hag,  snarling  and  shrewish. 
When  they  sleep,  they  squat  on  their  hams,  and  bow  their  heads  upon  the  breast. 
When  disturbed,  they  utter  a  short  impatient  cry,  between  a  sneeze  and  a  scream,  like 
that  of  a  spoilt  and  passionate  child.  When  they  emit  their  peculiar  wheezing  or  hiss- 
ing sound,  they  avert  and  wrinkle  the  nose,  and  open  the  mouth  wide.  In  the  male, 
the  nose  is  a  curved,  tubular  trunk,  large,  pendulous,  and  fleshy ;  but  in  the  female 
it  is  smaller,  recurved,  and  not  flesh-like. 

Under  the  ugly  form  of  the  Huniman  {Bemnoipithecus  entellus),  the  Hindoos  ven- 
erate the  transformed  hero  who  abstracted  the  sweet  fruit  of  the  mango  from  the  garden 
of  a  giant  in  Ceylon,  and  enriched  India  with  the  costly  gift.  As  a  punishment  for 
this  offense  he  was  condemned  to  the  stake,  and  ever  since  his  hands  and  face  have 
remained  black.  Out  of  gratitude  for  his  past  services,  the  Hindoos  allow  him  the 
free  use  of  their  gardens,  and  take  great  care  to  protect  him  from  sacrilegious  Euro- 
peans. While  the  French  naturalist  Duvaucel  was  at  Chandernagore,  a  guard  of  pious 
Brahmins  was  busy  scaring  away  the  sacred  animals  with  cymbals  and  drums,  lest  the 
stranger,  to  whom  they  very  justly  attributed  evil  intentions,  might  be  tempted  to  add 
their  skins  to  his  collection. 

The  semnopitheci  are  scattered  over  Asia  in  so  great  a  multiplicity  of  forms,  that 
Ceylon  alone  possesses  four  different  species,  each  of  which  has  appropriated  to  itself 
a  different  district  of  the  wooded  country,  and  seldom  encroaches  on  the  domain  of 
its  neighbors.  When  observed  in  their  native  wilds,  a  party  of  twenty  or  thirty  of  the 
Wanderoos  of  the  low  country,  the  species  best  known  in  Europe  {Presbytes  cephalop- 
terus),  is  generally  busily  engaged  in  the  search  for  berries  and  buds.  They  are  sel- 
dom to  be  seen  on  the  ground,  and  then  only  when  they  have  descended  to  recover 
seeds  or  fruit  that  have  fallen  at  the  foot  of  their  favorite  trees.  In  their  alarm,  when 
disturbed,  their  leaps  are  prodigious,  but  generally  speaking  their  progress  is  made 
not  so  much  by  leaping  as  by  swinging  from  branch  to  branch,  using  their  powerful 
arms  alternately,  and  when  baffled  by  distance,  flinging  themselves  obliquely  so  as  to 
catch  the  lower  bough  of  an  opposite  tree  ;  the  momentum  acquired  by  their  descent 
being  sufficient  to  cause  a  rebound,  that  carries  them  again  upwards  till  they  can  grasp 


SEMNOPITHECI— CYXOIMTIIECI— CYNOCKIMIALI.  087 

a  higher  branch,  and  thus  continue  their  headlong  flight.  In  tliese  perilous  achieve- 
ments wonder  is  excited  less  by  the  surpassing  agility  of  these  little  creatures,  frequently 
encumbered  as  they  are  by  their  young,  which  cling  to  them  in  their  career,  than  by 
the  quickness  of  their  eye  and  the  unerring  accuracy  with  which  they  seem  to  calcu- 
late almost  the  angle  at  which  a  descent  would  enable  them  to  cover  a  given  distance, 
and  the  recoil  to  elevate  themselves  again  to  a  higher  altitude.  The  African  Colobi 
greatly  resemble  the  Asiatic  Semnopitheci,  but  differ  by  the  remarkable  circumstance 
of  having  no  thumb  on  the  hands  of  their  anterior  extremities.  The  Cercopitheci 
likewise  possess  a  large  tail,  which  is,  however,  not  more  or  less  pendulous,  as  in  the 
semnopitheci,  but  generally  carried  erect  over  the  back.  They  have  also  a  Ion  o'er  face, 
and  their  cheeks  are  furnished  with  pouches,  in  which,  like  the  pelican  or  the  hamster, 
they  are  capable  of  stowing  part  of  their  food. 

The  tribes  of  the  mangabeys,  macaques,  raagots,  and  cynopitheci  form  the  links 
between  the  cercopitheci  and  the  baboons.  Their  shape  is  less  slender  than  that  of  the 
former,  their  frontal  bone  is  more  developed,  particularly  above  the  eye-brows,  and 
their  face  is  longer.  They  are  all  of  them  provided  with  cheek-pouches.  Several  of 
the  macaques  have  a  very  short  tail,  and  the  magots,  or  Barbary  apes,  and  the  cyno- 
pithecus  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  have  none,  thus  resembling  the  large  anthropo- 
morphous apes,  but  widely  differing  from  them  in  other  respects.  The  Magot  is  the 
only  European  species,  and  seems  exclusively  confined  in  that  part  of  the  world  to  the 
rock  of  Gibraltar,  though  some  authors  affirm  that  it  is  found  in  other  parts  of  Anda- 
lusia, and  even  in  the  province  of  Grenada, 

The  Cynocephali  (Baboons  and  Mandrills)  show  at  once  by  their  Greek  name  that 
a  dog-like  snout  gives  them  a  more  bestial  expression  than  belongs  to  the  rest  of  the 
monkey  tribes,  and  that  of  all  the  simiae  of  the  Old  World  they  are  most  widely  dis- 
tant from  man.  In  size  they  are  only  surpassed  by  the  gorilla  and  the  orang ;  and  if 
in  the  latter  the  physiognomy  becomes  more  brutal  in  its  expression  with  advancing 
age,  this  degradation  is  much  greater  in  the  baboons.  Their  canine  teeth  in  particular 
acquire  a  greater  sharpness  than  those  of  almost  every  other  carnivorous  animal,  so 
that  these  mahgnant  and  cruel  animals,  armed  with  such  powerful  weapons,  may  well 
be  reckoned  among  the  most  formidable  of  the  wild  beasts  of  Africa.  As  if  to  render 
them  complete  pictures  of  depravity,  their  manners  also  are  so  shamelessly  filthy  that 
the  curiosity  they  excite  soon  changes  into  horror  and  disgust. 

The  short-tailed  mandrills  inhabit  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  The  Maimon  is  the 
most  remarkable  of  the  whole  genus  for  brilliancy  and  variety  of  color ;  its  furrowed 
cheekfe  are  magnificently  striped  with  violet,  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet,  so  as  more  to 
resemble  an  artificial  tattooing  than  a  natural  carnation.  As  the  creature  increases  in 
age,  the  nose  also  becomes  blood-red.  On  the  loins  the  skin  is  almost  bare,  and  of  a 
violet-blue  color,  gradually  altering  into  a  bright  blood-red,  which  is  more  conspicuous 
on  the  hinder  parts,  where  it  surrounds  the  tail,  which  is  generally  carried  erect. 

The  real  baboons  are  distinguished  from  the  mandrills  by  a  long  tail,  terminated  by 
a  tuft  of  hair.  The  great  baboon  of  Senegal  ( Ci/nocephnlus  spf^inx)  is  by  no  means 
devoid  of  intelligence,  and  learns  many  tricks  when  taught  from  early  youth.  His 
temper,  however,  is  brutal  and  choleric,  though  less  so  than  that  of  the  Chacma  (  Oi/iio- 
cephabis  porcarius) ,  ox  pig-faced  baboon,  which  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Town, 
amono-  others  on  the  celebrated  Table  Mouiitain.     It  frequently  commits  great  devasta- 


688  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

tions  in  the  fields.  Young  chacmas  are  often  kept  as  domestic  animals,  performing 
the  offices  of  a  mastiff,  whom  they  greatly  surpass  in  strength.  Thus  they  immedi- 
ately announce  by  their  growling  the  approach  of  a  stranger,  and  are  even  employed 
for  a  variety  of  useful  purposes  which  no  dog  would  be  able  to  perform.  Here  one  is 
trained  to  blow  the  bellows  of  a  smith  ;  there  another  to  guide  a  team  of  oxen.  When 
a  stream  is  to  be  crossed,  the  chacma  immediately  jumps  upon  the  back  of  one  of  the 
oxen,  and  remains  sitting  till  he  has  no  longer  to  fear  the  wet,  which  he  loves  as  little 
as  the  cat. 

In  Abyssinia,  Nubia,  and  South  Arabia  we  find  the  Derryas  ( C  hamndryas) , 
which  enjoyed  divine  honors  among  the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  general  color  of  the 
hair  is  a  mixture  of  light-gray  and  cinnamon,  and  in  the  male  that  of  the  head  and 
neck  forms  a  long  mane,  falling  back  over  the  shoulders.  The  face  is  extremely  long, 
naked,  and  of  a  dirty  flesh  color.  This  ugly  monkey  was  revered  as  the  symbol  of 
Thoth,  the  divine  father  of  literature  and  the  judge  of  man  after  death.  Formerly 
temples  were  erected  to  his  honor,  and  numerous  priests  ministered  to  his  wants ;  but 
now,  by  a  sad  change  of  baboon  fortune,  he  is  shot  without  ceremony,  and  his  skin 
pulled  over  his  ears  to  be  stuffed  and  exhibited  in  profane  museums. 

In  the  forests  of  tropical  Africa  and  Asia  we  find  a  remarkable  group  of  animals, 
which,  though  q^uadrumanous  like  the  monkeys,  essentially  differs  from  them  by  pos- 
sessing long  curved  claws  on  the  index,  or  also  on  the  middle  finger  of  the  hinder 
extremities ;  by  a  sharp,  projecting  muzzle,  and  by  a  different  dentition.  The  Loris, 
remarkable  for  the  slowness  of  their  gait  and  their  large  glaring  eyes,  are  exclusively 
natives  of  the  East  Indies ;  the  Galagos,  which  unite  the  organization  of  the  monkeys 
with  the  graceful  sprightliness  of  the  squirrels,  are  solely  confined  to  Africa,  where 
they  are  chiefly  found  in  the  gum-forests  of  Senegal ;  the  Tarsii,  thus  named  from 
their  elongated  tarsii,  giving  to  their  hinder  limbs  a  disproportionate  length,  are  re- 
stricted to  part  of  the  Indian  archipelago ;  but  the  large  island  of  Madagascar,  where, 
strange  to  say,  not  a  single  monkey  is  found,  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  family,  being  the 
exclusive  dwelling  place  of  the  short-tailed  Indri,  (whom,  from  his  black,  thick  fur  and 
anthropomorphous  shape,  one  would  be  inclined  to  reckon  among  the  gibbons),  and  of 
the  long-tailed  Lemurs  or  Makis.  All  these  gentle  and  harmless  animals  are  arboreal 
in  their  hAbits,  avoid  the  glaring  light  of  day  under  the  dense  covert  of  the  forest,  and 
awaken  to  a  more  active  existence  as  soon  as  night  descends  upon  the  earth.  Then 
the  loris,  who  during  the  day  have  slept  clinging  to  a  branch,  prowl  among  the  forest 
boughs  in  quest  of  food.  Nothing  can  escape  the  scrutiny  of  their  large,  glaring  eyes; 
and  when  they  have  marked  their  victim,  they  cautiously  and  noiselessly  approach  till 
it  is  within  their  grasp.  The  Galagos  have  at  night  all  the  activity  of  birds,  hopping 
from  bough  to  bough  on  their  hind  limbs  only.  They  watch  the  insects  flitting  among 
the  leaves,  listen  to  the  fluttering  of  the  moth  as  it  darts  through  the  air,  lie  in  wait  for 
it,  and  spring  with  the  rapidity  of  an  arrow,  seldom  missing  their  prize,  which  is  caught 
by  the  hands.  They  make  nests  in  the  branches  of  trees,  and  cover  a  bed  with  grass 
and  leaves  for  their  little  ones.  The  tarsii  leap  about  two  feet  at  a  spring,  and  feed 
chiefly  on  lizards,  holding  their  prey  in  their  fore  hands,  while  they  rest  on  their 
haunches. 

The  monkeys  of  tlie  New  World  differ  still  more  widely  from  those  of  the  Old  than 
the  copper-colored  Indian  from  the  woolly  negro.      One  sees  at  once  on  comparing 


MONKEYS  OF  THE  OLD  AND  THE  NEW  WOULD.      089 

them  £hat  whole  oceans  roll  between  them,  that  they  have  not  migrated  from  one 
hemisphere  to  another,  but  belong  to  two  different  phases  of  creation.  "While  the 
nasal  partition  of  the  Old  "World  simiae  is  narrow  as  in  man,  it  is  broad  without  excep- 
tion in  all  the  American  monkeys,  so  that  the  nostrils  are  widely  separated  and  open 
sideways.  The  dental  apparatus  is  also  different,  for  while  the  monkeys  of  the  eastern 
hemisphere  have  thirty-two  teeth,  those  of  the  western  world  generally  possess  thirty- 
six.  The  tailless  monkeys  or  apes,  and  the  short-tailed  baboons,  with  a  dog-like  pro- 
jecting snout  and  formidable  fangs,  are  peculiar  to  the  eastern  hemisphere,  and  it  ia 
only  there  that  we  find  almost  voiceless  simiaj,  while  the  American  quadrumana  are 
all  of  them  tailed,  short-snouted,  and  generally  endowed  with  stentorian  powers. 
Finally,  it  would  be  as  useless  to  look  among  the  western  monkeys  for  cheek-pouches 
and  sessile  callosities,  as  among  those  of  the  Old  World  for  prehensile  tails. 

In  the  boundless  forests  of  tropical  South  America,  the  monkeys  form  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  mammalian  inhabitants,  for  each  species,  though  often  confined 
within  narrow  limits,  generally  consists  of  a  large  number  of  individuals.  The  various 
arboreal  fruits  which  the  savage  population  of  these  immeasurable  wilds  is  unable  to 
turn  to  advantage,  fall  chiefly  to  their  share ;  many  of  them  also  live  upon  insects. 
They  are  never  seen  in  the  open  campos  and  savannas,  as  they  never  touch  the  ground 
unless  compelled  by  the  greatest  necessity.  The  trees  of  the  forest  furnish  them  with 
all  the  food  they  require  in  inexhaustible  abundance.  For  their  perpetual  wanderings 
from  branch  to  branch,  nature  has  bountifully  endowed  many  of  them  not  only  with 
robust  and  muscular  limbs,  and  large  hands,  whose  moist  palms  facilitate  the  seizure 
of  a  bough,  but  in  many  cases  also  with  a  prehensile  tail,  which  may  deservedly  be 
called  a  fifth  hand,  and  is  hardly  less  wonderful  in  its  structure  than  the  proboscis  of 
the  elephant.  Covered  with  short  hair,  and  completely  bare  underneath  towards  the 
end,  this  admirable  organ  rolls  round  the  boughs  as  though  it  were  a  supple  finger, 
and  is  at  the  same  time  so  muscular,  that  the  monkey  frequently  swings  with  it  from 
a  branch  like  the  pendulum  of  a  clock. 

Scarce  has  he  grasped  a  bough  with  his  long  arms,  when  immediately  coiling  his 
fifth  hand  round  the  branch,  he  springs  on  to  the  next,  and  secure  from  a  fall,  hurries 
so  rapidly  through  the  crowns  of  the  highest  trees  that  the  sportsman's  ball  has  scarce 
time  to  reach  him  in  his  flight.  When  the  Miriki  (Ateles  hypoxanthus),  the  largest 
of  the  Brazilian  monkeys,  sitting  or  stretched  out  at  full  length,  suns  himself  on  a 
high  branch,  his  tail  suffices  to  support  him  in  his  aerial  resting-place,  and  even  when 
mortally  wounded,  he  remains  a  long  time  suspended  by  it,  until  life  being  quite 
extinct,  his  heavy  body,  whizzing  through  the  air,  and  breaking  many  a  bough  as  it 
descends,  falls  with  a  loud  crash  to  the  ground.  The  famous  wourali  poison  is  alone 
capable  of  instantly  annihilating  his  muscular  powers,  and  of  sparing  the  wounded 
animal  a  long  and  painful  agony.  Slow  and  with  noiseless  step,  so  as  scarcely  to  dis- 
turb the  fallen  leaves  beneath  his  feet,  the  wily  Indian  approaches.  His  weapons  are 
strange  and  peculiar,  and  of  so  slight  an  appearance  as  to  form  a  wondrous  contrast  to 
their  terrific  power.  A  colossal  species  of  bamboo  {Arundinaria  Schomhurffkii), 
whose  perfectly  cylindrical  culm  often  rises  to  the  hight  of  fifteen  feet  from  the  root 
before  it  forms  its  first  knot,  furnishes  him  with  his  blow-pipe,  and  the  slender  arrows 
which  he  sends  forth  with  unerring  certainty  of  aim  are  made  of  the  leaf-stalks  of  a 
species  of  palm  tree  {Maximiliana  regia),  hard  and  brittle,  and  sharp-pointed  as  a 
44 


690  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

needle.  One  would  hardly  suppose  these  fragile  missiles  capable  of  inflicting  the 
slightest  wound  at  any  distance,  and  yet  they  strike  more  surely  and  effectually  than 
the  rifleman's  bullet,  for  their  point  is  dipped  in  the  deadly  juice  of  the  Strychnos 
Urari,  whose  venomous  powers  are  not  inferior  to  those  of  the  dreaded  bushmaster  or 
the  fatal  cobra. 

The  savage  tribes  of  the  South  American  woods  know  how  to  poison  their  arrows 
with  the  juices  of  various  plants,  but  none  equals  this  in  virulence  and  certainty  of 
execution,  and  yearly  the  Indians  of  the  Orinoco,  the  Rio  Negro,  and  even  of  the 
Amazon,  wander  to  the  Camuku  Mountains  to  purchase  by  barter  the  renowned 
Urari  or  Wourali  poison  of  the  Macusis.  How  they  made  the  discovery  of  its  powers 
is  unknown ;  at  all  events  the  combination  of  so  many  means  for  the  attainment  of 
the  end  in  view  —  the  preparation  of  the  poison,  the  blow-pipe,  the  arrows  —  denotes 
a  high  degree  of  ingenuity,  and  shows  at  once  the  infinite  superiority  of  the  savage 
over  the  monkey.  In  a  less  concentrated  or  diluted  form  the  wourali  poison  merely 
benumbs  or  stuns  the  faculties  without  killing,  and  is  thus  made  use  of  by  the  Indians 
when  they  wish  to  catch  an  old  monkey  alive  and  tame  him  for  sale.  On  his  falling 
to  the  ground  they  immediately  sUck  the  wound,  and  wrapping  him  up  in  a  straight- 
jacket  of  palm  leaves,  dose  him  for  a  few  days  with  sugar-cane  juice,  or  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  saltpetre.  This  method  generally  answers  the  purpose,  but  .should  his  stubborn 
temper  not  yet  be  subdued,  they  hang  him  up  in  smoke.  Then  after  a  short  time  his 
rage  gives  way,  and  his  wild  eye,  assuming  a  plaintive  expression,  humbly  sues  for 
deliverance.  His  bonds  are  now  loosened,  and  even  the  most  unmanageable  monkey 
seems  henceforward  totally  to  forget  that  he  ever  roamed  at  liberty  in  the  boundless 
woods. 

In  general,  however,  the  American  simiae  are  distinguished  by  a  much  milder  dis- 
position than  those  of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  and  retain  at  an  advanced  age  the  play- 
ful manners  of  their  youth.  They  are  commonly  more  easy  to  tame,  and  learn  many 
little  tricks  which  are  taught  with  much  greater  difficulty  to  their  restless  Asiatic  or 
African  cousins.  Their  weakness,  their  short  canine  teeth,  their  good  temper,  render 
them  harmless  play-fellows,  and  thus  they  are  generally  preferred  in  Europe  to  the 
Old  World  monkeys,  though  they  are  not  so  lively,  and  constantly  have  a  more  or  less 
dejected  mien,  as  if  they  still  regretted  the  primitive  freedom  of  the  forest. 

The  American  monkeys  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  two  large  groups ;  with 
or  without  a  prehensile  tail.  To  the  first  great  subdivision  belong  the  Howling 
Monkeys  or  Aluates  [Mycetes),  the  Spider  Monkeys  (Ateles),  the  Sajous,  and  several 
other  intermediate  genera. 

The  Aluates  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  their  stentorian  powers,  which  no  other 
animal  can  equal  or  approach.  When  the  nocturnal  howl  of  the  large  red  Aluate 
(Mycetes  ursiniis)  bursts  forth  from  the  woods,  you  would  suppose  that  all  the  beasts 
of  the  forest  were  collecting  for  the  work  of  carnage.  Now  it  is  the  tremendous  roar 
of  the  jaguar  as  he  springs  on  his  prey ;  now  it  changes  to  his  terrible  and  deep-toned 
growlings  as  he  is  pressed  on  all  sides  by  superior  force ;  and  now  you  hear  his  last 
dying  moan,  beneath  a  mortal  wound.  Some  naturalists  have  supposed  that  these 
awful  sounds  can  only  proceed  from  a  number  of  the  red  monkeys  howling  in  concert, 
but  one  of  them  alone  is  equal  to  the  task.  In  dark  and  cloudy  weather,  and  just 
before  a  squall  of  rain,  the  aluate  often  howls  in  the  day-time ;  and  on  advancing 


VARIOUS  MONKEY-TRIBES.  -  G91 

cautiously  to  the  high  and  tufted  tree  where  he  is  sitting,  one  may  then  have  a  won- 
derful opportunity  of  seeing  the  large  lump  in  his  throat,  tlie  sounding-board  which 
gives  such  volume  to  his  voice,  move  up  and  down  as  he  exerts  his  stentorian  lungs. 
Poppig  compares  the  hcTwling  of  the  aluate  to  the  noise  of  ungreased  cart  wheels,  but, 
very  much  stronger,  and  affirms  that  it  may  be  heard  at  tlic  distance  of  a  league. 

Like  the  African  Colobi,  the  Ateles,  or  Spider  Monkeys,  have  no  thumb  on  their 
fore-hands ;  their  voice  is  a  soft  and  flute-like  whistling,  resembling  the  piping  of  a 
bird.  It  is  said  that  when  a  mother  burthened  with  lier  young  hesitates  to  take  too 
wide  a  leap,  jjaterfamilias  seizes  the  branch  she  intends  to  reach,  and  swings  himself 
to  and  fro  with  it,  until  his  companion  is  able  to  attain  it  by  a  spring.  But  when  a 
young  monkey  that  is  already  sufiiciently  strong  is  fearful,  the  mother,  to  give  him 
courage,  repeats  the  manoeuvre  several  times  before  him.  The  spider  monkeys  live  in 
more  or  less  numerous  troops,  and  chiefly  subsist  on  insects,  though  when  near  the  sea 
they  will  also  come  down  upon  the  beach  and  feed  on  mollusks,  particularly  on 
oysters,  whose  shells  they  are  said  to  crack  with  a  stone. 

The  second  group  of  American  monkeys,  consisting  of  those  with  a  non-prehensile 
tail,  comprises  the  sakis,  the  saimiris,  the  ouistitis,  ^tc.  The  Sakis,  or  Fox-tailed 
Monkeys,  are  distinguished  by  their  bushy  tail,  which,  however,  in  some  species,  is 
very  short.  They  usually  live  in  the  outskirts  of  forests,  in  small  societies  of  ten  or 
twelve.  Upon  the  slightest  provocation,  they  display  a  morose  and  savage  temper, 
and,  like  the  howling  monkeys,  utter  loud  cries  before  sunrise  and  after  sunset. 

The  elegant  ease  of  their  movements,  their  soft  fur,  the  large  size  of  their  brilliant 
eyes,  and  their  little  round  face,  entitle  the  Saimiris  to  be  called  the  most  graceful  of 
monkeys.  Humboldt,  who  frequently  observed  them  in  tropical  America,  tells  us 
that  they  are  extremely  affectionate,  and  that  when  oSfended,  their  eyes  immediately 
swim  in  tears.  On  speaking  to  them  for  some  time,  they  listen  with  great  attention, 
and  soon  lay  their  tiny  hand  upon  the  speaker's  mouth,  as  if  to  catch  the  words  as 
they  pass  through  his  lips.  They  recognize  the  objects  represented  in  an  engraving 
even  when  not  colored,  and  endeavored  to  seize  the  pictured  fruits  or  insects.  The 
latter,  and  particularly  spiders,  which  they  catch  most  dexterously  with  their  lips  or 
hands,  seem  to  be  their  favorite  food.  The  weak  little  creatures  are  very  fond  of 
being  carried  about  by  larger  monkeys,  and  cling  fast  to  their  back.  At  flrst  the 
animal  to  which  they  thus  attach  themselves  endeavors  to  get  rid  of  its  burden  ;  but 
finding  it  impossible,  it  soon  becomes  reconciled  to  its  fote,  and  after  a  short  time  an 
intimate  affection  arises  between  them,  so  that  when  the  saimiri  is  busy  chasing  insects, 
his  friend,  before  leaving  the  spot,  first  gives  him  notice  by  a  gentle  cry.  A  similar 
dependent  and  affectionate  intercourse  is  not  rare  among  other  species  of  monkeys. 

The  habits  of  the  Nyctopitheci,  or  nocturnal  monkeys,  bear  a  great  resemblance  to 
those  of  the  bats  or  flying  foxes.  The  shy  and  quiet  little  animals  sleep  by  day  con- 
cealed in  the  dense  thickets  of  the  forest.  Their  eye  and  motions  are  completely 
feline.  Those  which  Von  Martins  observed  in  his  collection,  crept  by  day  into  a 
corner  of  the  cage,  but  after  sunset  their  agility  made  up  for  their  diurnal  torpor. 

In  Guiana,  Schomburgk  met  with  the  Nyctipithecus  trivirgatus  as  a  domestic 
animal.  "  A  very  neat  little  monkey,  shy  of  light  as  the  owl  or  the  bat.  A  .small 
round  head,  extremely  large  yellow  eyes,  shining  in  the  dark  stronger  than  those  of 
the  cat,  and  tiny  short  ears,  give  it  a  peculiarly  comical  appearance.     When  disturbed 


692  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

in  its  diurnal  sleep  and  dragged  forth  to  the  light,  its  helpless  movements  excite  com- 
passion ;  it  gropes  about  as  if  blind,  and  lays  hold  of  the  first  object  that  comes 
■within  its  reach,  often  pressing  its  face  against  it  to  escape  the  intolerable  glare.  The 
darkest  -corner  of  the  hut  is  its  seat  of  predilection,  where  it  lies  during  day  in  a  per- 
fect asphyxia,  from  which  it  can  only  be  roused  by  blows.  But  soon  after  sunset  it 
leaves  its  retreat,  and  then  it  is  impossible  to  see  a  more  lively,  active,  and  merry 
creature.  From  hammock  it  springs  to  hammock,  generally  licking  the  faces  of  the 
sleepers,  and  from  the  floor  to  the  rafters  of  the  roof,  overturning  all  that  is  not 
sufficiently  fastened  to  resist  its  curiosity."  Its  voice  is  remarkably  strong,  and,  ac- 
cording to  Humboldt,  is  said  to  resemble  the  jaguar's  roar,  for  which  reason  it  is  called 
the  Tiger  Monkey  in  the  missions  along  the  Orinoco.  It  lives  chiefly  on  nocturnal 
insects,  thinning  their  ranks  like  the  bat,  but  is  also  said  to  prey  upon  small  birds  like 
the  owl. 

The  Ouistitis,  or  Squirrel  Monkeys,  are  distinguished  from  all  the  other  American 
quadrumana  by  the  claws  with  which  all  their  fingers  except  the  thumbs  of  their  hands 
are  provided,  and  which  render  them  excellent  service  in  climbing.  They  have  a  very 
soft  fur,  and  are  extremely  light  and  graceful  in  their  movements,  as  well  as  elegant 
in  their  forms.  The  young  are  often  not  bigger  than  a  mouse,  and  even  a  full  grown 
ouistiti  is  hardly  larger  than  a  squirrel,  whom  it  resembles  both  in  its  mode  of  life, 
and  by  its  restless  activity,  as  its  little  head  is  never  quiet.  They  use  their  tail, 
which  in  many  species  is  handsomely  marked  by  transverse  bars,  as  a  protection 
against  the  cold,  to  which  they  are  acutely  sensitive.  Their  numerous  species  are  dis- 
persed over  all  the  forests  of  tropical  America,  where  they  live  as  well  upon  fruits  and 
nuts  as  upon  insects  and  eggs;  and  when  they  can  catch  a  little  bird,  they  suck  its 
brain  with  all  the  satisfaction  of  an  epicure.  They  are  easily  tamed,  but  very  sus- 
picious and  irritable.  Audouin  made  some  interesting  observations  on  a  pair  of  tame 
ouistitis,  which  prove  their  intelligence  to  be  far  superior  to  that  of  the  squirrels,  to 
whom  they  are  so  often  compared.  One  of  them  having  one  day,  while  regaling  on  a 
bunch  of  grapes,  squirted  some  of  the  juice  into  its  eye,  never  failed  from  that  time  to 
close  its  eyes  while  eating  of  the  fruit.  In  a  drawing  they  recognized  not  only  their 
own  likeness,  but  that  of  other  animals.  Thus  the  sight  of  a  cat,  and  what  is  still 
more  remarkable,  that  of  a  wasp,  frightened  them  very  much,  while  at  the  aspect  of 
any  other  insect,  such  as  a  cricket  or  a  cockchafer,  they  at  once  rushed  upon  the 
engraving,  as  if  anxious  to  make  a  meal  of  the  object  that  deluded  them  with  the 
semblance  of  life. 


BEASTS   AND   BIRDS   OF  PREY.  (593 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

TROPICAL  BEASTS  AND  BIRDS  OF  PREY. 

Variety  of  Carnivorous  Creatures. — Birds  of  Prey:  The  Condor — His  Marvelous  Flight — Hie 
Cowardice — Modes  of  Capturing  them — The  Turkey-Buzzard,  or  Carrion  Vulture — The 
King  of  the  Vultures — The  Urubu — Capable  of  Domestication — The  Harpy  Eagle — 
The  Sociable  Vulture— The  Bacha— The  Fishing  Eagle— The  Musical  Sparrow-IIawk— 
Tiie  Secretary  Eagle. — Beasts  of  Prey :  The  Lion — Fictitious  Character  ascribed  to  him 
— Mode  of  Seizing  his  Prey — Lions  and  Giraffe — Lion  and  Hottentot — Andersson  and  a 
Lion — Livingstone's  narrow  Escape — Lion-Hunting  in  the  Atlas — By  the  Bushmen — Cap- 
turing their  Young — Former  and  present  Range  of  the  Lion — Lion  and  Rhinoceros — 
Livingstone's  Estimate  of  the  Lion — The  Tiger — Their  Ravages  in  Java — Wide  Range  of 
the  Tiger — Tiger-Hunting  in  India — Escape  from  a  Tiger — Animals  announcing  the  Ap- 
proach of  a  Tiger — Turtle-hunting  Tigers — The  Panther  and  Leopard — Tiie  Ciieetah — 
The  Hyena — The  Spotted  and  Brown  Hyenas — The  Felidaj  of  New  "World — The  Jaguar 
— Hunting  the  Jaguar — The  Cougar,  or  Puma — The  Ocelot — The  Jaguarandi — The 
Tiger-Cat. 

ALMOST  all  birds  and  a  considerable  proportion  of  animals  are  carnivorous,  and 
notwithstanding  tbeir  differences  in  size,  may  be  strictly  designated  as  Birds 
and  Beasts  of  Prey.  The  fox  and  weasel  are  as  strictly  beasts  of  prey  as  the  lion  and 
the  tiger ;  the  sparrow  and  robin,  although  seeds  and  fruit  form  part  of  their  food,  are  as 
truly  birds  of  prey  as  the  eagle  and  the  vulture.  A  sparrow  will,  indeed,  in  the  course, 
of  a  single  day,  probably  destroy  more  individual  living  creatures  than  an  eagle  will 
in  his  whole  life-time ;  a  fox  in  a  year  more  than  a  lion  in  the  half  century  which  he 
is  supposed  to  live.  We  shall  here,  however,  confine  ourselves  wholly  to  the  larger 
species  of  birds  and  beasts  of  prey,  commencing  with  the  former. 

The  flight  of  the  Condor  is  truly  wonderful.  From  the  mountain-plains  of  the 
Andes,  the  royal  bird,  soaring  aloft,  appears  only  like  a  small  black  speck  on  the  sky, 
and  a  few  hours  afterwards  he  descends  to  the  coast  and  mixes  his  loud  screech  with 
the  roar  of  the  surf.  No  living  creature  rises  voluntarily  so  high,  none  traverses  in 
so  short  a  time  all  the  climates  of  the  globe.  He  rests  at  night  in  the  crevices  of  the 
rocks,  or  on  some  jutting  ledge ;  but  as  soon  as  the  first  rays  of  the  sun  liglit  the 
summits  of  the  mountains,  while  the  darkness  of  night  still  rests  upon  the  deeper 
valleys,  he  stretches  forth  his  neck,  shakes  his  head  as  if  fully  to  rouse  himself,  stoops 
over  the  brink  of  the  abyss,  and  flapping  his  wings,  dives  into  the  aerial  ocean.  At 
first  his  flight  is  by  no  means  strong ;  he  sinks  as  if  borne  down  by  hi.s  weight,  but 
soon  he  ascends,  and  sweeps  through  the  rarified  atmosphere  without  any  perceptible 
vibratory  motion  of  the  wings.  "  Near  Lima,"  says  Mr.  Darwin,  "  I  watched  several 
condors  for  nearly  half  an  hour  without  once  taking  off  my  eyes.  They  moved  in 
large  curves,  sweeping  in  circles,  descending  and  ascending  without  once  flapping. 


694:  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

As  they  glided  close  over  my  head,  I  intently  watched  from  an  oblique  position  the 
outlines  of  the  separate  and  terminal  feathers  of  the  wing ;  if  there  had  been  the 
least  vibratory  movement  these  would  have  blended  together,  but  they  were  seen  dis- 
tinct ao-ainst  the  blue  sky.  The  head  and  neck  were  moved  frequently  and  apparently 
with  force,  and  it  appeared  that  the  extended  wings  formed  the  fulcrum  on  which  the 
movements  of  the  neck,  body,  and  tail  acted.  If  the  bird  wished  to  descend,  the 
wino-s  were  for  a  moment  collapsed,  and  then,  when  again  expanded  with  an  altered 
inclination,  the  momentum  gained  by  the  rapid  descent  seemed  to  urge  the  bird  up- 
wards with  the  even  and  steady  movement  of  a  paper  kite." 

According  to  Humboldt  and  D'Orbigny,  the  condor  is  a  contemptible  coward,  whom 
the  stick  of  a  child  is  able  to  put  to  flight.  Far  from  venturing  to  attack  any  full- 
grown,  larger  animal — the  llama,  the  ox,  or  even  man,  as  former  travelers  asserted — 
he  feeds,  like  other  vultures,  only  upon  dead  carcasses,  or  on  new-born  lambs  and 
calves,  whom  he  tears  from  the  side  of  their  mothers.  He  thus  does  so  much  damage 
to  the  herds,  that  the  shepherds  pursue  and  kill  him  whenever  they  can.  As  even  a 
bullet  frequently  glances  off  from  his  thick  feathery  coat,  the  natives  never  use  fire- 
arms for  his  destruction,  but  make  use  of  various  traps,  of  the  sling,  or  of  the  bolas, 
which  they  are  able  to  throw  with  such  marvelous  dexterity.  In  the  Peruvian  province 
of  Abacay,  an  Indian  provided  with  cords  conceals  himself  under  a  fresh  cow's  skin, 
to  which  some  pieces  of  flesh  are  left  attached.  The  condors  soon  pounce  upon  the 
prey,  but  while  they  are  feasting  he  fastens  their  legs  to  the  skin.  This  being  accom- 
plished, he  suddenly  comes  forth,  and  the  alarmed  birds  vainly  flap  their  wings,  for 
other  Indians  hurry  towards  them,  throw  their  mantles  or  their  lassos  over  them,  and 
carry  the  condors  to  their  village,  where  they  are  reserved  for  the  next  bull-fight. 
For  a  full  week  before  this  spectacle  is  to  take  place,  the  bird  gets  nothing  to  eat,  and 
is  then  bound  upon  the  back  of  a  bull  which  has  previously  been  scarified  with  lances. 
The  bellowing  of  the  poor  animal,  lacerated  by  the  famished  vulture,  and  vainly 
endeavoring  to  cast  off"  its  tormentor,  amuses  what  may  well  be  called  the  "swinish 
multitude."  In  the  province  of  Huarochirin  there  is  a  large  natural  funnel-shaped 
excavation,  about  sixty  feet  deep,  with  a  diameter  of  about  eighty  feet  at  the  top.  A 
dead  mule  is  placed  on  the  brink  of  the  precipice.  The  tugging  of  the  condors  at  the 
dead  carcass  causes  it  to  fall  into  the  hole ;  they  follow  it  with  greedy  haste,  and 
having  gorged  themselves  with  food,  are  unable  again  to  rise  from  the  narrow  bottom 
of  the  funnel.  Tschudi  saw  the  Indians  kill  at  once,  with  sticks,  twenty-eight  of  the 
birds  which  had  been  thus  entrapped.  In  a  somewhat  similar  manner  condors  are 
caught  in  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Chili,  as  far  as  their  range  extends,  and  are  frequently 
brought  to  Valparaiso  and  Callao,  where  they  are  sold  for  a  few  dollars  to  the  foreign 
ships,  and  thence  conveyed  to  Europe. 

The  condor,  though  a  very  large  bird,  about  four  feet  long,  and  measuring  at  least 
three  yards  from  tip  to  tip  of  his  extended  wings,  is  far  from  attaining  the  dimensions 
assigned  to  him  by  the  earlier  writers  and  naturalists,  who,  emulating  Sindbad  the  Sailor, 
in  his  account  of  the  roc,  described  him  as  a  giant  whose  bulk  darkened  the  air.  For- 
tunately the  works  of  nature  do  not  require  the  exaggerations  of  fiction  to  be  rendered 
interesting,  and  the  marvels  of  organic  nature  which  scientific  inquiries  reveal  are  far 
more  wonderful  than  any  which  romancers  may  invent. 

While  the  condor  is  considered  an  enemy  to  man,  the  Gallinazos,  Turkey-buzzards, 


VULTURES— BUZZARDS.  (jfJ5 

or  common  American  Carrion  Vultures  (  Vultur  aura,  V.  uruhu),  are  very  servicoaMe 
to  him,  by  consuming  the  animal  offals  which,  if  left  to  putrefaction,  would  produce  a 
pestilence.  Thus  they  generally,  in  tropical  America,  enjoy  the  protection  of  the  law, 
a  heavy  fine,  amounting  in  some  towns  to  $300,  being  imposed  upon  the  offender 
who  wantonly  kills  one  of  these  scavengers.  It  is  consequently  not  to  be  wondered 
at  that,  like  domestic  birds,  they  congregate  in  flocks  in  the  streets  of  Lima,  and  .sleep 
upon  the  roofs  of  the  houses.  In  1808,  Waterton  saw  the  vultures  in  Angostura  as 
tame  as  barn-fowls ;  a  person  who  had  never  seen  one  would  have  taken  them  for 
turkeys.  They  were  very  useful  to  the  citizens ;  had  it  not  been  for  them,  the  refuse 
of  the  slaughter-houses  would  have  caused  an  intolerable  nuisance.  The  Aura  is  dark- 
brown  black,  with  a  red  and  naked  head  and .  neck,  covered  with  wrinkles  and  warts ; 
the  Urubu  is  very  similar,  only  the  head  and  neck  are  gray-black,  but  equally  wrinkled 
and  ugly.  The  latter  ranges  over  South  America  in  countless  numbers,  as  D'Orbigny 
witnessed  on  a  visit  to  a  hacienda  on  the  river  Plata,  where  12,000  oxen  had  been 
killed  for  salting.  During  this  wholesale  massacre,  which  lasted  several  months,  the 
bones  and  entrails  were  cast  along  the  banks  of  the  stream,  where  at  Ibast  10,000 
urubus  had  congregated  to  enjoy  the  banquet.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that,  though 
hundreds  of  gallinazos  may  be  feeding  upon  a  carcase,  they  immediately  retire  when 
the  King  of  the  Vultures  {Sarcorawphus  papa)  makes  his  appearance,  who  yet  is  not 
larger  than  themselves.  Perching  on  the  neighboring  trees,  they  wait  till  his  majesty 
—  a  beautiful  bird,  -with  head  and  neck  gaudily  colored  with  scarlet,  orange,  blue, 
brown  and  white — has  sufficiently  gorged  himself,  and  then  pounce  down  with  increa.sed 
voracity  upon  their  disgusting  meal.  According  to  Humboldt,  they  are  intimidated 
by  the  greater  boldness  of  the  sarcoramphus.  The  true  reason  of  their  homage,  how- 
ever, seems  to  be  the  fear  they  entertain  for  the  more  powerful  beak  of  the  "  king," 
who,  from  a  similar  motive,  gives  way  to  the  still  mightier  condor. 

The  Indians  of  Guiana  sometimes  amuse  themselves  with  catching  one  of  the  urubus 
by  means  of  a  piece  of  meat  attached  to  a  hook,  and  decking  him  with  a  variety  of 
strange  feathers,  which  they  attach  to  him  with  soft  wax.  Thus  travestied,  they  turn 
him  out  again  among  his  comrades,  who,  to  their  great  delight,  fly  in  terror  from  the 
nondescript ;  and  it  is  only  after  wind  and  weather  have  stripped  him  of  his  finery 
that  the  outlaw  is  once  more  admitted  into  urubu  society.  When  full  of  food  this  vul- 
ture, like  the  other  members  of  his  tribe,  certainly  appears  an  indolent  bird.  He  will 
stand  for  hours  together  on  the  branch  of  a  tree,  or  on  the  top  of  a  house,  with  his 
wings  drooping,  or  after  rain,  spreading  them  to  catch  the  rays  of  the  sun.  But  when 
in  quest  of  prey,  he  may  be  seen  soaring  aloft  on  pinions  which  never  flutter,  and 
which  at  the  same  time  carry  him  with  a  rapidity  equal  to  that  of  the  golden  eagle. 
Scarcely  has  he  espied  a  piece  of  carrion  below,  when,  folding  his  broad  wings,  he 
descends  with  such  speed  as  to  produce  a  whistling  sound,  resembling  that  of  an  arrow 
cleaving  the  air. 

The  gallinazos  when  taken  young  can  be  so  easily  tamed  that  tlicy  will  follnw  the 
person  who  feeds  them  for  many  miles.  Relying  on  their  inviolability,  the  gallinazos, 
like  chartered  libertines,  are  uncommonly  bold,  and  during  tlie  distributions  of  meat 
to  the  Indians,  which  regularly  take  place  every  fortnight  in  the  South  American 
Missions,  they  not  seldom  come  in  for  their  share  by  dint  of  impudence.  In  Concep- 
cion  de  Mojos,  an  Indian  told  M.  D'Orbigny,  who  was  present  on  one  of  those  occasions, 


696  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

that  he  would  soon  have  the  opportunity  of  seeing  a  most  notorious  thief,  well  known 
by  his  lame  leg ;  and  the  bird,  making  his  appearance  soon  after,  completely  justified 
his  reputation.  The  traveler  was  also  informed  that  this  urubu  knew  perfectly  well 
the  days  of  distribution  in  the  different  missions;  and  eight  days  later,  while  witness- 
ing a  similar  scene  at  Magdalena,  twenty  leagues  distant,  he  heard  the  Indians  exclaim, 
and  looking  up  saw  his  lame  acquaintance  of  Concepcion  hurrying  to  the  spot,  with 
the  anxious  mien  of  one  that  is  afraid  of  missing  a  meal.  The  padres  in  both  missions 
assured  hini  that  the  vulture  never  failed  to  make  his  appearance  at  the  stated  time ; 
a  remarkable  instance  of  memory,  or  highly  developed  instinct  in  a  bird.  "  If  you 
dissect  a  vulture,"  says  Waterton,  "  that  has  just  been  feeding  on  carrion,  you  must 
expect  that  your  olfactory  nerves  will  be  somewhat  offended  with  the  rank  effluvia 
from  his  craw,  just  as  they  would  be  were  you  to  dissect  a  citizen  after  the  lord-mayor's 
dinner.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  vulture  be  empty  at  the  time  you  commence  the  oper- 
ation, there  will  be  no  offensive  smell,  but  a  strong  scent  of  musk." 

The  Harpy  Eagle  ( Thrasa'etus  harpyw)  is  one  of  the  finest  of  all  the  rapacious 
birds.  The  enormous  development  of  his  beak  and  legs,  and  his  consequent  strength 
and  power  in  mastering  his  prey,  correspond  with  his  bold  and  noble  bearing,  and  the 
fierce  lustre  of  his  eye.  His  whole  aspect  is  that  of  formidably  organized  power,  and  even 
the  crest  adds  much  to  his  terrific  appearance.  "  Among  many  singular  birds  and 
curiosities,"  says  Mr.  Edwards,  in  his  "  Voyage  up  the  Amazon,"  "  that  were  brought 
to  us,  was  a  young  harpy  eagle,  a  most  ferocious  looking  character,  with  a  harpy's 
crest  and  a  beak  and  talons  in  correspondence.  He  was  turned  loose  into  the  garden, 
and  before  long  gave  us  a  sample  of  his  powers.  With  erected  crest  and  flashing 
eyes,  uttering  a  frightful  shriek,  he  pounced  upon  a  young  ibis,  and  quicker  than 
thought  had  torn  his  reeking  liver  from  his  body.  The  whole  animal  world  there  was 
wild  with  fear." 

The  harpy  attains  a  greater  size  than  the  common  eagle.  He  chiefly  resides  in  the 
damp  lowlands  of  tropical  America,  where  Prince  Maximilian  of  Neu  Wied  met  with 
him  only  in  the  dense  forests,  perched  on  the  high  branches.  The  monkey,  vaulting 
by  means  of  his  tail  from  tree  to  tree,  mocks  the  pursuit  of  the  tiger-cat  and  boa,  but 
woe  to  him  if  the  harpy  spies  him  out,  for,  seizing  him  with  lightning-like  rapidity,  he 
cleaves  his  skull  with  one  single  stroke  of  his  beak.  Fear  seems  to  be  totally  unknown 
to  this  noble  bird,  and  he  defends  himself  to  the  last  moment.  D'Orbigny  relates 
that  one  day,  while  descending  a  Bolivian  river  in  a  boat  with  some  Indians,  they 
severely  wounded  a  harpy  with  their  arrows,  so  that  it  fell  from  the  branch  on  which 
it  had  been  struck.  Stepping  out  of  the  canoe,  the  savages  now  rushed  to  the  spot 
where  the  bird  lay,  knocked  it  on  the  head,  and  tearing  out  the  feathers  of  its  wings, 
brought  it  for  dead  to  the  boat.  Yet  the  harpy  awakened  from  his  trance,  and  furi- 
ously attacked  his  persecutors.  Throwing  himself  upon  D'Orbigny,  he  pierced  his 
hand  through  and  through  with  the  only  talon  that  had  been  left  unhurt,  while  the 
mangled  remains  of  the  other  tore  his  arm,  which  at  the  same  time  he  lacei-ated  with 
his  beak.  Two  men  were  hardly  able  to  release  the  naturalist  from  the  attacks  of  the 
ferocious  bird. 

On  turning  from  the  New  to  the  Old  World,  we  find  other  but  not  less  interesting 
predatory  birds  sweep  through  the  higher  regions  of  the  air  in  quest  of  prey.  The 
gigantic  oricou,  or  Sociable  Vulture  (  Vultur  auricularis),  inhabits  the  greater  part  of 


VULTURES— FALCONS— EAGLES.  0!)7 

Africa,  and  builds  his  nest  in  the  fissures  of  rocks  on  the  peaks  of  inaccessible  moun- 
tains. In  size  he  equals  the  condor,  measuring  upwards  of  ten  feet  across  the  wings 
expanded,  and  his  flight  is  not  less  bold  ;  leaving  his  lofty  cavern  at  dawn,  he  rises 
hio-her  and  higher,  till  he  is  lost  to  sight ;  but,  though  beyond  the  sphere  of  human 
vision,  the  telescopic  eye  of  the  bird  is  at  work.  The  moment  any  animal  sinks  to  the 
earth  in  death,  the  unseen  vulture  detects  it.  Docs  the  hunter  bring  down  some  largo 
quadruped  beyond  his  powers  to  remove,  and  leave  it  to  obtain  assistance  ? — on  his 
return,  however  speedy,  he  finds  it  surrounded  by  a  band  of  vultures,  where  not  one 
was  to  be  seen  a  quarter  of  an  hour  before.  Le  Vaillant  having  once  killed  three 
zebras,  hastened  to  his  camp,  at  about  a  league's  distance,  to  fetch  a  wagon  ;  but  on 
returning  he  found  nothing  but  the  bones,  at  which  hundreds  of  oricous  were  busy 
picking.  Another  time  having  killed  a  gazelle,  he  left  the  carcase  on  the  sand,  and 
retired  into  the  bushes  to  observe  what  would  happen.  First  came  crows,  who  with 
loud  croakings  wheeled  round  the  dead  animal ;  then,  after  a  few  minutes,  kites  and 
buzzards  appeared,  and  finally  he  saw  the  oricous  descending  in  spiral  lines  from  an 
enormous  hight.  They  alighted  upon  the  gazelle,  and  soon  hundreds  of  birds  of  prey 
were  assembled.  Thus  the  small  robbers  had  first  pointed  out  the  way  to  tliose  of 
middle  size,  who  in  their  turn  roused  the  attention  of  the  bandits  of  a  higher  order ; 
and  none  of  them  came  too  short,  for  after  the  powerful  oricous  had  dismembered  the 
carcase,  some  very  good  morsels  remained  for  the  buzzards,  and  the  bones  furni.shed 
excellent  pickings  for  the  crows. 

The  Bacha  {Falco  bacha)  inhabits  India  and  Africa,  where  he  sits  for  days  on  the 
peak  of  precipitous  cliffs,  on  the  look  out  for  rock-rabbits  {Hijrax  capensis).  These 
poor  animals,  who  have  good  reason  to  be  on  their  guard,  venture  only  with  the  great- 
est caution  to  peep  out  of  their  caves  and  crevices  in  which  they  take  up  their  abode, 
and  to  which  they  owe  their  Dutch  name  of  "klipdachs."  IMeanwhile  the  bacha  re- 
mains immoval)le,  as  if  he  were  part  of  the  rock  on  which  he  perches,  his  head  muffled 
up  in  his  shoulders,  but  watching  with  a  sharp  eye  every  movement  of  his  prey,  until, 
finally,  some  unfortunate  klipdachs  venturing  forth,  he  darts  upon  him  like  a  thunder- 
bolt. If  this  rapid  attack  proves  unsuccessful,  the  bacha  slinks  away,  ashamed,  like 
a  lion  that  has  missed  his  spring,  and  seeks  some  new  observatory,  for  he  is  well  aware 
that  no  rock-rabbit  in  the  neighborhood  will  venture  to  stroll  out  during  the  remainder 
of  the  day.  But  if  he  succeeds  in  seizing  the  klipdachs  before  it  has  time  to  leap 
away,  he  carries  it  to  a  rocky  ledge,  and  slowly  tears  it  to  pieces.  The  terrible  cries 
of  the  animal  appear  to  sound  like  music  in  his  ears,  as  if  he  were  not  only  satisfying 
his  hunger  but  rejoicing  in  the  torments  of  an  enemy.  This  scene  of  cruelty  spreads 
terror  far  and  wide,  and  for  a  long  time  no  klipdachs  will  be  seen  where  the  bacha  has 
held  his  bloody  repast. 

The  Fishing  Eagle  of  Africa  ( Halicetus  vocifcr),  first  noticed  by  Le  Vaillant,  may  be 
seen  hovering  about  the  coasts  and  river-mouths  of  that  vast  continent.  He  is  never 
found  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  as  the  African  streams  are  but  thinly  stocked 
with  fish,  which  form  his  principal  food.  Elastic  and  buoyant,  this  agile  dweller  in 
the  air  mounts  to  soaring  heights,  scanning  with  sharp  and  piercing  eye  the  motions 
of  his  prey  below.  Energetic  in  his  movements,  impetuous  in  his  appetites,  he  pounces 
with  the  velocity  of  a  meteor  on  the  object  of  his  wishes,  and  with  a  wild  and  savage 
joy  tears  it  to  pieces.     His  whole  sense  of  existence  is  the  procuring  of  food,  and  for 


698  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

this  he  is  ever  on  the  alert,  ever  ready  to  combat,  to  ravage,  and  destroy.  He  gen- 
erally devours  bis  prey  on  the  nearest  rock,  and  loves  to  return  to  the  same  spot  where 
the  bones  of  gazelles  and  lizards  may  be  seen  lying  about,  a  proof  that  his  appetite  is 
not  solely  confined  to  the  finny  tribes.  When  these  birds  are  sitting,  they  call  and 
answer  each  other  with  a  variously-toned  shrieli,  which  they  utter  under  curious  move- 
ments of  the  head  and  neck. 

While  all  other  predatory  birds  croak  or  shriek,  the  musical  Sparrow-Hawk  of  Africa 
(^Melierca  miisiciis)  pours  forth  his  morning  and  evening  notes  to  entertain  his  mate 
while  she  is  performing  the  duties  of  incubation.  Every  song  lasts  a  minute,  and  then 
the  hunter  may  approach,  but  during  the  pause  he  is  obliged  to  remain  perfectly  quiet, 
as  then  the  bird  hears  the  least  noise  and  immediately  flies  away. 

The  prowess  of  the  Secretary-eagle  {Serpentarius  cristatus)  attacking  the  most 
venomous  serpents  has  already  been  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  those  noxious  rep- 
tiles. The  long  legs  of  this  useful  bird,  which  owes  its  name  of  "  Secretary  "  to  the  crest 
on  the  back  of  its  head,  reminding  one  of  the  pen  stuck  behind  the  ear,  according  to 
the  custom  o^  writing  clerks,  might  give  one  reason  to  reckon  it,  at  first  sight,  among 
the  cranes  or  storks,  but  its  curved  beak  and  internal  organization  prove  it  to  belong 
to  the  falcon  tribe.  Its  feet  being  incapable  of  grasping,  it  keeps  constantly  on  the 
ground  in  sandy  and  open  places,  and  runs  with  such  speed  as  to  be  able  to  overtake 
the  most  agile  reptiles.  The  destruction  it  causes  in  their  ranks  must  be  great  indeed, 
for  Le  Vaillant  mentions  that  having  killed  one  of  these  birds  he  found  in  its  crop 
eleven  rather  large  lizards,  three  serpents  of  an  arm's  length,  and  eleven  small  tor- 
toises, besides  a  number  of  locusts,  beetles,  and  other  insects. 

The  majestic  form,  the  noble  bearing,  the  stately  stride,  the  fine  proportions,  the 
piercing  eye,  and  the  dreadful  roar  of  the  Lion,  striking  terror  into  the  heart  of  every 
other  animal,  all  combine  to  mark  him  with  the  stamp  of  royalty.  All  nerve,  all 
muscle,  his  enormous  strength  shows  itself  in  the  tremendous  bound  with  which  he 
rushes  upon  his  prey,  in  the  rapid  motions  of  his  tail,  one  stroke  of  which  is  able  to 
fell  the  strongest  man  to  the  ground,  and  in  the  expressive  wrinkling  of  his  brow.  No 
wonder  that,  ever  inclined  to  judge  from  outward  appearances,  and  to  attribute  to  ex- 
ternal beauty  analogous  qualities  of  mind,  man  has  endowed  the  lion  with  a  nobility 
of  character  which  he  in  reality  does  not  possess.  For  modern  travelers,  who  have 
had  occasion  to  observe  him  in  his  native  wilds,  far  from  awarding  him  the  praise  of 
chivalrous  generosity  and  noble  daring,  rather  describe  him  as  a  mean  spirited  robber, 
prowling  about  at  night  time  in  order  to  surprise  a  weaker  prey. 

The  lion  is  distinguished  from  all  other  members  of  the  feline  tribe  by  the  uniform 
color  of  his  tawny  skin,  by  the  black  tuft  at  the  end  of  his  tail,  and  particularly  by  the 
long  and  sometimes  blackish  mane,  which  he  is  able  to  bristle  when  under  the  influence 
of  passion,  and  which  contributes  so  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  male,  while  it  is  wanting 
in  the 'lioness,  who  is  very  inferior  in  size  and  comeliness  to  her  stately  mate.  His 
chief  food  consists  of  the  flesh  of  the  larger  herbivorous  animals,  very  few  of  which 
he  is  unable  to  master,  and  the  swift-footed  antelope  has  no  greater  enemy  than  he. 
Concealed  in  the  high  rushes  on  the  river's  bank,  he  lies  in  ambush  For  the  timorous 
herd,  which  at  night-fall  approaches  the  water  \o  quench  its  thirst.  Slowly  and  cau- 
tiously the  children  of  the  waste  advance  ;  they  listen  with  ears  erect,  they  strain  their 


THE   LION   AND  HIS   PREY. 


(m 


eyes  to  penetrate  the  thicket's  gloom,  but  nothing  suspicious  appears  or  moves  ali)ng 
the  bank.  Long  and  deeply  they  quaff  the  delicious  draught ;  but  suddenly  with  a 
giant  spring,  like  lightning  bursting  from  a  cloud,  the  lion  bounds  upon  the  unsuspect- 
iog  revellers,  and  the  leader  of  the  herd  lies  prostrate  at  his  feet,  while  his  companions 
fly  into  the  desert. 


LIOXS    PULLING    DOWN    A    GIKAFFE. 


Andersson  is  one  of  the  very  few  who  have  ever  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  the 
lion  seizing  his  prey  in  broad  daylight.  Late  one  evening  he  had  badly  wounded  a 
lion  ;  and  on  the  following  morning  set  out  with  his  attendants,  following  the  bloody 
tracks  of  the  animal.  "  Presently,"  he  writes,  "  we  came  upon  the  '  spoor '  of  a  whole 
troop  of  lions,  as  also  that  of  a  solitary  giraffe.  So  many  tracks  confused  us,  and 
while  endeavoring  to  pick  out  from  the  rest  those  of  the  wounded  lion,  I  observed  my 
native  attendants  suddenly  rush  forward,  and  the  next  instant  the  jungle 're-echoed 
with  the  shouts  of  triumph.  Thinking  they  had  discovered  the  lion  we  were  in  pur- 
suit of,  I  also  hurried  forward ;  but  imagine  my  surprise  when  emerging  into  an  open- 
ing in  the  jungle  I  saw,  not  a  dead  lion,  as  I  expected,  but  five  living  lions— two 
males  and  three  females— two  of  whom  were  in  the  act  of  pulling  down  a  splendid 
giraffe,  the  other  three  watching  close  at  hand,  and  with  devouring  louks,  the  deadly 


700  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

strife.  The  scene  was  of  so  imposing  a  nature  that  for  the  moment  I  forgot  I  carried 
a  gun.  The  natives,  however,  in  anticipation  of  a  glorious  gorge,  dashed  madly  for- 
ward, and  with  the  most  piercing  shrieks  and  yells  compelled  the  lions  to  a  hasty 
retreat.  When  I  reached  the  giraffe,  now  stretched  at  full  length  on  the  santl,  it  made 
a  few  ineffectual  attempts  to  raise  its  neck ;  its'  body  heaved  and  quivered  for  a  mo- 
ment, and  the  next  instant  the  poor  animal  was  dead.  It  had  received  several  deep 
gashes  about  the  flanks  and  chest,  caused  by  the  claws  and  teeth  of  its  fierce  assail- 
ants. The  strong  and  tough  muscles  of  the  neck  were  also  bitten  through.  All 
thought  of  pursuing  the  wounded  lion  was  now  out  of  the  question.  The  natives 
remained  gorging  on  the  carcass  of  the  giraffe  until  it  was  devoured.  A  day  or  two 
afterward,  however,  I  had  the  good  fortune  to  fall  in  with  my  royal  antagonist,  and 
finished  him  without  difficulty." 

During  the  day-time  the  lion  seldom  attacks  man,  and  sometimes  even  when  meet- 
ing a  traveler  he  is  said  to  pass  him  by  unnoticed ;  but  when  the  shades  of  evening 
descend,  his  mood  undergoes  a  change.  After  sunset  it  is  dangerous  to  venture  into 
the  woody  and  wild  regions  of  Mount  Atlas,  for  there  the  lion  lies  in  wait,  and  there 
one  finds  him  stretched  across  the  narrow  path.  It  is  then  that  dramatic  scenes  of 
absorbing  interest  not  unfrequently  take  place.  When,  so  say  the  Bedouins,  a  single 
man  thus  meeting  with  a  lion  is  possessed  of  an  undaunted  heart,  he  advances  towards 
the  monster  brandishing  his  sword  or  flourishing  his  rifle  high  in  the  air,  and,  taking 
good  care  not  to  strike  or  to  shoot,  contents  himself  with  pouring  forth  a  torrent  of 
abuse:  "Oh,  thou  mean-spirited  thief!  thou  pitiful  waylayer  !  thou  son  of  one  that 
never  ventured  to  say  no  !  think'st  thou  I  fear  thee  ?  Knowest  thou  whose  son  I  am  ? 
Arise,  and  let  me  pass  !"  The  lion  waits  till  the  man  approaches  quite  near  to  him ; 
then  he  retires,  but  soon  stretches  himself  once  more  across  the  path ;  and  thus  by 
many  a  repeated  trial  puts  the  courage  of  the  wanderer  to  the  test.  All  the  time  the 
movements  of  the  lion  are  attended  with  a  dreadful  noise,  be  breaks  numberless 
branches  with  his  tail,  he  roars,  he  growls  ;  like  the  cat  with  the  mouse,  he  plays  with 
the  object  of  his  repeated  and  singular  attacks,  keeping  him  perpetually  suspended 
between  hope  and  fear.  If  the  man  engaged  in  this  combat  keeps  up  his  courage, — 
if,  as  the  Arabs  express  themselves,  "he  holds  fast  his  soul,"  then  the  brute  at  last 
quits  him  and  seeks  some  other  prey.  But  if  the  lion  perceives  that  he  has  to  do 
with  an  opponent  whose  courage  falters,  whose  voice  trembles,  who  does  not  venture 
to  utter  a  menace,  then  to  terrify  him  still  more  he  redoubles  the  described  manoeuvres. 
He  approaches  his  victim,  pushes  him  from  the  path,  then  leaves  him  and  approaches 
again,  and  enjoys  the  agony  of  the  wretch,  until  at  last  he  tears  him  to  pieces. 

The  lion  is  said  to  have  a  particular  liking  for  the  flesh  of  the  Hottentots,  and  it  is 
surprising  with  what  obstinacy  he  will  follow  one  of  these  unfortunate  savages.  Thus 
Mr,  Barrow  relates  the  adventure  of  a  Namaqua  Hottentot,  who,  endeavoring  to  drive 
his  master's  cattle  into  a  pool  of  water  enclosed  between  two  ridges  of  rocks,  espied  a 
huge  lion  couching  in  the  midst  of  the  pool.  Terrified  at  the  unexpected  sight  of  such 
a  beast,  that  seemed  to  have  his  eyes  fixed  upon  him,  he  instantly  took  to  his  heels. 
In  doing  this  he  had  presence  of  mind  enough  to  run  through  the  herd,  concluding 
that  if  the  lion  should  pursue  he  would  take  up  with  the  first  beast  that  presented 
itself.  In  this,  however,  he  was  mistaken.  The  lion  broke  through  the  herd,  making 
directly  after  the  Hottentot,  who,  on  turning  round  and  perceiving  that  the  monster 


ENCOUNTERS   WITH   LIONS.  701 

had  singled  him  out,  breathless  and  half  dead  with  fear,  scrambled  up  one  of  the  tree- 
aloes,  in  the  trunk  of  which  a  few  steps  had  luckily  been  cut  out  to  come  at  some 
birds'  nests  that  the  branches  contained.  At  the  same  moment  the  lion  made  a  spring 
at  him,  but  missing  his  aim,  fell  upon  the  ground.  In  surly  silence  he  walked  round 
the  tree,  easting  at  times  a  dreadful  look  towards  the  poor  Hottentot,  who  screened 
himself  from  his  sight  behind  the  branches.  Having  remained  silent  and  motionless 
for  a  length  of  time,  he  at  length  ventured  to  peep,  hoping  that  the  lion  had  taken 
his  departure,  when,  to  his  great  terror  and  astonishment,  his  eyes  met  those  of  the 
animal,  which,  as  the  poor  fellow  afterwards  expressed  himself,  flashed  fire  at  him.  In 
short,  the  lion  laid  himself  down  at  the  foot  of  the  tree,  and  did  not  remove  from  the 
place  for  twenty-four  hours.  At  the  end  of  this  time,  becoming  parched  with  thirst, 
he  went  to  a  spring  at  some  distance  in  order  to  drink.  The  Hottentot  now,  with 
trepidation,  ventured  to  descend,  and  scampered  off  home,  which  was  not  more  than  a 
mile  distant,  as  fast  as  his  feet  could  carry  hiin. 

On  account  as  well  of  the  devastations  which  he  causes  among  the  herds  as  of  the 
pleasure  of  the  chase,  the  lion  is  pursued  and  killed  in  North  and  in  South  Africa 
wherever  he  appears :  a  state  of  war  which,  as  may  well  be  supposed,  is  not  witliout 
dano'er  for  the  aggressive  party.  Thus  Andersson  once  fired  upon  a  black-maned 
lion,  one  of  the  largest  he  ever  encountered  in  Africa.  Roused  to  fury  by  the  sligLt 
wound  he  had  received,  the  brute  rapidly  wheeled,  rushed  upon  him  with  a  dreadful 
roar,  and  at  the  distance  of  a  few  paces,  couched  as  if  about  to  spring,  having  his 
head  imbedded,  so  to  say,  between  his  fore  paws.  Drawing  a  large  hunting-knife,  and 
slipping  it  over  the  wrist  of  his  right  hand,  Andersson  dropped  on  one  knee,  and  thus 
prepared,  awaited  the  onset  of  the  lion.  It  was  an  awful  moment  of  suspense,  and 
his  situation  was  critical  in  the  extreme.  Still  his  presence  of  mind,  (a  most  indis- 
pensable quality  in  a  South  African  hunter,)  never  for  a  moment  forsook  him  ;  indeed, 
he  felt  that  nothing  but  the  most  perfect  coolness  and  absolute  self-command  would  be 
of  any  avail.  He  would  now  have  become  the  assailant ;  but  as,  owing  to  the  inter- 
vening bushes  and  clouds  of  dust  raised  by  the  lion's  lashing  his  tail  against  the 
ground,  he  was  unable  to  see  his  head,  while  to  aim  at  any  other  part  would  have 
been  madness,  he  refrained  from  firing.  Whilst  intently  watching  every  motion  of  the 
lion,  the  animal  suddenly  made  a  prodigious  bound ;  but  whether  it  was  owing  to  his 
not  perceiving  his  intended  victim,  who  was  partially  concealed  in  the  long  gra.ss,  and 
instinctively  threw  his  body  on  one  side,  or  to  miscalculating  the  distance,  he  went 
clear  over  him,  and  alighted  on  the  ground  three  or  four  paces  beyond.  Quick  as 
thought  Andersson  now  seized  bis  advantage,  and  wheeling  round  on  his  knee,  dis- 
charged his  second  barrel ;  and  as  the  lion's  broadside  was  then  towards  him,  lodged 
a  ball  in  his  shoulder,  which  it  completely  smashed.  The  infuriated  animal  now  made 
a  second  and  more  determined  rush ;  but,  owing  to  his  disabled  state,  was  happily 
avoided,  though  only  within  a  hair's  breadth,  and  giving  up  the  contest,  he  retreated 
into  a  neighboring  wood,  where  his  carcass  was  found  a  few  days  after. 

Dr.  Livingstone  once  had  a  still  more  narrow  escape,  for  he  was  actually  under  the 
paws  of  a  lion,  whose  fury  he  had  roused  by  firing  two  bullets  at  him.  "  I  was  upon 
a  little  hight ;  he  caught  my  shoulder  as  he  sprang,  and  we  both  came  to  the  ground 
below  together.  Growling  horribly  close  to  my  ear,  he  shook  me  as  a  tcrrior-dog  does 
a  rat.     The  shock  produced  a  stupor,  similar  to  that  which  seems  to  be  felt  by  a  mouse 


702  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

after  the  first  shake  of  the  cat.  It  caused  a  sort  of  drowsiness  in  which  there  was  no 
sense  of  pain  nor  feeling  of  terror,  though  quite  conscious  of  all  that  was  happening. 
It  was  like  what  patients  partially  under  the  influence  of  chloroform  describe,  who  see 
all  the  operation,  but  feel  not  the  knife.  This  singular  condition  was  not  the  result 
of  any  mental  process ;  the  shake  annihilated  fear,  and  allowed  no  sense  of  horror  in 
looking  round  at  the  beast.  This  peculiar  state  is  probably  produced  in  all  animals 
killed  by  the  carnivora ;  and  if  so,  is  a  merciful  provision  by  our  benevolent  Creator 
for  lessening  the  pain  of  death.  Turning  round  to  relieve  myself  of  the  weight,  as  he 
had  one  paw  on  the  back  of  my  head,  I  saw  his  eyes  directed  to  Mebalwe,  who  was 
trying  to  shoot  him  at  a  distance  of  ten  or  fifteen  yards.  His  gun,  a  flint  one,  missed 
fire  in  both  barrels ;  the  lion  immediately  left  me,  and  attacking  Mebalwe,  bit  his 
thigh.  Another  man  attempted  to  spear  the  lion  while  he  was  biting  Mebalwe.  He 
left  Mebalwe  and  caught  this  man  by  the  shoulder ;  but  at  that  moment  the  bullets  he 
had  received  took  effect,  and  he  fell  down  dead.  The  whole  was  the  work  of  a  few 
moments,  and  must  have  been  his  paroxysm  of  dying  rage.  A  wound  from  this 
animal's  tooth  resembles  a  gun-shot  wound  ;  it  is  generally  followed  by  a  great  deal 
of  sloughing  and  discharge,  and  pains  are  felt  in  the  part  periodically  ever  afterwards. 
I  had  on  a  tartan  jacket  on  the  occasion,  and  I  believe  that  it  wiped  off"  all  the'virus 
from  the  teeth  that  pierced  the  flesh,  for  my  two  companions  in  this  affray  have  both 
suffered  from  the  peculiar  pains,  while  I  have  escaped  with  only  the  inconvenience  of  a 
false  joint  in  my  limb.  The  man  whose  shoulder  was  wounded  showed  me  his  wound 
actually  burst  forth  afresh  on  the  same  month  of  the  following  year." 

In  the  Atlas,  the  lion  is  hunted  in  various  ways.  When  he  prowls  about  the 
neighborhood  of  a  Bedouin  encampment,  his  presence  is  announced  by  various  signs. 
At  night  his  dreadful  roar  resounds;  now  an  ox,  now  a  foal  is  missing  from  the  herd; 
at  length  even  a  member  of  the  tribe  disappears.  Terror  spreads  among  all  the  tents, 
the  women  tremble  for  their  children,  everywhere  complaints  are  heard.  The  warriors 
decree  the  death  of  the  obnoxious  neighbor,  and  congregate  on  horse  and  on  foot  at 
the  appointed  hour  and  place.  The  thicket  in  which  the  lion  conceals  himself  during 
the  day-time  has  already  been  discovered,  and  the  troop  advances,  the  horsemen  bring- 
ing up  the  rear.  About  fifty  paces  from  the  bush  they  halt,  and  draw  up  in  three 
rows,  the  second  ready  to  assist  the  first  in  case  of  need,  the  third  an  invincible  reserve 
of  excellent  marksmen.  Then  commences  a  strange  and  animated  scene.  The  first 
row  abusing  the  lion,  and  at  the  same  time  sending  a  few  balls  into  his  covert  to 
induce  him  to  come  out,  utters  loud  exclamations  of  defiance.  "  Where  is  he  who 
fancies  himself  so  brave,  and  ventures  not  to  show  himself  before  men  ?  Surely  it  is 
not  the  lion,  but  a  cowardly  thief,  a  son  of  Scheitan,  on  whom  may  Allah's  curse  rest  1" 

At  length,  the  roused  lion  breaks  forth.  A  momentary  silence  ensues.  The  lion 
roars,  rolls  flaming  eyes,  retreats  a  few  paces,  stretches  himself  upon  the  ground,  rises, 
smashes  the  branches  with  his  tail.  The  front  row  gives  fire,  the  lion  springs  forward, 
if  untouched,  and  generally  falls  under  the  balls  of  the  second  row,  which  immediately 
advances  towards  him.  This  moment,  so  critical  for  the  lion,  whose  fury  is  fully  ex- 
cited, does  not  end  the  combat  till  he  is  hit  in  the  head  or  in  the  heart.  Often  his 
hide  has  been  pierced  by  a  dozen  balls  before  the  mortal  wound  is  given,  so  that 
sometimes  in  case  of  a  prolonged  contest  several  of  the  hunters  are  either  killed  or 
wounded.     The  horsemen  remain  as  passive  spectators  of  the  fray  so  long  as  the  lion 


LION-HUNTING.  703 

keeps  upon  hilly  ground ;  but  when  driven  into  the  plain,  their  part  begins,  and  a  new 
combat  of  a  no  less  original  and  dramatic  character  commences  ;  as  every  rider,  accord- 
ing to  his  zeal  or  courage,  spurs  his  horse  upon  the  monster,  fires  upon  him  at  a  short 
distance,  then  rapidly  wheels  as  soon  as  the  shot  is  made,  and  reloads  again,  to  prepare 
for  a  new  onset.  The  lion,  attacked  on  all  sides  and  covered  with  wounds,  fronts 
everywhere  the  enemy,  springs  forward,  retreats,  returns,  and  only  falls  after  a  glorious 
resistance,  which  must  necessarily  end  in  his  defeat  and  death,  as  he  is  no  match  for  a 
troop  of  well-mounted  Arabs.  After  he  has  spent  his  power  on  a  few  monstrous 
springs,  even  an  ordinary  horse  easily  overtakes  him.  One  must  have  been  the  wit- 
ness of  such  a  fight,  says  Dumas,  to  form  an  idea  of  its  liveliness.  Every  rider  utters 
loud  imprecations,  the  white  mantles  that  give  so  spectral  an  appearance  to  their  dusky 
owners,  fly  in  the  air  like  "  streamers  long  and  gay,"  the  carbines  glisten,  the  shots 
resound,  the  lion  roars ;  pursuit  and  flight  alternate  in  rapid  succcssiou  Yet  in  spite 
of  the  tumult  accidents  are  rare,  and  the  horsemen  have  generally  nothing  to  fear  but 
a  fall  from  their  steed,  which  might  bring  them  under  the  claws  of  their  enemy,  or, 
what  is  oftener  the  case,  the  ball  of  an  incautious  comrade. 

The  Arabs  have  noticed  that  the  day  after  the  lion  has  carried  away  an  animal,  he 
generally  remains  in  a  state  of  drowsy  inactivity,  incapable  of  moving  from  his  lair. 
When  the  neighborhood,  which  usually  resounds  with  his  evening  roar,  remains  quiet, 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  animal  is  gorged  with  his  gluttonous  repast. 
Then  some  huntsman,  more  courageous  than  his  comrades,  follows  his  trail  into  the 
thicket,  levels  his  gun  at  the  lethargic  monster,  and  sends  a  ball  into  his  head.  Some- 
times even,  a  hunter,  relying  on  the  deadly  certainty  of  his  aim,  and  desirous  of  acquir- 
ing fame  by  a  display  of  chivalrous  courage,  rides  forth  alone  into  the  thicket,  on  a 
moonlight  night,  challenges  the  lion  with  repeated  shouts  and  imprecations,  and  lays 
him  prostrate  before  he  can  make  his  fatal  bound. 

Dr.  Livingstone  informs  us  that  the  Bushmen  likewise  avail  themselves  of  the  tor- 
pidity consequent  upon  a  full  meal,  to  surprise  the  lion  in  his  slumbers  :  but  their 
mode  of  attack  is  very  different  from  that  practiced  by  the  fiery  Arabs  of  Northern 
Africa.  One  discharges  a  poisoned  arrow  from  the  distance  of  only  a  few  feet,  while 
his  companion  simultaneously  throws  his  skin-cloak  over  the  beast's  head.  The  sudden 
surprise  makes  him  lose  his  presence  of  mind,  and  he  bounds  away  in  the  greatest 
confusio.n  and  terror.  The  poison  which  they  use  is  the  entrails  of  a  caterpillar  named 
N'gwa,  half  an  inch  long.  They  squeeze  out  these,  and  place  them  all  around  the 
bottom  of  the  barb,  and  allow  the  poison  to  dry  in  the  sun.  "  They  are  very  careful 
in  cleaning  their  nails  after  working  with  it,  as  a  small  portion  introduced  into  a  scratch 
acts  like  morbid  matter  in  dissection  wounds.  The  agony  is  so  great  that  the  person 
cuts  himself,  calls  for  his  mother's  breast,  as  if  he  were  returned  in  idea  to  his  child- 
hood again,  or  flies  from  human  habitations  a  raging  maniac.  The  effects  on  the  lion 
are  equally  terrible.  He  is  heard  moaning  in  distress,  and  becomes  furious,  biting  tho 
trees  and  ground  in  rage." 

The  Arabs  of  the  Atlas  consider  it  much  less  dangerous  to  hunt  the  lion  himself 
than  to  rob  him  of  his  young.  Daily  about  three  or  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon, 
the  parent  lions  roam  about,  most  likely  to  espy  some  future  prey.  They  are  seen 
upon  a  rising  ground  surveying  the  encampment,  the  smoke  arising  from  the  tents,  the 
places  where  the  cattle  are  preserved,  and  soon  after  retire  with  a  deep  growl.    Duruig 


704  THE   TROPICAL  WORLD. 

this  absence  from  their  dea,  the  Bedouins  cautiously  approach  to  seize  the  young, 
takino-  o-ood  care  to  gag  them,  as  their  cries  would  infallibly  attract  the  parent  lion. 
After^a  razzia  like  this,  the  whole  neighborhood  increases  its  vigilance,  as  for  the  next 
seven  or  eight  days  the  fury  of  the  lion  knows  no  bounds. 

In  ancient  times,  the  lion  was  an  inhabitant  of  south-eastern  Europe.  Herodotus 
relates  that  troops  of  lions  came  down  the  Macedonian  mountains,  to  seize  upon  the 
baggage  camels  of  Xerxes'  army,  and  even  under  Alexander  the  Great,  the  animal, 
though  rare,  was  not  yet  completely  extirpated.  In  Asia  also,  where  the  lion  is  at 
present  confined  to  Mesopotamia,  the  northern  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the 
north-western  part  of  Hindostan,  he  formerly  roamed  over  far  more  extensive  domains. 
The  Asiatic  lion  differs  from  the  African,  by  a  more  compressed  form  of  the  body,  a 
shorter  mane,  which  sometimes  is  almost  entirely  wanting,  and  a  much  larger  tuft  of 
hair  at  the  end  of  the  tail.  Africa  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  lion,  the  part  of  the  world 
where  he  appears  to  perfection  with  all  the  attributes  of  his  peculiar  strength  and 
beauty.  There  he  is  found  in  the  wilds  of  the  Atlas  as  in  the  high  mountain-lands 
of  Abyssinip,  from  the  Cape  to  Senegal,  and  from  Mozambique  to  Congo ;  and  more 
than  one  species  of  the  royal  animal,  not  yet  accurately  distinguished  by  the  natural- 
ists, roams  over  this  vast  expanse.  The  lion  is  frequently  brought  to  Europe  and 
America,  and  forms  one  of  the  chief  objects  of  attraction  in  zoological  gardens. 
When  taken  young,  he  easily  accustoms  himself  to  captivity,  and  even  propagates 
within  his  prison  bounds,  but  the  cubs  born  in  our  climate  generally  die  young. 

That  the  lion  is  at  times  bold  and  ferocious  enough  is  abundantly  testified  by  all 
the  hunters  who  within  the  last  few  years  have  narrated  their  adventures  in  Southern 
Africa,  but  all  of  them  also  give  equal  testimony  to  his  usual  cowardice,  when  not 
pressed  by  hunger.  Livingstone,  indeed,  has  a  most  republican  contempt  for  the  so- 
called  "  royal  beast,"  although  he  bears  on  his  person  proofs  that  he  is  not  to  be  wholly 
despised.  According  to  him  the  lion  is  nothing  better  than  an  overgrown  hulking  cat, 
not  a  match  in  fair  fight  for  the  buffalo,  and  always  careful  to  give  a  wide  berth  to 
the  rhinoceros.  Andersson  relates  the  only  instance  which  has  come  within  our  obser- 
vation where  a  lion  assailed  a  rhinoceros.  He  had  wounded  a  rhinoceros,  and,  he 
writes,  "while  following  up  the  trail  of  the  animal,  we  came  to  a  spot  where  one  or 
two  lions,  taking  advantage  of  his  crippled  condition,  had  evidently  attacked  him,  and 
after  a  desperate  struggle  had  been  compelled  to  beat  a  precipitate  retreat.  This  is 
the  only  instance  I  know  of  lions  daring  to  attack  rhinoceroses,  though  I  have  seen  it 
stated  in  print,  that  not  only  will  they  assail,  but  can  master  the  horned  monster." 
His  picture  of  this  scene  is  given  on  page  503  of  this  volume. 

According  to  Livingstone,  if  a  traveler  encounters  a  lion  by  daylight,  he  turns  tail 
and  sneaks  out  of  sight  like  a  scared  greyhound.  All  the  talk  about  his  majestic  roar 
is  sheer  twaddle.  It  takes  a  keen  ear  to  distinguish  the  voice  of  the  lion  from  that 
of  the  silly  ostrich.  When  the  lion  grows  old,  he  leads  a  miserable  life.  Unable  to 
master  the  larger  game,  he  prowls  about  tlTe  villages  in  hopes  to  pick  up  a  stray  goat. 
A  woman  or  a  child  does  not  come  amiss.  When  the  natives  hear  one  prowliog  about 
the  villages,  they  say,  "  His  teeth  are  worn;  he  will  soon  kill  men,"  and  thereupon 
turn  out  and  put  an  end  to  him  ;  "  and  this,"  says  Livingstone,  "  is  the  only  founda- 
tion for  the  common  belief  that  when  the  lion  has  once  tasted  human  flesh  he  will  eat 
nothing  else."    When  an  aged  lion  lives  far  from  human  habitations  so  that  he  can  not 


THE  LION  AT  HOME^THE  TIGER.  705 

get  goats  or  children,  he  is  often  reduced  to  such  straits  as  to  be  obliged  to  make  his 
meals  of  mice  and  such  small  prey.  "  Upon  the  whole,"  concludes  Livingstone,  "  ia 
the  dark,  or  at  all  hours  when  breeding,  the  lion  is  an  ugly  enough  customer  ;  but  if 
a  man  will  stay  at  home  by  night,  and  not  go  out  of  his  way  to  attack  him,  ho  .runs 
less  risk  in  Africa  of  being  devoured  by  a  lion,  than  he  does  in  our  cities  of  being  run 
over  by  an  omnibus." 

The  lion  reigns  in  Africa,  but  the  Tiger  is  lord  and  master  of  the  Indian  jungles. 
A  splendid  animal — elegantly  striped  with  black  on  a  white  and  golden  ground  ; 
graceful  in  every  movement,  but  of  a  most  sanguinary  and  cruel  nature.  The  length- 
ened body  resting  on  short  legs  wants  the  proud  bearing  of  the  lion,  while  the  naked 
head,  the  wildly  rolling  eye,  the  scarlet  tongue  constantly  lolling  from  the  jaws,  and 
the  whole  expression  of  the  tiger's  physiognomy  indicate  an  insatiable  thirst  of  blood, 
a  pitiless  ferocity,  which  he  wreaks  indiscriminately  on  every  living  thing  that  comes 
within  his  grasp.  In  the  bamboo  jungle  on  the  banks  of  pools  and  rivers,  he  waits 
for  the  approaching  herd ;  there  he  seeks  his  prey,  or  rather  multiplies  his  murders, 
for  he  often  leaves  the  carcase  of  the  axis  or  the  nylghau  still  writhing  in  the  agony 
of  death  to  throw  himself  upon  new  victims,  whose  bodies  he  rends  with  his  claws, 
and  then  plunges  his  head  into  the  gaping  wound  to  absorb  with  deep  and  luxurious 
draughts  the  blood  whose  fountains  he  has  just  laid  open. 

Nothing  can  be  more  delightful  than  the.  aspect  of  a  Javanese  savannah,  to  which 
clumps  of  noble  trees,  planted  by  Nature's  hand,  impart  a  park-like  character ;  yet 
even  during  the  day-time,  the  traveler  rarely  ventures  to  cross  these  beautiful  wilds 
without  being  accompanied  by  a  numerous  retinue.  In  Italy  armed  guards  are  neces- 
sary to  scare  the  bandit ;  here  the  tiger  calls  for  similar  precautions.  The  horses  fre- 
quently stand  still,  trembling  all  over,  when  their  road  leads  them  along  some  denser 
patch  of  the  jungle,  rising  like  an  island  from  the  grassy  plain,  for  their  acute  scent 
informs  them  that  a  tiger  lies  concealed  in  the  thicket,  but  a  few  paces  from  their  path. 
It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  peacock  and  the  tiger  are  so  frequently  seen  together. 
The  voice  of  the  bird  is  seldom  heard  during  the  day-time,  but  as  soon  as  the  shades 
of  evening  begin  to  veil  the  landscape,  his  loud  and  disagreeable  screams  awaken  the 
echoes,  announcing,  as  the  Javanese  say,  that  the  tiger  is  setting  forth  on  his  mur- 
derous excursions.  Then  the  traveler  carefully  bolts  the  door  of  his  hut,  and  the  sol- 
itary Javanese  retreats  to  his  palisaded  dwelling,  for  the  tyrant  of  the  wilderness  is 
abroad.  At  night  his  dreadful  roar  is  heard,  sometimes  accompanied  by  the  peacock's 
discordant  voice.  Even  in  the  villages,  thinly  scattered  among  the  grass  or  alang- 
wilds  of  Java,  there  is  no  security  against  his  attacks,  in  spite  of  the  strong  fences 
with  which  they  are  enclosed,  and  the  watch  fires  carefully  kept  burning  between 
these  and  the  huts. 

India,  South  China,  Sumatra,  and  Java,  are  the  chief  seats  of  the  tiger,  who  is  un- 
known both  in  Ceylon  and  Borneo,  while  to  the  north  he  ranges  as  far  as  Manchuria 
and  the  Upper  Obi,  and  Yennisei,  (55o_.06"  N.  lat.)  A  species  of  tiger  identical 
with  that  of  Bengal  is  common  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lake  Aral,  near  Sussac  (4.)<3 
N.  lat.),  and  Tennant  mentions  that  he  is  found  among  the  snows  of  Mount  Ararat  in 
Armenia.  As  Hindostan  is  separated  from  these  northern  tiger  haunts  by  the  great 
mountain  chains  of  Kuen-Lun  (35°  N.),  and  of  Mouztagli  (42°  N.  lat.).  each  cov- 
ered with  perpetual  snows,  mere  summer  excursions  are  quite  out  of  the  question,  and 


706  THE  TROPICAL  WORLD. 

it  is  evident  that  the  animal  is  able  to  live  in  a  much  more  rigorous  climate  than  is 
commonly  imagined.  Even  in  India  the  tiger  is  by  no  means  confined  to  the  sultry 
jungle,  for  we  learn  from  Mr.  Hodgson's  account  of  the  mammalia  of  Nepaul,  that  in 
the  Himalaya  he  is  sometimes  found  at  the  very  edge  of  the  perpetual  snow. 

Tio-er-hunting  is  a  chief  pleasure  of  the  Indian  rajahs  and  zemindars,  who,  anxious 
that  their  favorite  amusement  may  suffer  no  diminution,  forbid  any  one  else  to  chase  on 
their  domains,  however  much  their  poor  vassals  may  have  to  suffer  in  consequence. 
But  the  delight  they  take  in  tiger  shooting  never  leads  the  cautious  Nirarods  so  far  as 
to  endanger  their  precious  persons.  On  some  trees  of  the  jungle  a  scaffolding  is  pre- 
pared, at  a  ludicrous  hight  for  his  highness,  who,  at  the  appointed  hour,  makes  his 
appearance  with  all  the  pomp  of  a  petty  Asiatic  despot.  The  beating  now  begins, 
and  is  executed  by  a  troop  of  miserable  peasants,  who  most  unwillingly  submit  to  this 
forced  and  unpaid  labor,  which  is  the  more  dangerous  for  them  as  they  are  dispersed 
in  a  long  line,  instead  of  forming  a  troop,  the  only  way  to  secure  them  against  the 
attacks  of  the  tiger.  Thus  they  advance  with  a  dreadful  noise  of  drums,  horns,  and 
pistol-firing,  driving  the  wild  beasts  of  the  jungle  towards  the  scaffolding  of  their  lord 
and  master.  At  first  the  tigers,  startled  from  their  slumbers,  retreat  before  them,  but 
generally  on  approaching  the  scaffolding  they  guess  the  danger  that  awaits  them,  and 
turn  with  a  formidable  growl  "upon  the  drivers.  Sometimes,  however,  they  summon 
resolution  to  rush  with  a  few  tremendous  bounds  through  the  perilous  pass,  and  their 
flight  is  but  rarely  impeded  by  the  ill-aimed  shots  of  the  ambuscade.  Nevertheless, 
great  compliments  are  paid  to  the  noble  sportsman  for  his  ability  and  courage,  and 
nobody  says  a  word  about  the  poor  low-born  wretches,  that  may  have  been  killed  and 
mutilated  by  the  infuriated  brutes. 

Colonel  Rice,  an  English  hunter,  managed  his  tiger-shooting  excursions  on  a  very 
different  plan.  Provided  with  excellent  double-barrelled  rifles,  and  accompanied  by  a 
troop  of  well-armed,  well-paid  drivers,  and  a  number  of  courageous  dogs,  he  boldly 
entered  the  jungle  to  rouse  the  tiger  from  his  lair.  In  front  of  the  party  generally 
marched  the  shikarree  or  chief  driver,  who,  attentively  reconnoitering  the  traces  of  the 
animal,  pointed  out  the  direction  that  was  to  be  followed.  On  his  right  and  left  hand 
walked  the  English  sportsmen,  fully  prepared  for  action,  and  behind  them  the  most 
trustworthy  of  their  followers,  with  loaded  rifles  ready  for  an  exchange  with  those  that 
had  been  discharged.  Then  followed  the  music,  consisting  of  four  or  five  tambourines, 
a  great  drum,  cymbals,  horns,  a  bell,  and  the  repeated  firing  of  pistols,  and  convoyed 
by  men  armed  with  swords  and  long  halberds.  A  few  slingsmen  made  up  the  rear, 
who  were  constantly  throwing  stones  into  the  jungle  over  the  heads  of  the  foremost  of 
the  party,  and  even  more  effectually  than  the  noise  of  the  music  drove  the  tiger  from 
his  retreat.  From  time  to  time  one  of  the  men  climbed  upon  the  summit  of  a  tree  to 
observe  the  movements  of  the  grass.  The  whole  troop  constantly  formed  a  close  body. 
The  tiger  in  cold  blood  never  dares  to  attack  a  company  that  announces  itself  in  so 
turbulent  a  manner.  If  he  ventures  it  is  only  with  half  a  heart ;  he  hesitates,  stops  at 
a  short  distance,  and  gives  a  hunter  time  to  salute  him  with  a  bullet.  While  strictly 
following  an  order  of  march  like  the  one  described,  the  drivers  run  little  risk,  even  in 
the  thickest  jungle ;  but  the  difficulty  is  to  keep  them  together,  as  the  least  success 
immediately  tempts  them  to  disperse. 

On  one  of  these  hunting  expeditions  Ensign  Elliott,  a  friend  of  the  Colonel's,  had 


PERILS   OF  TIGER-HUNTING.  707 

an  almost  miraculous  escape.  Accompanied  by  about,  forty  drivers,  they  had  entered 
a  jungle,  which  did  not  seem  to  promise  much  sport,  and  had  mounted  with  their  rifles 
upon  some  small  trees  to  await  the  issue  of  the  explorations,  when  suddenly  their 
people  roused  a  beautiful  tiger,  who  advanced  slowly  towards  them.  They  remained 
perfectly  silent,  but  one  of  their  followers,  posted  upon  another  tree  and  fearing  they 
might  be  surprised  by  the  animal,  called  out  to  them  to  be  upon  their  guard.  This 
was  enough  to  make  the  tiger  change  his  direction,  so  that  they  had  scarcely  time  to 
send  a  bullet  after  him.  His  loud  roar  announced  that  he  was  wounded,  but  the  dis- 
tance was  already  too  great  to  admit  of  his  being  effectually  hit  a  second  time,  so  that 
the  impatient  sportsmen  now  pursued  him  with  more  eagerness  than  caution.  At  the 
head  of  their  troop,  they  marched  through  the  jungle,  following  the  bloody  trail  of  the 
animal,  until  at  length  they  emerged  into  an  open  country,  when  all  further  traces 
were  lost.  In  vain  some  of  their  people  climbed  upon  the  highest  trees  ;  nothing  was 
to  be  perceived  either  in  the  bushes  or  in  the  high  grass.  Meanwhile  the  Englishmen 
slowly  walked  on,  about  twenty  paces  in  advance,  attentively  gazing  upon  the  ground, 
when  suddenly  with  a  terrific  roar  the  tiger  bounded  upon  Colonel  Rice  from  a  hollow, 
concealed  beneath  the  herbage.  The  gallant  sportsman  had  scarcely  time  to  fire  both 
his  barrels  at  the  head  of  the  monster,  who,  diverted  from  the  attack  by  this  warm 
reception,  now  made  an  enormous  spring  at  Ensign  Elliott  before  he  had  time  to  aim. 
All  this  was  the  work  of  a.  moment,  for,  on  turning  towards  the  tiger,  the  Colonel  saw 
his  unfortunate  friend  prostrate  under  the  paws  of  the  furious  brute.  Immediately 
the  shikarree  with  admirable  coolness  handed  him  a  freshly  loaded  rifle.  He  dis- 
charged one  of  the  barrels  without  effect,  but  was  then  obliged  to  pause,  as  the  tiger 
had  seized  his  friend  by  the  arm,  and  was  dragging  him  towards  the  hole  from  whence 
he  had  sprung  forth.  Thus  it  was  absolutely  necessary  that  the  next  shot  should  hit 
the  animal  in  the  brain,  as  any  other  wound  not  immediately  fatal  would  only  have 
increased  its  fury.  Closely  following  the  tiger,  and  watching  all  his  movements  with 
the  most  intense  attention,  the  Colonel,  after  having  aimed  several  times,  at  length  fired 
and  hit  the  temple  of  the  tiger,  who  fell  over  his  victim  a  lifeless  corpse.  Fortunately, 
the  Ensign  was  not  mortally  wounded,  the  stroke  of  the  tiger's  paw,  which  had  been 
aimed  at  his  head,  having  been  parried  by  his  rifle.  The  blow,  however,  had  been  so 
furious  as  to  flatten  the  trigger,  and  thus  he  escaped  with  a  terrible  wound  in  the  arm. 
The  tiger  is  particularly  fond  of  dense  willow  or  bamboo  bushes  on  swampy  ground, 
as  he  there  finds  the  cool  shades  he  requires  for  his  rest  during  the  heat  of  the  day, 
after  his  nocturnal  excursions.  It  is  then  very  difiicult  to  detect  him,  but  the  other 
inhabitants  of  the  jungle,  particularly  the  peacock  and  the  monkey,  betray  his  pres- 
ence. The  scream  of  the  former  is  an  infallible  sign  that  the  tiger  is  rising  from  his 
lair;  and  the  monkeys,  who  during  the  night  are  so  frequently  surprised  by  the 
panther  or  the  boa,  never  allow  their  watchfulness  to  be  at  fault  during  the  day. 
They  are  never  deceived  in  the  animal,  which  slinks  into  the  thicket.  If  it  is  a  deer 
or  a  wild  boar,  they  remain  perfectly  quiet ;  but  if  it  is  a  tiger  or  a  panther,  they 
utter  a  cry,  destined  to  warn  their  comrades  of  the  approach  of  danger.  When,  on 
examining  a  jungle,  the  traveler  sees  a  monkey  quietly  seated  on  the  branches,  he 
may  be  perfectly  sure  that  no  dangerous  animal  is  lurking  in  the  thicket.  During  the 
night  the  cry  of  the  jackal  frequently  announces  the  tiger's  presence.  When  one  of 
these  vile  animals  is  no  longer  able  to  hunt  from  age,  or  when  he  has  been  expelled 


708  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

from  his  troop,  he  is  said  to  become  the  provider  of  the  tiger,  who,  after  having  satiated 
himself  on  the  spoil,  leaves  the  remains  to  his  famished  scout. 

The  tiger,  who  on  the  declivities  of  the  Himalaya  tears  to  pieces  the  swift-footed 
antelope,  lacerates  on  the  desert  sand  coasts  of  Java  the  tardy  tortoise,  when  at  night- 
fall it  leaves  the  sea  to  lay  its  eggs  in  the  drift-sand  at  the  foot  of  the  dunes.  Hun- 
dreds of  tortoise  skeletons  lie  scattered  about  the  strand,  many  of  them  five  feet  long 
and  three  feet  broad  ;  some  bleached  by  time,  others  still  fresh  and  bleeding.  High  in 
the  air  a  number  of  birds  of  prey  wheel  about,  scared  by  the  traveler's  approach. 
Here  is  the  place  where  the  turtles  are  attacked  by  the  wild  dogs.  In  packs  of  from 
twenty  to  fifty,  the  growling  rabble  assails  the  poor  sea  animal  at  every  accessible 
point,  gnaws  and  tugs  at  the  feet  and  at  the  head,  and  succeeds  by  united  efibrts  in 
turning  the  huge  creature  upon  its  back.  Then  the  abdominal  scales  are  torn  off,  and 
the  ravenous  dogs  hold  a  bloody  meal  on  the  flesh,  intestines,  and  eggs  of  their  defence- 
less prey.  Seraetimes,  however,  the  turtle  escapes  their  rage,  and  dragging  its  lacer- 
ating tormentors  along  with  it,  succeeds  in  regaining  the  friendly  sea.  Nor  do  the 
dogs  always  enjoy  an  undisturbed  repast,  often  during  the  night,  the  lord  of  the  wil- 
derness, the  royal  tiger,  bursts  out  of  the  forest,  pauses  for  a  moment,  easts  a  glance 
over  the  strand,  approaches  slowly,  and  then  with  one  bound,  accompanied  by  a  ter- 
rific roar,  springs  among  the  dogs,  scattering  the  howling  band  like  chaff  before  the 
wind.  And  now  is  the  tiger's  turn  to  feast ;  but  even  he,  though  rarely,  is  sometimes 
disturbed  by  man.  Thus  on  this  lonely,  melancholy  coast,  wild  dogs  and  tigers  wage 
an  unequal  war  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  ocean. 

After  the  tiger  and  the  lion,  the  Panther  and  the  Leopard  are  the  mightiest  felidre 
of  the  Old  World.  Although  differently  spotted — the  ocelli  or  rounded  marks  on  the 
panther  being  larger  and  more  distinctly  formed — they  are  probably  only  varieties  of 
one  and  the  same  species,  as  many  intermediate  individuals  have  been  observed.  Both 
animals  are  widely  diffused  through  the  tropical  regions  of  the  Old  World,  being  na- 
tives of  Africa,  Persia,  China,  India,  and  many  of  the  Indian  islands ;  so  that  they 
have  a  much  more  extensive  range  than  either  the  tiger  or  the  lion.  The  manner  in 
which  they  seize  their  prey,  lurking  near  the  sides  of  woods,  and  darting  forward  with 
a  sudden  spring,  resembles  that  of  the  tiger,  and  the  chase  of  the  panther  is  said  to 
be  more  dangerous  than  that  of  the  lion,  as  it  easily  climbs  the  trees  and  pursues  its 
enemy  upon  the  branches. 

The  Cheetah,  or  hunting  leopard  {Gueparda  juhata,  guttata),  which  inhabits  the 
greater  part  of  both  Asia  and  Africa,  exhibits  in  its  form  and  habits  a  mixture  of  the 
feline  and  canine  tribes.  Resembling  the  panther  by  its  spotted  skin,  it  is  more  ele- 
vated on  its  legs  and  less  flattened  on  the  fore  part  of  its  head.  Its  brain  is  more 
ample,  and  its  claws  touch  the  ground  while  walking,  like  those  of  the  dog,  which  it 
resembles  still  further  by  its  mild  and  docile  nature.  In  India  and  Persia,  where  the 
cheetahs  are  employed  in  the  chase,  they  are  carried  chained  and  hoodwinked  to  the 
field  in  low  cars.  When  the  hunters  come  within  view  of  a  herd  of  antelopes,  the 
cheetah  is  liberated,  and  the  game  is  pointed  out  to  him  :  he  does  not,  however,  im 
mediately  dash  forward  in  pursuit,  but  steals  along  cautiously  till  he  has  nearly  ap- 
proached the  herd  unseen,  when  with  a  few  rapid  and  vigorous  bounds,  he  darts  on 
the  timid  game  and  strangles  it  almost  instantaneously.     Should  he,  however,  fail  in 


HY.ENAS— THE   AMERICAN  FELID.E. 


709 


his  first  eflforts  and  miss  his  prey,  he  attempts  no  pursuit,  but  returns  to  the  call  of  Iiis 
master,  evidently  disappointed,  and  generally  almost  breathless. 

While  the  sanguinary  felidae  may  justly  be  called  the  eagles,  the  carrion-feeding 
Hytenas  are  the  vultures,  among  the  four-footed  animals.  Averse  to  the  light  of  day, 
like  the  owl  and  the  bat,  they  conceal  themselves  in  dark  caverns,  ruins,  or  burrows, 
as  long  as  the  sun  stands  above  the  horizon ;  but  at  night-fall  they  come  forth  from 
their  gloomy  retreats  with  a  lamentable  howl  or  a  satanic  laugh,  to  seek  their  disn-ust- 
ing  food  on  the  fields,  in  churchyards,  or  on  the  borders  of  the  sea.  From  the  pro- 
digious strength  of  their  jaws  and  their  teeth,  they  are  not  only  able  to  masticate  ten- 
dons, but  to  crush  cartilages  and  bones  ;  so  that  carcases  almost  entirely  deprived  of 
flesh  still  provide  them  with  a  plentiful  banquet.  Though  their  nocturnal  habits  and 
savage  aspect  have  rendered  them  an  object  of  hatred  and  disgust  to  man,  they  seem 
destined  to  fill  up  an  important  station  in  the  economy  of  nature,  by  cleansing  the 
earth  of  the  remains  of  dead  animals,  which  might  otherwise  infect  the  atmosphere 
with  pestilential  effluvia. 

The  striped  hyeena  is  a  native  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  Syria,  and  North  Africa,  as  far  as 
the  Senegal,  while  the  spotted  hyaena  ranges  over  South  Africa,  from  the  Cape  to 
Abyssinia.  Both  species  attain  the  size  of  the  wolf,  and  have  similar  habits.  As  the 
shark  follows  the  ship,  or  the  crow  the  caravan,  they  are  said  to  hover  about  the  march 
of  armies,  as  if  taught  by  instinct  that  they  have  to  expect  the  richest  feast  from  the 
insanity  of  man.  The  moonlight  falling  on  the  dark  cypresses  and  snow-white  tombs 
of  the  Oriental  churches  not  seldom  shines  upon  hungry  hysenas,  busily  employed  in 
tearing  the  newly-buried  corpses  from  their  graves.  A  remarkable  peculiarity  of  the 
spotted  hyoena  is  that  when  he  first  begins  to  run  he  appears  lame,  so  that  one  might 
almost  fancy  one  of  his  legs  was  broken ;  but  after  a  time  this  halting  disappears,  and 
he  proceeds  on  his  course  very  swiftly. 

The  brown  hyeena,  which  is  found  in  South  Africa,  from  the  Cape  to  Mozambique 
and  Senegambia,  and  has  a  more  shaggy  fur  than  the  preceding  species,  has  very  dif- 
ferent habits.  He  is  particularly  fond  of  the  crustaceae  which  the  ebbing  flood  leaves 
behind  upon  the  beach,  or  which  the  storm  casts  ashore  in  great  quantities,  and  exclu- 
sively inhabits  the  coasts,  where  he  is  known  under  the  name  of  the  sea-shore  wolf.  Ilis 
traces  are  everywhere  to  be  met  with  on  the  strand,  and  night  after  night  he  prowls 
along  the  margin  of  the  water,  examining  the  refuse  of  the  retreating  ocean. 

The  same  radical  difFerences  which  draw  so  wide  a  line  of  demarcation  between  the 
siraire  of  the  Old  and  the  New  World  are  found  also  to  distinguish  the  feline  races  of 
both  hemispheres,  so  that  it  would  be  as  vain  to  search  in  the  American  forests  and 
savannas  for  the  Numidian  lion,  or  the  striped  tiger,  as  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  or 
the  Senegal  for  the  tawny  puma  or  the  spotted  jaguar.  While  in  the  African  plains 
the  swift-footed  spring-bok,  or  the  koodoo,  unrivaled  among  the  antelopes  for  his  bold 
and  widely-spreading  horns,  falls  under  the  impetuous  bound  of  the  pantlier — or  while 
the  tiger  and  the  bufi'alo  engage  in  mortal  combat  in  the  Indian  jungle— the  blood- 
thirsty Jaguar,  concealed  in  the  high  grass  of  the  American  llanos,  lies  in  wait  for  the 
wild  horse  or  the  passing  steer.  The  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  in  the  New  World,  so 
destructive  to  most  of  the  Indian  tribes  with  whom  they  came  in  contact,  was  beneficial 
at  least  to  the  large  felidaj  of  tropical  America,  for  they  first  introduced  the  horse  and 


710  THE  TROPICAL  WORLD. 

the  ox  into  the  western  hemisphere,  where  these  useful  animals,  finding  a  new  and 
cono-enial  home  in  the  boundless  savannas  and  pampas,  which  extend  almost  uninter- 
ruptedly from  the  Apure  to  Patagonia,  have  multiplied  to  an  incredible  extent.  Since 
then  the  jaguar  no  longer  considers  the  deer  of  the  woods,  the  graceful  agouti,  or  the 
slow  capybara  as  his  chief  prey,  but  rejoices  in  the  blood  of  the  steed  or  ox,  and  is 
much  more  commonly  met  with  in  the  herd-teeming  savannas  than  in  the  comparatively 
meagre  hunting-grounds  of  the  forest. 

Of  all  the  carnivora  of  the  New  World,  perhaps  with  the  sole  exception  of  the 
orizzly  and  the  polar  bears,  the  tyrants  of  the  North  American  solitudes,  the  jaguar  is 
the  most  formidable,  resembling  the  panther  by  his  spotted  skin,  but  almost  equaling 
the  Beno-al  tiger  in  size  and  power.  He  roams  about  at  all  times  of  the  day,  swims 
over  broad  rivers,  and  even  in  the  water  proves  a  most  dangerous  foe,  for  when  driven 
to  extremities  he  frequently  turns  against  the  boat,  and  forces  his  assailants  to  seek 
their  safety  by  jumping  overboard.  Many  an  Indian,  while  wandering  through  thinly 
populated  districts,  where  swampy  thickets  alternate  with  open  grass  plains,  has  been 
torn  to  pieces  by  the  jaguar,  and  in  many  a  lonely  plantation  the  inhabitants  hardly 
venture  to  leave  their  enclosures  after  sunset,  for  fear  of  his  attacks.  During  Tschudi's 
sojourn  in  Northern  Peru,  a  jaguar  penetrated  into  the  hut  of  an  Englishman  who 
had  settled  in  those  parts,  and  dragging  a  boy  of  ten  years  out  of  his  hammock,  tore 
him  to  pieces  and  devoured  him.  Far  from  being  afraid  of  man,  this  ferocious  animal 
springs  upon  him  when  alone,  and  when  pressed  by  hunger  will  even  venture  during 
the  day-time  into  the  mountain  villages  to  seek  its  prey.  The  distinguished  traveler 
whom  I  have  just  quoted  mentions  the  case  of  an  Indian  in  the  province  of  Vito,  who 
hearing  during  the  night  his  only  pig  most  piteously  squealing,  rose  to  see  what  was 
the  matter,  and  found  that  a  jaguar  had  seized  it  by  the  head,  and  was  about  to  carry 
it  away.  Eager  to  rescue  his  property,  he  sprang  forward,  and  seizing  the  pig  by  the 
hind  legs,  disputed  its  possession  with  the  beast  of  prey,  that  with  eyes  gleaming 
through  the  darkness,  and  a  ferocious  growl,  kept  tugging  at  its  head.  This  strange 
struggle  between  the  undaunted  Indian  and  the  jaguar  lasted  for  some  time,  until  the 
women  coming  out  of  the  hut  with  lighted  torches  put  to  flight  the  monster,  which 
slowly  retreated  into  the  forest.  The  same  traveler  relates  that  in  some  parts  the 
jaguars  had  increased  to  such  a  degree,  and  proved  so  destructive  to  the  Inhabitants, 
that  the  latter  were  obliged  to  emigrate,  and  settle  in  less  dangerous  districts.  Thus, 
the  village  of  Mayunmarca,  near  the  road  from  Huanta  to  Anco,  had  been  long  since 
abandoned,  and  the  neighborhood  was  still  considered  so  dangerous  that  few  Indians 
ventured  to  travel  through  it  alone. 

The  chase  of  these  formidable  animals  requires  great  caution,  yet  keen  sportsmen 
will  venture,  single-handed,  to  seek  the  jaguar  in  his  lair,  armed  with  a  blow-pipe  and 
poisoned  arrows,  or  merely  with  a  long  and  powerful  lance.  The  praise  which  is  due 
to  the  bold  adventurers  for  their  courage  is,  however,  too  often  tarnished  by  their 
cruelty.  Thus,  a  famous  jaguar  hunter  once  showed  Popplg  a  large  cavity  under  the 
tangled  roots  of  a  giant  bombax-tree,  where  he  had  some  time  back  discovered  a 
female  jaguar  with  her  young.  Dexterously  rolling  down  a  large  stone,  he  closed  the 
entrance,  and  then  with  fiendish  delight  slowly  smoked  the  animals  to  death,  by  apply- 
ing fire  from  time  to  time  to  their  dungeon.  Having  lost  one  half  of  his  scalp  in  a 
previous  conflict  with  a  jaguar,  he  pleaded  his  sufierings  as  an  excuse  for  his  barbarity. 


THE  JAGUAR— THE  COUGAR— WH.D- CATS.         711 

To  attack  these  creatures  with  a  lance,  a  sure  arm,  a  cool,  determined  courage,  and 
great  bodily  strength  and  dexterity  are  required ;  but  even  these  qualities  do  not 
always  ensure  success  if  the  hunter  is  unacquainted  with  the  artifices  of  the  animal. 
The  jaguar  generally  waits  for  the  attack  in  a  sitting  posture,  turning  one  side  towards 
the  assailant,  and,  as  if  unconcerned,  moves  his  long  tail  to  and  fro.  The  hunter, 
carefully  observing  the  eye  of  his  adversary,  repeatedly  menaces  hira  with  slight  thrusts 
of  his  lance,  which  a  gentle  stroke  of  the  paw  playfully  wards  off;  then  seizing  a 
favorable  moment,  he  suddenly  steps  forward  and  plunges  his  weapon  into  his  side. 
If  the  thrust  be  well  aimed,  a  second  is  not  necessary,  for  pressing  with  his  full  weight 
on  the  lance,  the  huntsman  enlarges  and  deepens  the  mortal  wound.  But  if  the  stroke 
is  parried  or  glances  off,  the  jaguar,  roused  to  fury,  bounds  on  his  aggressor,  who.so 
only  hope  now  lies  in  the  short  knife  which  he  carries  in  his  girdle.  Those  who  are 
less  inclined  to  desperate  conflicts  destroy  the  jaguar  by  poisoned  pieces  of  meat,  or 
else  they  lay  pitfalls  for  him,  when  they  kill  him  without  running  any  personal  risk. 

The  Cougar,  or  the  Puma,  as  he  is  called  by  the  Indians,  is  far  inferior  to  the 
jaguar  in  courage,  and  consequently  far  less  dangerous  to  man.  On  account  of  his 
brownish-red  color  and  great  size,  being  the  largest  felis  of  the  New  World,  he  has 
also  been  named  the  American  lion,  but  he  has  neither  the  mane  nor  the  noble  bearing 
of  the  "  king  of  animals."  In  spite  of  his  strength  he  is  of  so  cowardly  a  disposition 
that  he  invariably  takes  to  flight  at  the  approach  of  man,  and  consequently  inspires  no 
fear  on  being  met  with  in  the  wilderness ;  while  even  the  boldest  hunter  instinctively 
starts  back,  when,  winding  through  the  forest,  he  suddenly  sees  the  sparkling  eye  of 
the  jaguar  intently  fixed  upon  hira.  The  puma  has  a  much  wider  range  than  the 
jaguar,  for  while  the  latter  reaches  in  South  America  only  to  the  forty-fifth  degree  of 
latitude,  and  does  not  rove  northwards  beyond  Sonora  and  New  Mexico,  the  former 
roams  from  the  Straits  of  Magellan  to  the  Canadian  lakes.  The  jaguar  seldom  ascends 
the  mountains  to  a  greater  hight  than  3,000  feet,  while  in  the  warmer  lateral  valleys 
of  the  Andes  the  puma  frequently  lies  in  ambush  for  the  vicunas  at  an  elevation  of 
10,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  He  can  climb  trees  with  great  facility,  ascend- 
ing even  vertical  trunks,  and,  like  the  lynx,  will  watch  the  opportunity  of  springing 
on  such  animals  as  happen  to  pass  beneath.  No  less  cruel  than  cowardly,  he  will 
destroy  without  necessity  forty  or  fifty  sheep  when  the  occasion  oflers,  and  content  him- 
self with  licking  the  blood  of  his  victims.  When  caught  young,  he  is  easily  tamed, 
and,  like  the  common  cat,  shows  his  fondness  at  being  caressed  by  the  same  kind  of 
gentle  purrings.  Tschudi  informs  us  that  the  Indians  of  the  northern  provinces  fre- 
quently bring  pumas  to  Lima,  to  show  them  for  money.  They  either  lead  them  by  a 
rope,  or  carry  them  in  a  sack  upon  their  back,  until  the  sight-seers  have  assembled  in 
sufiicient  number. 

Besides  the  puma  or  the  jaguar,  tropical  America  possesses  the  beautifully  varie- 
gated Ocelot  {Felis  pardalis) ;  the  OscoUo  {Felis  dog  aster) ;  the  spotless,  black-gray 
Jaguarundi  {F.  jaguar undi),  which  is  not  much  larger  than  the  European  wild-cat; 
the  long-tailed,  striped,  and  spotted  Margay,  or  Tiger-cat,  and  several  other  fclidic. 
All  these  smaller  species  hardly  ever  become  dangerous  to  man,  but  they  cause  the 
death  of  many  an  acouchi  and  cavy ;  and,  with  prodigious  leaps,  the  afl'righted  monkey 
flies  from  their  approach  into  the  deepest  recesses  of  the  forest. 


712  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 


CHAPTER   XV. 

THE   ELEPHANT,  RHINOCEROS,  HIPPOPOTAMUS,  CAMEL,  ZEBRA. 

The  Great  Tropical  Pachydermati. — The  Elephant:  Difference  between  the  tame  and  wild 
Elephant — His  Instinctive  Timidity— Acuteness  of  His  Senses — His  Sagacity  in  Climbing 
Hills — His  wonderful  Trunk — His  Tusks — Elephant  Herds — The  Rogue,  or  Solitary  Ele- 
phant—The Asiatic  and  African  Species— The  African  Elephant  tamed  in  Ancient  Times- 
Present  Range  of  the  African  Elephant — Native  Modes  of  Hunting  the  African  Elephant— 
The  Elephant  and  the  Rifle— Perils  of  Elephant-Hunters— Elephant-Hunting  in  Abyssinia— 
The  Asiatic  Elephant — Elephant-Hunting  in  Ceylon — The  Panickeas,  or  Native  Eiephant- 
Hunters— Elephantine  Head-Work — Obstinate  Brutes. — The  Rhinoceros  .•— Range  and  Char- 
acter of  the  Rhinoceros — Two  Species,  the  Black  and  the  "White— Size  of  the  Rhinoceros — 
Acuteness  of  its  Senses — Its  winged  Attendant — Its  parental  Affection — Its  nocturnal 
Habits— Modes  of  Hunting  the  Rhinoceros— The  One-Horned  or  Indian  Rhinoceros — The 
Two-Horned  Rhinoceros  of  the  Malay  Archipelago — Rhinoceros-Paths  in  Java. — The  Hip- 
popotamus:— Is  the  Hippopotamus  the  Behemoth  of  Job? — Habits  of  the  Hippopotamus — 
Its  uncouth  Aspect — Rogue  Hippopotami — Intelligence  of  the  Hippopotamus — Uses  of  its 
Skin  and  Teeth— Mode  of  Killing  the  Hippopotamus. — The  Camel:  Its  Adaptation  to  the 
Tropical  Sand-Wastes — Its  Physical  Organization  adapted  to  its  Mode  of  Life — Its  Foot 
and  its  Stomach— Its  Desert  Home — The  Camel  -and  the  Arab — The  Two-Humped  and 
One-Humped  Camels — The  Camel  an  immemorial  Serf— Its  Aspect  and  Temper.— r^e 
Giraffe:  Beauty  'of  the  Giraffe— Its  Means  of  Defense— Its  special  Organization— The 
Lion  and  the  Giraffe — The  Giraffe  known  to  the  Ancients. — Zebra  and  Quaggas:  Their 
Abundance  in  Southern  Africa — Distinction  Between  the  Quagga  and  the  Zebra — Capacity 
for  Domestication — Their  Union  for  Defense — The  Gnu,  the  Quagga,  and  the  Zebra— The 
Zebra  the  Tiger-Horse  of  the  Ancients— The  African  Boar— The  Malayan  Babirusa.     Finis. 

AMONG  the  animals  belonging  to  the  Tropical  World  there  are  none  more  dis- 
tinctive than  the  great  Pachydermati,  the  Elephant,  the  Rhinoceros,  and  the 
Hippopotamus.  To  these  huge  beasts,  the  largest  that  walk  the  earth,  we  propose  to 
devote  a  chapter  ;  supplementing  it  with  a  few  pages  concerning  the  Giraffe,  the  Camel, 
and  a  few  other  animals  of  large  size,  exclusively  tropical.  First  and  foremost  we  will 
speak  of  the  Elephant : 

A  tamed  elephant,  as  we  see  him  in  menageries,  compelled  to  go  through  his  round 
of  tricks  for  the  amusement  of  everybody  who  will  pay  the  required  quarter  of  a  dol- 
lar, is  apparently  a  stupid  beast.  He  seems  a  very  mountain  of  flesh,  covered  with  a 
loose  and  ill-fitting  skin.  His  great,  clumsy  legs  look  like  those  of  a  gouty  alderman  ; 
he  writhes  his  huge  trunk  about  with  an  air  of  hopeless  imbecility  ;  all  his  energies 
seem  to  be  concentrated  upon  the  feat  of  conveying  to  his  mouth  the  apples  and  nuts 
held  out  to  him  by  gaping  urchins.  A  very  different  animal  is  the  same  elephant  in 
his  native  haunts.  There  he  is  the  keenest  wariest,  and  most  cunning  of  beasts. 
The  little  sharp  eye  is  alight  with  intelligence  ;  the  ponderous  ears  are  alive  to  the 


THE   ELEPHANT.  713 

faintest  sound;  the  long  swaying  trunk,  merely  as  an  organ  of  smell,  has  an  acute- 
ness  unmatched  by  the  keenest  dog  that  ever  tracked  game.  He  has,  moreover,  a 
courage,  and  when  irritated,  a  ferocity,  surpassed  by  no  other  animal ;  so  that  one 
needs  to  be  a  bold  and  wary  hunter  who  assails  him  in  his  native  haunts. 

Yet,  when  unmolested  by  man,  who  is  his  chief,  and  almost  only  enemy,  the  elephant 
is  the  image  of  strength  and  good-nature,  loving  the  shady  forest  and  the  secluded 
lake.  Disliking  the  glare  of  the  midday  sun,  he  spends  the  day  in  the  thickest  woods, 
devoting  the  night  to  excursions  and  to  the  luxury  of  the  bath,  his  great  and  innocent 
delight.  Though  the  earth  trembles  under  his  strides,  yet  like  the  whale,  he  is  timid  ; 
but  this  timidity  is  accounted  for  by  his  small  range  of  vision.  Anything  unusual 
strikes  him  with  terror,  and  the  most  trivial  objects  and  incidents,  from  being  imper- 
fectly discerned,  excite  his  suspicions.  An  instinctive  consciousness  that  his  superior 
bulk  exposes  him  to  danger  from  sources  that  might  be  harmless  in  the  case  of  lighter 
animals  is  probably  the  reason  why  the  elephant  displays  a  remarkable  reluctance 
to  face  the  slightest  artificial  obstruction  on  his  passage.  Even  when  enraged  by  a 
wound,  he  will  hesitate  to  charge  his  assailant  across  an  intervening  hedge,  suspecting 
it  may  conceal  a  snare  or  pitfall,  but  will  hurry  along  it  to  seek  for  an  opening.  Un- 
like the  horse,  he  never  gets  accustomed  to  the  report  of  fire-arms,  and  thus  he  never 
plays  an  active  part  in  battle,  but  serves  in  a  campaign  only  as  a  common  beast  of 
burden,  or  for  the  transport  of  heavy  artillery.  To  make  up  for  his  restricted  vision, 
his  neck  being  so  formed  as  to  render  him  incapable  of  directing  the  range  of  his  eye 
much  above  the  level  of  his  head,  he  is  endowed  vr'^h.  a  remarkable  power  of  smell, 
and  a  delicate  sense  of  hearing,  which  serve  to  apprise  him  of  the  approach  of  danger. 

Although,  from  their  huge  bulk,  the  elephants  might  be  supposed  to  prefer  a  level 
country,  yet,  in  Asia  at  least,  the  regions  where  they  most  abound  are  all  hilly  and 
mountainous.  In  Ceylon,  particularly,  there  is  not  a  range  so  high  as  to  be  inacces- 
sible to  them,  and  so  sure-footed  are  they,  that  provided  there  be  solidity  to  sustain 
their  weight,  they  will  climb  rocks  and  traverse  ledges,  where  even  a  mule  dare  not 
venture.  Hooker  admired  the  judicious  winding  of  the  elephant's  path  in  the  Hima- 
layas, and  Tennent  describes  the  sagacity  which  he  displays  in  laying  out  roads,  or 
descending  abrupt  banks,  as  almost  incredible.  His  first  manoeuvre  is  to  kneel  down 
close  to  the  edge  of  the  declivity,  placing  his  chest  to  the  ground,  one  fore-leg  is  then 
cautiously  passed  a  short  way  down  the  slope,  and  if  there  is  no  natural  protection  to 
aflford  a  firm  footing,  he  speedily  forms  one  by  stamping  into  the  soil,  if  moist,  or  kick- 
ing out  a  footing,  if  dry.  This  point  gained,  the  other  fore-leg  is  brought  down  in 
the  same  way,  and  performs  the  same  work,  a  little  in  advance  of  the  first,  which  is 
thus  at  liberty  to  move  lower  still.  Then  first  one  and  then  the  second  of  the  hind- 
legs  is  carefully  drawn  over  the  side,  and  the  hind-feet  in  turn  occupy  the  resting- 
places  previously  used  and  left  by  the  fore  ones.  The  course,  however,  in  such  pre- 
cipitous ground  is  not  straight  from  top  to  bottom,  but  slopes  along  the  face  of  the 
bank,  descending  till  the  animal  gains  the  level  below.  This  an  elephant  has  done  at 
an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  carrying  a  houdah,  its  occupant,  his  attendant,  and 
in  much  less  time  than  it  takes  to  describe  the  operation. 

The  stomach  of  the  elephant,  like  that  of  the  camel  or  the  llama,  is  provided  with 
a  cavity,  serving  most  probably  as  a  reservoir  for  water  against  the  emergencies  of 
thirst ;  but  the  most  remarkable  feature  in  the  organization  of  the  "  Leviathan  of  the 


714  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

Land  "  is  his  wonderful  trunk,  which,  uniting  the  flexibility  of  the  serpent  with  a 
giant's  power,  almost  rivals  the  human  hand  by  its  manifold  uses  and  exquisite  deli- 
cacy of  touch.  Nearly  eight  feet  in  length  and  stout  in  proportion  to  the  massive 
size  of  the  whole  animal,  this  miracle  of  nature,  at  the  volition  of  the  elephant  will 
uproot  trees  or  gather  grass ;  raise  a  piece  of  artillery  or  pick  up  a  comfit ;  kill  a  man 
or  brush  off  a  fly.  It  conveys  the  food  to  the  mouth,  and  pumps  up  the  enormous 
draughts  of  water,  which,  by  its  recurvature,  are  turned  into  and  driven  down  the 
capacious  throat,  or  showered  over  the  body.  Its  length  supplies  the  place  of  a  long 
neck,  which  would  have  been  incompatible  with  the  support  of  the  large  head  and 
weighty  tusks.  A  glance  at  the  head  of  the  elephant  will  show  the  thickness  and 
strength  of  the  trunk  at  its  insertion  ;  and  the  massy  arched  bones  of  the  face  and 
thick  muscular  neck  are  admirably  adapted  for  supporting  and  working  this  incom- 
parable instrument,  which  is  at  the  same  time  the  elephant's  most  formidable  instru- 
ment of  defense,  for,  first  prostrating  any  minor  assailant  by  means  of  his  trunk,  he 
then  crushes  him  by  the  pressure  of  his  enormous  weight. 

The  use  of  the  elephant's  tusks  is  less  clearly  defined.  Though  they  are  frequently 
described  as  warding  ofi"  the  attacks  of  the  tiger  and  rhinoceros,  often  securing  the 
victory  by  one  blow,  which  transfixes  the  assailant  to  the  earth,  it  is  perfectly  obvious, 
both  from  their  almost  vertical  position  and  the  difficulty  of  raising  the  head  above 
the  level  of  the  shoulder,  that  they  were  never  designed  for  weapons  of  attack.  No 
doubt  they  may  prove  of  great  assistance  in  digging  up  roots,  but  that  they  are  far 
from  indispensable,  is  proved  by  their  being  but  rarely  seen  in  the  females,  and  by 
their  almost  constant  absence  in  the  Ceylon  elephant,  where  they  are  generally  found 
reduced  to  mere  stunted  processes. 

Elephants  live  in  herds,  usually  consisting  of  from  ten  to  twenty  individuals,  and 
each  herd  is  a  family,  not  brought  together  by  accident  or  attachment,  but  owning  a 
common  lineage  and  relationship.  In  the  forest  several  herds  will  browse  in  close 
contiguity,  and  in  their  expeditious  in  search  of  water  they  may  form  a  body  of  possi- 
bly one  or  two  hundred,  but  on  the  slightest  disturbance,  each  distinct  herd  hastens 
to  re-form  within  its  own  particular  circle,  and  to  take  measures  on  its  own  behalf  for 
retreat  or  defense.  Generally  the  most  vigorous  and  courageous  of  the  herd  assumes 
the  leadership  :  his  orders  are  observed  with  the  most  implicit  obedience,  and  the  de- 
votion and  loyalty  evinced  by  his  followers  are  very  remarkable.  In  Ceylon  this  is 
more  readily  seen  in  the  case  of  a  "  tusker  "  than  any  other,  because  in  a  herd  he  is  gen- 
erally the  object  of  the  keenest  pursuit  by  the  hunters.  On  such  occasions  the  ele- 
phants do  their  utmost  to  protect  him  from  danger ;  when  driven  to  extremity,  they 
place  their  leader  in  the  centre,  and  crowd  so  eagerly  in  front  of  him  that  the  sports- 
men have  to  shoot  a  number  which  they  might  otherwise  have  spared. 

When  individuals  have  been  expelled  from  a  herd,  or  by  some  accident  or  other  have 
lost  their  former  associates,  they  are  not  permitted  to  attach  themselves  to  any  other 
family,  and  ever  after  wander  about  the  woods  as  outcasts  from  their  kind.  Rendered 
morose  and  savage  from  rage  and  solitude,  the  rogue  elephants  become  vicious  and 
predatory ;  and  so  sullen  is  their  disposition,  that  although  two  may  be  in  the  same 
vicinity,  there  is  no  known  instance  of  their  associating,  or  of  a  rogue  being  seen  in 
company  with  another  elephant.  These  rogue  elephants  seem  to  belong,  however, 
wholly  to  the  Asiatic  variety ;  at  least,  we  find  no  special  mention  of  them  by  African 


ASIATIC    AND   AFRICAN   ELEPHANTS.  715 

hunters.  Mr.  S.  G.  Baker,  now  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  since  noted  for  his  exploration  of 
the  source  of  the  Nile,  was  long  ago  a  noted  elephant-hunter  in  Ceylon,  and  his  book 
"The  Rifle  and  the  Hound  in  Ceylon  "  abounds  with  incidents  of  adventure  and  dar- 
ing in  shooting  these  rogues.  "  Deprived,"  he  says," of  the  ameliorating  influence  of 
female  society,  the  old  rogue  becomes  doubly  vicious.  He  appears  to  be  in  bad  humor 
with  the  world  generally,  and  with  himself  in  particular,  spending  the  greatest  part  of 
his  time  when  not  feeding,  in  pacing  back  and  forth,  with  his  tail  cocked  in  the  air, 
ready  for  a  rush  upon  any  one  that  approaches  his  haunts."  Their  pluck  is  equal  to 
tlieir  cunning.  When  they  travel  in  the  day-time,  they  always  go  with  the  wind,  and, 
nothing  can  follow  on  their  track  without  their  knowledge.  When  the  rogue  is  pur- 
sued  in  the  open  forest  or  on  the  naked  plain  he  usually  retreats ;  but  the  chances  are 
ten  to  one  that  he  is  merely  enticing  the  hunter  to  follow  him  into  some  favorite  haunt 
among  the  dense  jungle,  from  which  he  will  charge  at  some  unexpected  moment. 

The  elephant  inhabits  both  Asia  and  Africa,  but  each  of  these  two  parts  of  the  world 
has  its  peculiar  species.  The  African  elephant  is  distinguished  by  the  lozenge-shaped 
prominences  of  ivory  and  enamel  on  the  surface  of  his  grinders,  which  in  the  Indian 
elephant  are  narrow,  tranverse  bars  of  uniform  breadth  ;  his  skull  has  a  more  rounded 
form,  and  is  deficient  in  the  double  lateral  bump  conspicuous  in  the  former ;  and  he 
has  only  fifty-four  vertebrae,  while  the  Indian  has  sixty-one.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
possesses  twenty -one  ribs,  while  the  latter  has  only  nineteen.  His  tusks  are  also  much 
larger,  and  his  body  is  of  much  greater  bulk,  as  the  female  attains  the  stature  of  the 
full-grown  Indian  male.  The  ear  is  at  least  three  times  the  size,  being  not  seldom 
above  four  feet  long,  and  broad,  so  that  Dr.  Livingstone  mentions  having  seen  a  negro, 
who  under  cover  of  one  of  these  prodigious  flaps  efiectually  screened  himself  from  the 
rain.  All  these  difierences  of  character  appeared  so  great  to  M.  Cuvier  as  to  induce 
him  to  consider  the  African  elephant  as  a  peculiar  genus. 

Ancient  medals  representing  large-eared  elephants  drawing  chariots,  are  conclusive 
of  the  fact  that  the  Romans  knew  how  to  catch  and  tame  the  African  elephant.  He 
was  even  considered  more  docile  than  the  Asiatic,  and  was  taught  various  feats,  as 
walking  on  ropes  and  dancing.  The  elephants  with  which  Hannibal  crossed  the  Alps, 
as  well  as  those  which  Pyrrhus  led  into  Italy,  must  undoubtedly  have  been  African. 
At  present  he  is  only  killed  for  his  ivory,  his  hide,  his  flesh,  or  from  the  mere  wanton- 
ness of  destruction.  The  Cape  colonists,  to  whom  his  services  might  be  of  great  im- 
portance, have  never  made  the  attempt  to  tame  him,  nor  has  one  of  this  species  ever 
been  exhibited  in  England  ;  but  the  big-eared,  large-tusked  African  elephant  is  the  one 
best  known  in  American  menageries. 

The  African  elephant  has  a  very  wide  range,  from  Caff'raria  to  Nubia,  and  from  the 
Zambesi  to  Cape  Verde,  and  the  impenetrable  deserts  of  the  Sahara  alone  prevent  him 
from  wandering  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  Although  in  South  Africa  the 
persecutions  of  the  natives,  and  of  his  still  more  formidable  enemies  the  colonists  and 
English  huntsmen,  have  considerably  thinned  his  numbers,  and  driven  him  farther  and 
farther  to  the  north,  yet  in  the  interior  of  the  country  he  is  still  met  with  in  prodigious 
numbers.  Dr.  Barth  frequently  saw  large  herds  winding  through  tlie  open  plains, 
and  swimming  in  majestic  lines  through  the  rivers,  with  elevated  trunks,  or  bathing  m 
the  shallow  lakes  for  coolness  or  protection  against  insects. 

Livingstone  gives  us  many  interesting  accounts  of  the  dificrent  modes  of  South 


716  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

African  elephant-hunting.  The  natives  of  the  south  bank  of  the  Zambesi  erect  stages 
on  high  trees  overhanging  the  paths  by  which  the  elephants  come,  and  then  use  a  large 
spear  with  a  handle  nearly  as  thick  as  a  man's  wrist,  and  four  or  five  feet  long.  When 
the  unfortunate  animal  comes  beneath,  they  throw  the  spear,  and  if  it  enters  between 
the  ribs  above,  as  the  blade  is  at  least  twenty  inches  long  by  two  broad,  the  motion  of 
the  handle,  as  it  is  aided  by  knocking  against  the  trees,  makes  frightful  gashes  within, 
and  soon  causes  death.  They  kill  them  also  by  means  of  a  spear  inserted  in  a  beam 
of  wood,  which  being  suspended  on  the  branch  of  a  tree  by  a  cord  attached  to  a  latch, 
fastened  in  the  path  and  intended  to  be  struck  by  the  animal's  foot,  leads  to  the  fall 
of  the  beam,  and  the  spear  being  poisoned  causes  death  in  a  few  hours.  The  Bush- 
men select  full-moon  nights  for  the  chase,  on  account  of  the  coolness,  and  choose  the 
moment  succeeding  a  charge,  when  the  elephant  is  out  of  breath,  to  run  in  and  give 
him  a  stab  with  their  long-bladed  spears.  The  huge  creature  is  often  bristling  with 
missile  weapons  like  a  porcupine,  and  though  singly  none  of  the  wounds  may  be 
mortal,  yet  their  number  overpowers  him  by  loss  of  blood.  On  the  sloping  banks  of 
the  Zouga  the  Bayeiye  dig  deep  pitfalls  to  entrap  the  animals  as  they  come  to  drink  ; 
but  though  these  traps  are  constructed  with  all  the  care  of  savage  ingenuity,  old 
elephants  have  been  known  to  precede  the  herd  and  whisk  off  their  coverings  all  the 
way  down  to  the  water ;  or,  giving  proof  of  a  still  more  astonishing  sagacity,  to  have 
actually  lifted  the  young  out  of  the  pits  into  which  they  had  incautiously  stumbled. 

A  much  more  formidable  enemy  of  this  noble  animal  than  the  spears  or  pitfalls  of 
the  African  barbarians  is  the  rifle,  particularly  in  the  hands  of  a  European  marksman ; 
for  while  the  Griquas,  Boers,  and  Bechuanas  generally  stand  at  the  distance  of  a  hun- 
dred yards  or  more,  and  of  course  spend  all  the  force  of  their  bullets  on  the  air,  the 
English  hunters,  relying  on  their  steadiness  of  aim,  approach  to  within  thirty  yards  of 
the  animal,  where  they  are  sure  not  to  waste  their  powder.  It  requires  no  little  nerve 
to  brave  the  charge  of  the  elephant,  the  scream  or  trumpeting  of  the  brute,  when 
infuriated,  being  more  like  what  the  shriek  of  a  steam-whistle  would  be  to  a  man 
standing  on  the  dangerous  part  of  a  railroad,  than  any  other  earthly  sound ;  a  horse 
unused  to  it  will  sometimes  stand  shivering  instead  of  taking  his  rider  out  of  danger, 
or  fall  paralyzed  by  fear,  and  thus  expose  him  to  be  trodden  into  a  mummy,  or,  dash- 
ing against  a  tree,  crack  his  skull  against  a  branch. 

Even  the  most  experienced  hunters  have  many  dangers  to  encounter  while  facing 
their  gigantic  adversary.  Thus,  on  the  banks  of  the  Zouga  in  1850,  Mr.  Oswell  had 
one  of  the  most  extraordinary  escapes  from  a  wounded  elephant  perhaps  ever  recorded 
in  the  annals  of  the  chase.  Pursuing  the  brute  into  the  dense  thick  thorny  bushes 
met  with  on  the  margin  of  that  river,  and  to  which  the  elephant  usually  flees  for 
safety,  he  followed  through  a  narrow  pathway  by  lifting  up  some  of  the  branches,  and 
forcing  his  way  through  the  rest ;  but  when  he  had  just  got  over  this  difficulty,  he  saw 
the  elephant,  whose  tail  he  had  but  got  glimpses  of  before,  now  rushing  full  speed 
towards  him.  There  was  then  no  time  to  lift  up  the  branches,  so  he  tried  to  force  his 
horse  through  them.  He  could  not  effect  a  passage,  and  as  there  was  but  an  instant 
between  the  attempt  and  failure,  the  hunter  tried  to  dismount ;  but  in  doing  this,  one 
foot  was  caught  by  a  branch,  and  the  spur  drawn  along  the  animal's  flank  ;  this  made 
him  spring  away,  and  throw  the  rider  to  the  ground  with  his  face  to  the  elephant, 
which,  being  in  full  chase,  still  went  on.     Mr.  Oswell  saw  the  huge  fore  foot  about  to 


ELEPHANT- HUNTING  IN  ABYSSINIA  AND  INDIA.  717 

descend  on  his  legs,  parted  them,  and  drew  in  his  breath,  as  if  to  resist  the  pressure 
of  the  other  foot,  which  he  expected  woukl  next  descend  on  his  body.  His  relief  may 
be  imagined,  when  he  saw  the  whole  length  of  the  under  part  of  the  enormous  brute 
pass  over  him,  leaving  him  perfectly  unhurt. 

In  Abyssinia  the  elephant  is  hunted  in  an  original  manner.  The  men,  who  make 
this  their  chief  occupation,  dwell  constantly  in  the  woods,  and  live  entirely  upon  the 
flesh  of  the  animals  they  kill.  They  are  exceedingly  agile  and  dextrou.s,  both  on 
horseback  and  on  foot ;  indispensable  qualities,  partly  inherited  and  partly  acquired  by 
constant  practice.  Completely  naked,  to  render  their  movements  more  easy,  and  to 
prevent  their  being  laid  hold  of  by  the  trees  and  bushes ;  two  of  these  bold  huntsmen 
get  on  horseback  ;  one  of  them  bestrides  the  back  of  the  steed — a  short  stick  in  one 
hand,  the  reins  in  the  other — while  behind  him  sits  his  companion,  armed  with  a  sharp 
broad-sword.  As  soon  as  they  perceive  a  grazing  elephant,  they  instantly  ride  up  to 
him,  or  cross  him  in  all  directions  if  he  flies,  uttering  at  the  same  time  a  torrent  of 
abuse,  for  the  purpose,  as  they  fancy,  of  raising  his  anger.  With  outstretched  trunk 
the  elephant  attempts  to  seize  the  noisy  intruders,  and  following  the  perfectly  trained 
horse,  which,  springing  from  side  to  side,  leads  him  along  in  vain  pursuit,  neglects  flight 
into  the  woods,  his  sole  chance  of  safety,  for  while  his  whole  attention  is  fixed  on  the 
rapid  movements  of  the  horse,  the  swordsman,  who  has  sprung  unperceived  from  its 
back,  approaches  stealthily  from  behind,  and  with  one  stroke  of  his  weapon,  severs  the 
tendon  just  above  the  heel.  The  disabled  monster  falls  shrieking  to  the  ground,  and 
incapable  of  advancing  a  step,  is  soon  dispatched.  The  whole  flesh  is  then  cut  off  his 
bones  into  thongs,  and  hung  like  festoons  upon  the  branches  of  trees  till  perfectly  dry, 
when  it  is  taken  down  and  laid  by  for  the  rainy  season. 

The  Asiatic  elephant  inhabits  Hindostan,  the  Chin-Indian  peninsula,  Sumatra,  Bor- 
neo, and  Ceylon.  In  the  latter  island  especially,  he  was  formerly  found  in  incredible 
numbers,  so  that  thirty  years  ago,  an  English  sportsman  killed  no  less  than  104  ele- 
phants in  three  days.  Major  Kogers  shot  upwards  of  1,400 ;  Captain  Galloway  has 
the  credit  of  slaying  more  than  half  that  number  ;  Major  Skinner  almost  as  many,  and 
less  persevering  aspirants  follow  at  humbler  distances.  A  reward  of  a  few  ^shillings 
a  head,  offered  by  the  government  for  taking  elephants,  was  claimed  for  3,r>00  de- 
stroyed in  part  of  the  northern  provinces  alone,  in  less  than  three  years  prior  to  1848, 
and  between  1851  and  1856  a  similar  reward  was  paid  for  2,000  in  the  southern 
provinces.  In  consequence  of  this  wholesale  slaughter,  it  cannot  be  wondered  at  that 
the  Ceylon  elephant  has  entirely  disappeared  from  districts  in  which  he  was  formerly 
numerous,  and  that  the  peasantry  in  some  parts  of  the  island  have  even  suspended  the 
ancient  practice  of  keeping  watchers  and  fires  by  night  to  drive  away  the  elephants 
from  the  growing  crops.  The  opening  of  roads,  and  the  clearing  of  the  mountain- 
forests  of  Candy  for  the  cultivation  of  coffee,  have  forced  the  animals  to  retire  to  tlic 
low  country,  where  again  they  have  been  followed  by  large  parties  of  European 
sportsmen ;  and  the  Singhalese  themselves  being  more  freely  provided  with  arms  tlian 
in  former  times,  have  assisted  in  the  work  of  extermination.  The  practice  in  Ceylon 
is  to  aim  invariably  at  the  head ;  and,  generally  speaking,  a  single  ball  planted  in  the 
forehead  ends  the  existence  of  the  noble  creatures  instantaneously. 

In  India  and  Ceylon,  elephants  have  been  caught  and  tamed  from  time  innnemorial, 
and  when  we  compare  their  colossal  strength  with  the  physical  weakness  of  man,  it 


718  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

surely  must  be  considered  a  signal  triumph  of  his  intelligence  and  courage,  that  he  is 
able  to  bend  such  gigantic  creatures  to  his  will.  The  professional  elephant-catchers 
of  Ceylon,  or  Panickeas,  as  they  are  called,  are  particularly  remarkable  for  their  daring 
and  adroitness.  Their  ability  in  tracing  their  huge  game,  rivaling  that  of  the  Ameri- 
can Indian  in  following  the  enemy's  trail,  has  almost  the  certainty  of  instinct,  and 
hence  their  services  are  eagerly  sought  by  the  European  sportsmen  who  go  down  into 
their  country  in  search  of  game.  So  keen  is  their  glance,  that  almost  at  the  top  of 
their  speed,  like  hounds  running  breast-high,  they  will  follow  the  course  of  an  elephant 
over  glades  covered  with  stunted  grass,  where  the  eye  of  a  stranger  would  fail  to  dis- 
cover a  trace  of  its  passage,  and  on  through  forests  strewn  with  dry  leaves,  where  it 
seems  impossible  to  perceive  a  footstep.  Here  they  are  guided  by  a  bent  or  broken 
twig,  or  by  a  leaf  dropped  from  the  animal's  mouth  on  which  they  can  detect  the 
pressure  of  a  tooth.  If  at  fault,  they  fetch  a  circuit  like  a  setter,  till  lighting  on 
some  fresh  marks,  they  go  ahead  again  with  renewed  vigor.  So  delicate  is  the  sense 
of  smell  in  the  elephant,  and  so  indispensable  is  it  to  go  against  the  wind  in  approach- 
ing him,  that  the  Panickeas  on  those  occasions  when  the  wind  is  so  still  that  its  direc- 
tion cannot  be  otherwise  discerned,  will  suspend  the  film  of  a  gossamer  to  determine 
it,  and  shape  their  course  accordingly. 

On  overtaking  the  game,  their  courage  is  as  conspicuous  as  their  sagacity.  If  they 
have  confidence  in  the  sportsman  for  whom  they  are  finding,  they  will  advance  to  the 
very  heel  of  the  elephant,  slap  him  on  the  quarter,  and  then  convert  his  timidity  into 
anger,  till  he  turns  upon  his  tormentor,  and  exposes  his  heavy  front  to  receive  the 
bullet  which  is  awaiting  him.  So  fearless  and  confident  are  they,  that  two  men  with- 
out aid  or  attendants  will  boldly  attempt  to  capture  the  largest-sized  elephant.  Their 
only  weapon  is  a  flexible  rope  made  of  buffalo's  hide,  with  which  it  is  their  object  to 
secure  one  of  the  hind-legs.  This  they  eflfect  either  by  following  in  his  footsteps  when 
in  motion,  or  by  stealing  close  up  to  hira  when  at  rest,  and,  availing  themselves  of  the 
propensity  of  the  elephant  at  such  moments  to  swing  his  feet  backwards  and  forwards, 
they  contrive  to  slip  a  noose  over  his  hind-leg. 

At  other  times,  this  is  achieved  by  spreading  the  noose  on  the  ground,  partially 
concealeS  by  roots  and  leaves,  beneath  a  tree  on  which  one  of  the  party  is  stationed, 
whose  business  it  is  to  lift  it  suddenly  by  means  of  a  cord,  raising  it  on  the  elephant's 
leg  at  the  moment  when  his  companion  has  succeeded  in  provoking  him  to  place  his 
foot  within  the  circle,  the  other  end  having  been  previously  made  fast  to  the  stem  of 
the  tree.  Should  the  noosing  be  effected  in  open  ground,  and  no  tree  of  sufficient 
strength  at  hand  round  which  to  wind  the  rope,  one  of  the  Moors,  allowing  himself 
to  be  pursued  by  the  enraged  elephant,  entices  him  towards  the  nearest  grove,  when 
his  companion,  dexterously  laying  hold  of  the  rope  as  it  trails  along  the  ground,  sud- 
denly coils  it  round  a  suitable  stem,  and  brings  the  fugitive  to  a  stand  still.  On  find- 
ing himself  thus  arrested,  the  natural  impulse  of  the  captive  is  to  turn  on  the  man 
who  is  making  fast  the  rope,  a  movement  which  it  is  the  duty  of  his  colleague  to  pre- 
vent by  running  up  close  to  the  elephant's  head,  and  provoking  him  to  confront  him 
by  irritating  gesticulations  and  incessant  shouts  of  dak!  dah!  a  monosyllable,  the 
sound  of  which  the  elephant  peculiarly  dislikes.  Meanwhile  the  first  assailant  having 
secured  one  noose,  comes  up  from  behind  with  another,  with  which,  amidst  the  vain 
rage  and  struggles  of  the  victim,  he  enti-aps  a  fore-leg,  the  rope  being  as  before  se- 


CAPTURE   OF   ELEPHANTS.  719 

cured  to  another  tree  in  front,  and  the  whole  four  feet  having  been  thus  cntaiiglt-d, 
the  capture  is  completed.  A  shelter  is  then  run  up  with  branches  to  protect  him  from 
the  sun,  and  the  hunters  proceed  to  build  a  wigwam  for  themselves  in  front  of  tlieir 
prisoner,  kindling  their  fires  for  cooking,  and  making  all  the  necessary  arrangements 
for  remaining  day  and  night  on  the  spot,  to  await  the  process  of  subduing  and  taming 
his  rage. 

Picketed  to  the  ground  like  Gulliver  by  the  Lilliputians,  the  elephant  soon  ceases 
to  struggle,  and  what  with  the  exhaustion  of  ineffectual  resistance,  the  constant  annoy- 
ance of  smoke,  and  the  liberal  supply  of  food  and  water  with  which  he  is  indulged, 
a  few  weeks  generally  suffice  to  subdue  his  spirit,  when  his  keepers  at  length  venture 
to  remove  him  to  their  own  village,  or  to  the  seaside  for  shipment  to  India.  No  part 
of  the  hunter's  performances  exhibits  greater  skill  and  audacity  than  this  first  forced 
march  of  the  recently  captured  elephant.  As  he  is  still  too  morose  to  submit  to  be 
ridden,  and  it  would  be  equally  impossible  to  lead  or  drive  him  by  force,  the  ingenuity 
of  the  captors  is  displayed  in  alternately  irritating  and  eluding  his  attacks,  but  always 
so  attracting  his  attention,  as  to  allure  him  along  in  the  direction  in  which  they  want 
him  to  go. 

My  limits  forbid  me  entering  upon  a  detailed  account  of  the  great  elephant-hunts 
of  India  and  Ceylon,  where  whole  herds  are  driven  into  an  inclosurc  and  entrapped 
in  one  vast  decoy.  This  may  truly  be  called  the  sublime  of  sport,  for  nowhere  is  it 
conducted  on  a  grander  scale,  or  so  replete  with  thrilling  emotions.  The  keddah  or 
corral,  as  the  enclosure  is  called,  is  constructed  in  the  depth  of  the  forests,  several 
hundred  paces  long,  and  half  as  broad,  and  of  a  strength  commensurate  to  the  power 
of  the  animals  it  is  intended  to  secure.  Slowly  and  cautiously  the  doomed  herds  are 
driven  onwards  from  a  vast  circuit  by  thousands  of  beaters  in  narrowing  circles  to  the 
fatal  gate,  which  is  instantly  closed  behind  thera,  and  then  the  hunters,  rushing  with 
wild  clamor  and  blazing  torches  to  the  stockade,  complete  the  terror  of  the  bewildered 
animals.  Trumpeting  and  screaming  with  rage  and  fear,  they  rush  round  the  corral  at 
a  rapid  pace,  but  all  their  attempts  to  force  the  powerful  fence  are  vain,  for  wherever 
they  assail  the  palisade,  they  are  met  with  glaring  flambeaus  and  bristling  spears,  and 
on  whichever  side  they  approach,  they  are  repulsed  with  shouts  and  discharge  of  mus- 
ketry. For  upwards  of  an  hour  their  frantic  efibrts  are  continued  with  unabated  en- 
ergy, till  at  length,  stupified,  exhausted,  and  subdued  by  apprehension  and  amaze- 
ment, they  form  themselves  into  a  circle,  and  stand  motionless  under  the  dark  shade 
of  the  trees  in  the  middle  of  the  corral.  The  artist,  on  the  page  470  of  this  volume, 
has  given  a  picture  of  a  herd  of  captured  elephants  thus  "  tied  up." 

To  secure  the  entrapped  animals,  the  assistance  of  tame  elephants  or  decoys  is  neces- 
sary, who,  by  occupying  their  attention  and  masking  the  movements  of  the  nooser,  give 
him  an  opportunity  of  slipping  one  by  one  a  rope  round  their  feet  until  their  capture  is 
completed.  The  quickness  of  eye  displayed  by  the  men  in  watching  the  slightest  move- 
ment of  an  elephant,  and  their  expertness  in  flinging  the  noose  over  its  foot,  and  at- 
taching it  firmly  before  the  animal  can  tear  it  off"  with  its  trunk,  are  no  less  admirable 
than  the  rare  sagacity  of  the  decoys,  who  display  the  most  perfect  conception  of  the 
object  to  be  attained,  and  the  means  of  accomplishing  it.  Thus  Sir  Emerson  Tennent 
saw  more  than  once,  during  a  great  elephant  hunt  which  he  witnessed  in  1847,  that 
when  one  of  the  wild  elephants  was  extending  his  trunk,  and  would  have  Intercepted 


720 


THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 


the  rope  about  to  be  placed  over  his  leg,  the  decoy,  by  a  sudden  motion  of  her  own 
trunk,  pushed  his  aside  and  prevented  him ;  and  on  one  occasion,  when  successive  ef- 
forts had  failed  to  put  the  noose  over  the  leg  of  an  elephant  who  was  already  secured 
by  one  foot,  but  who  wisely  put  the  other  to  the  ground  as  often  as  it  was  attempted  to 
pass  the  noose  under  it,  he  saw  the  decoy  watch  her  opportunity,  and  when  his  foot  was 
again  raised,  suddenly  push  in  her  own  leg  beneath  it,  and  hold  it  up  till  the  noose  was 
attached  and  drawn  tight.  Apart  from  the  services  which  from  their  prodigious  strength 
the  tame  elephants  are  alone  capable  of  rendering,  in  dragging  out  and  securing  the 
captives,  it  is  perfectly  obvious  that,  without  their  sagacious  cooperation,  the  utmost 
prowess  and  dexterity  of  the  hunters  would  not  avail  them  to  enter  the  enclosure  un- 
supported, or  to  ensnare  and  to  lead  out  a  single  captive. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  every  elephant  thus  corraled  is  secured. 
Sometimes  one  will,  by  the  use  of  a  little  "Head-work,"  try  to  get  free  from  the  cords 
which  have  bound  his  legs.  His  buttings  and  pitchings  are  a  sight  to  behold.  At  other 
times  an  "  obstinate  brute  "  will  lie  down,  refuse  to  take  food,  and  in  a  short  time  die 


AN    OBSTINATE    BRUTE. 


without  any  perceptible  disease.     The  natives  say  that  he  dies  of  a  broken  heart,  and 
that  the  animal  thus  lost  is  likely  to  be  the  very  finest  of  the  whole  herd. 

It  may  easily  be  imagined  that  the  passage  from  a  life  of  unfettered  liberty  in  the 
cool  and  sequestered  forest  to  one  of  obedience  and  labor,  must  necessarily  put  the 
health  of  the  animal  to  a  severe  trial.  Official  records  prove  that  more  than  half  of 
the  elephants  employed  in  the  public  departments  of  the  Ceylon  government  die  in 
one  year's  servitude,  and  even  when  fully  trained  and  inured  into  captivity,  the  work- 
ing elephant  is  always  a  delicate  animal,  subject  to  a  great  variety  of  diseases,  and 
consequently  often  incapacitated  from  labor.  Thus,  in  spite  of  his  colossal  strength, 
which  can  not  even  be  employed  to  its  full  extent,  as  it  is  difficult  to  pack  him  with- 
out chafing  the  skin,  and  wagons  of  corresponding  dimension  to  his  muscular  powers 


THE  RHINOCEROS. 


721 


would  utterly  ruia  the  best  constructed  roads,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  his  services 
are  in  proportion  to  his  cost,  and  Sir  Emerson  Tennent  is  of  opinion  that  two  vigorous 
dray  horses  would,  at  less  expense,  do  more  effectual  work  than  any  elephant.  Most 
likely  from  a  comparative  calculation  of  this  kind,  the  strength  of  the  elephant  estab- 
lishments in  Ceylon  has  been  gradually  diminished  of  lute  years,  so  that  the  govern- 
ment stud,  which  formerly  consisted  of  upwards  of  sixty  elepbants,  is  at  pn-sent  re- 
duced to  less  than  one-quarter  of  that  number. 


x5v| 

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.m 

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W\^-      ^%    ■' 

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ib^« 

HJ|^^^^^B^^^ 

^i.U5^ 

^^^w^^N 

^''Wi    -^--j^mBm       ^        -.,      :' 

r  i 

r^ 

^^^^m.  .Ji^     \ 

P::^P^^^MJ 

fc^^w^^ 

A    LITTLE    HEAD   WOKK. 


The  Rhinoceros  has  about  the  same  range  as  the  elephaut,  but  is  found  also  in  the 
island  of  Java,  where  the  latter  is  unknown.  Although  not  possessed  of  the  ferocity 
of  carnivorous  animals,  the  rhinoceros  is  completely  wild  and  untamable ;  the  image 
of  a  gigantic  hog,  without  intelligence,  feeling  or  docility ;  and  if  in  bodily  size  and 
colossal  strength  it,  of  all  other  land  animals,  most  nearly  approaches  the  elephant,  it 
is  infinitely  his  inferior  in  point  of  sagacity.  The  latter,  with  his  beautiful,  good- 
natured,  intelligent  eye,  awakens  the  sympathy  of  man  ;  while  the  rhinoceros  might 
figure  as  the  very  symbol  of  brutal  violence  and  stupidity. 

It  was  formerly  supposed  that  Africa  had  but  one  rhinoceros,  but  the  researches 
of  modern  travelers  have  discovered  no  less  than  four  different  species,  two  white  and 
two  black,  each  of  them  with  two  horns.  The  black  species  are  tho  Borelo  of  the 
Bechuanas,  and  the  Keitloa,  which  is  longer,  with  a  larger  neck  and  almost  equal 
horns.  In  both  species  the  upper  lip  projects  over  the  lower,  and  is  capable  of  being 
extended  like  that  of  the  giraffe,  thus  enabling  the  animal  to  pull  down  the  branches 
on  whose  foliage  he  intends  to  feast.  Both  the  Borelo  and  the  Keitloa  are  extremely 
ill-natured,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  buffalo,  the  most  dangerous  of  all  the  wild 
animals  of  South  Africa.  The  white  species  are  the  Monoho  (/?.  simm.)  and  the 
Kobaaba  (i?.  Oswellis,)  which  is  distinguished  by  one  of  its  horns  attaining  the 
prodigious  length  of  four  feet. 

Although  the  black  and  white  rhinoceros  are  members  of  the  same  family,  their 
mode  of  living  and  disposition  are  totally  different.  The  food  of  the  former  consists 
almost  entirely  of  roots,  which  they  dig  up  with  their  larger  horn,  or  of  the  branches 


722  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

aod  sprouts  of  the  thorny  acacia,  while  the  latter  exclusively  live  on  grasses.  Per- 
haps in  consequence  of  their  milder  and  more  succulent  food,  they  are  of  a  timid 
unsuspecting  nature,  which  renders  them  an  easy  prey,  so  that  they  are  fast  melting 
away  before  the  onward  march  of  the  European  trader  ;  while  the  black  species,  from 
their  great  ferocity  and  wariness,  maintain  their  place  much  longer  than  their  more 
timid  relations.  The  different  nature  of  the  black  and  white  rhinoceros  shows  itself 
even  in  their  flesh,  for  while  that  of  the  former,  living  chiefly  on  arid  branches,  has  a 
sharp  and  bitter  taste,  and  but  little  recommends  itself  by  its  meagerness  and  tough- 
ness— the  animal,  like  the  generality  of  ill-natured  creatures,  being  never  found  with 
an  ounce  of  fat  on  its  bones — that  of  the  latter  is  juicy  and  well-flavored,  a  delicacy 
both  for  the  white  man  and  the  negro. 

The  shape  of  the  rhinoceros  is  unwieldy  and  massive  ;  its  vast  paunch  hangs  down 
nearly  to  the  ground  ;  its  short  legs  are  of  columnar  strength,  and  have  three  toes  on 
each  foot ;  the  mis-shapen  head  has  long  and  erect  ears,  and  ludicrously  small  eyes ; 
the  skin,  which  is  completely  naked,  with  the  exception  of  some  coarse  bristles  at  the 
extremity  of  the  tail,  and  the  upper  end  of  the  ears,  is  comparatively  smooth  in  the 
African  species,  but  extremely  rough  in  the  Asiatic,  hanging  in  large  folds  about  the 
animal  like  a  mantle  ;  so  that,  summing  up  all  these  characteristics,  the  rhinoceros  has 
no  reason  to  complain  of  injustice,  if  we  style  it  the  very  incarnation  of  ugliness.  From 
the  snout  to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  the  African  rhinoceros  attains  a  length  of  from  15  to 
16  feet,  a  girth  of  from  10  to  12,  a  weight  of  from  4,000  to  5,000  pounds;  but  in 
spite  of  its  ponderous  and  clumsy  proportions,  it  is  able  to  speed  liko  lightning,  par- 
ticularly when  pursued.  It  then  seeks  the  nearest  wood,  and  dashes  with  all  its 
might  through  the  thicket.  The  trees  that  are  dead  or  dry  are  broken  down  as  with  a 
cannon  shot,  and  fall  behind  it  and  on  its  sides  in  all  directions ;  others  that  are  more 
pliable,  greener,  or  full  of  sap  are  bent  back  by  its  weight  and  the  velocity  of  its 
motions,  and  restore  themselves  like  a  green  branch  to  their  natural  position,  after  the 
animal  has  passed.  They  often  sweep  the  incautious  pursuer  and  his  horse  from  the 
ground,  and  dash  them  in  pieces  against  the  surrounding  trees. 

The  rhinoceros  is  endowed  with  an  extraordinary  acuteness  of  smell  and  hearing ; 
he  listens  with  attention  to  the  sounds  of  the  desert,  and  is  able  to  scent  from  a  great 
distance  the  approach  of  man  ;  but  as  the  range  of  his  small  and  deep-set  eyes  is  ira- 
•  peded  by  his  unwieldy  horns,  he  can  only  see  what  is  immediately  before  him,  so  that 
if  one  be  to  the  leeward  of  him,  it  is  not  difficult  to  approach  within  a  fevf  paces. 
The  Kobaaba,  however,  from  its  horn  being  projected  downwards,  so  as  not  to  obstruct 
the  line  of  vision,  is  able  to  be  much  more  wary  than  the  other  species.  To  make  up 
for  the  imperfection  of  sight,  the  rhinoceros  is  frequently  accompanied  by  a  bird 
{Buphaga  africana)  which  seems  to  be  attached  to  it  like  the  domestic  dog  to  man, 
and  warns  the  beast  of  approaching  danger  by  its  cry.  It  is  called  Kala,  by  the 
Bechuanas,  and  when  these  people  address  a  superior,  they  call  him  "  My  Rhinoceros  " 
by  way  of  compliment,  as  if  they  were  the  birds  ready  to  do  him  service. 

The  black  rhinoceroses  are  of  a  gloomy,  melancholy  temper,  and  not  seldom  fall 
into  paroxysms  of  rage  without  any  evident  cause.  Seeing  the  creatures  in  their  wild 
haunts,  cropping  the  bushes,  or  quietly  moving  through  the  plains,  you  might  take 
them  for  the  most  inoffensive,  good-natured  animals  of  all  Africa,  but  when  roused  to 
passion  there  is  nothing  more  terrific  on  earth.     All  the  beasts  of  the  wilderness  are 


HUNTING   THE   RIIINOCEKOS  723 

afraid  of  the  uncouth  Borelo.  The  lion  silently  retires  from  its  path,  and  even  the 
elephant  is  glad  to  get  out  of  the  way.  Yot  this  brutal  and  stupidly  hoggish  animal 
is  distinguished  by  its  parental  love,  and  the  tenderness  which  it  bestows  on  its  young 
is  returned  with  equal  aflfection.  European  hunters  have  often  witnessed  that  when 
the  mother  dies,  the  calf  remains  two  full  days  near  the  body. 

Although  not  gregarious,  and  most  generally  solitary  or  grazing  in  pairs,  yet  fre- 
quently as  many  as  a  dozen  rhinoceroses  are  seen  pasturing  and  browsing  too-ether. 
As  is  the  case  with  many  other  inhabitants  of  the  tropical  wilderness,  tlie  huge  beast 
awakens  to  a  more  active  life  after  sunset.  It  then  hastens  to  the  lake  or  river  to 
slake  its  thirst  or  to  wallow  in  the  mud,  thus  covering  its  hide  with  a  thick  coat  of 
clay,  against  the  attacks  of  flies ;  or  to  relieve  itself  from  the  itching  of  their  stings,  it 
rubs  itself  against  some  tree,  and  testifies  its  inward  satisfaction  by  a  deep-drawn 
grunt.  During  the  night,  it  rambles  over  a  great  extent  of  country,  but  soon  after 
sunrise  seeks  repose  and  shelter  against  the  heat  under  the  shade  of  a  mimosa,  or  the 
projecting  ledge  of  a  rock,  where  it  spends  the  greater  part  of  the  day  in  sleep,  either 
stretched  at  full  length  or  in  a  standing  position.  Thus  seen  from  a  distance,  it  might 
easily  be  mistaken  for  a  huge  block  of  stone. 

The  rhinoceros  is  hunted  in  various  manners.  One  of  the  most  approved  plans  is 
to  stalk  the  animal,  either  when  feeding  or  reposing.  If  the  sportsman  keep  well 
under  the  wind,  and  there  be  the  least  cover,  he  has  no  difficulty  in  approaching 
the  beast  within  easy  range,  when,  if  the  ball  be  well  directed,  it  is  killed  on  the  spot. 
But  by  far  the  most  convenient  way  of  destroying  the  animal  is  to  shoot  it  from  a  cover 
or  a  screen,  when  it  comes  to  the  pool  to  slake  its  thirst.  Occasionally  it  is  also  taken 
in  pitfalls.  Contrary  to  common  belief,  a  leaden  ball  (though  spelter  is  preferable) 
will  easily  find  its  way  through  the  hide  of  the  African  rhinoceros,  but  it  is  necessary 
to  be  within  thirty  or  forty  paces  of  the  brute,  and  desirable  to  have  a  double  charge 
of  powder.  The  most  deadly  part  to  aim  at  is  just  behind  the  shoulder ;  a  ball 
through  the  center  of  the  lobes  of  the  lungs  is  certain  to  cause  almost  instantaneous 
death,  A  shot  in  the  head  never  or  rarely  proves  fatal,  as  the  brain,  which,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  bulk  of  the  animal,  does  not  attain  the  three-hundredth  part  of  the  size 
of  the  human  cerebrum,  is  protected,  besides  its  smallness,  by  a  prodigious  case  of 
bone,  bide,  and  horn.  However  severely  wounded  the  rhinoceros  may  be,  he  seldom 
bleeds  externally.  This  is  attributable  in  part,  no  doubt,  to  the  great  thickness  of  the 
hide  and  its  elasticity,  which  occasions  the  hole  caused  by  the  bullet  nearly  to  close 
up,  as  also  from  the  hide  not  being  firmly  attached  to  the  body,  but  constantly  moving. 
If  the  animal  bleed  at  all,  it  is  from  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  which  is  a  pretty  sure 
sign  that  it  is  mortally  hurt,  and  will  soon  drop  down  dead.  It  is  remarkable  tliat  the 
rhinoceros,  when  hit  by  a  fatal  bullet,  does  not  fall  upon  one  side,  but  generally  sinks 
on  its  knees,  and  thus  breathes  its  last. 

From  what  has  been  related  of  the  fury  of  the  rhinoceros,  its  pursuit  must  evidently 
be  attended  with  considerable  danger,  and  thus  the  annals  of  the  wild  sports  of  Soutlicrn 
Africa  are  full  of  hair  breadth  escapes  from  its  terrific  charge.  The  rhinoceros  is 
hunted  for  its  flesh,  its  hide  (which  is  manufactured  into  the  best  and  hardest  leather 
that  can  be  imagined),  and  its  horns,  which,  being  capable  of  a  higli  polish,  fetch  at 
the  Cape  a  higher  price  than  ordinary  elephant  ivory.  It  is  extensively  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  sword-handles,  drinking- cups,  ramrods  for  rifles,  and  a  variety  of  other 


724  THE   TROPICAL  WORLD. 

purposes.  Among  Oriental  princes,  goblets  made  of  rhinoceros-horn  are  in  high 
esteem,  as  they  are  supposed  to  have  the  virtue  of  detecting  poison  by  causing  the 
deadly  liquid  to  ferment  till  it  flows  over  the  rim,  or,  as  some  say,  to  split  the  cup. 
The  number  of  rhinoceroses  destroyed  annually  in  South  Africa  is  very  considerable. 
Captain  Harris,  who  once  saw  two-and-twenty  together,  shot  four  of  them  one  after  the 
other  to  clear  his  way.  Messrs.  Oswell  and  Varden  killed  in  one  year  no  less  than 
eighty-nine ;  and  in  one  journey,  Andersson  shot,  single-handed,  nearly  two-thirds  of 
this  number.  It  is  thus  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  rhinoceros,  which  formerly 
rano-ed  as  far  as  the  Cape,  is  now  but  seldom  found  to  the  south  of  the  tropic.  The 
progress  of  African  discovery  bodes  no  good  to  him  or  to  the  hippopotamus. 

The  single-horned  Indian  rhinoceios  was  already  known  to  the  ancients,  and  not 
unfrequently  doomed  to  bleed  in  the  Koman  amphitheatres.  One  which  was  sent  to 
Kino-  Emanuel  of  Portugal  in  the  year  1513,  and  presented  by  him  to  the  Pope,  had 
the  honor  to  be  pictured  in  a  wood  cut  by  no  less,  an  artist  than  Albreeht  Durer  himself. 
Latterly,  rhinoceroses  have  much  more  frequently  been  sent  to  Europe,  particularly 
the  Asiatic  species,  and  all  the  chief  zoological  gardens  possess  specimens  of  the  un- 
wieldy creature. 

In  its  native  haunts,  the  Indian  rhinoceros  leads  a  tranquil,  indolent  life,  wallowing 
on  the  marshy  border  of  lakes  and  rivers,  and  occasionally  bathing  itself  in  their 
waters.  Its  movements  are  usually  slow,  and  it  carries  its  head  low  like  the  hog, 
plowing  up  the  ground  with  its  horn,  and  making  its  way  by  sheer  force  through  the 
jungle.  Though  naturally  of  a  quiet  and  inoffensive  disposition,  it  is  very  furious 
and  dangerous  when  provoked  or  attacked,  charging  with  resistless  impetuosity,  and 
trampling  down  or  ripping  up  with  its  horn  any  animal  which  opposes  it. 

Besides  the  single-horned  species  which  inhabits  the  Indian  peninsula,  Java,  and 
Borneo,  Sumatra  possesses  a  rhinoceros  with  a  double  horn,  which  is,  however,  distin- 
guished from  the  analogous.  African  species  by  the  large  folds  of  its  skin,  and  its 
smaller  size.  It  is  even  asserted  that  there  exists  in  the  same  island  a  hornless  spe- 
cies, and  another  with  three  horns.  There  surely  can  be  no  better  proof  of  the  diffi- 
culties which  Natural  History  has  to  contend  with  in  the  wilder  regions  of  the  tropical 
zone,  and  of  the  vast  field  still  open  to  future  zoologists,  than  that,  in  spite  of  all  in- 
vestigations and  travels,  we  do  not  yet  even  know  with  certainty  all  the  species  of  so 
large  a  brute  as  the  rhinoceros. 

In  Java,  this  huge  pachyderm  is  met  with  in  the  jungles  of  the  low  country,  but  its 
chief  haunts  are  the  higher  forest-lands,  which  contain  many  small  lakes  and  pools, 
whose  banks  are  covered  with  high  grasses.  Here  and  there,  also,  the  woods  are  in- 
terspersed with  dry  pasture-grounds,  and  even  in  the  interior  of  the  forests,  numerous 
species  of  gramineae  are  found  increasing  in  number  as  they  rise  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  In  these  solitudes,  which  are  seldom  visited  by  man,  the  rhinoceros  finds  all 
that  it  requires  for  food  and  enjoyment.  As  it  is  uncommonly  shy,  the  traveler  rarely 
meets  it,  but  sometimes,  while  threading  his  way  through  the  thicket,  he  may  chance 
to  surprise  wild  steers  and  rhinoceroses  grazing  on  the  brink  of  a  pool,  or  quietly  lying 
in  the  morass.  The  grooved  paths  of  the  rhinoceros,  deeply  worn  into  the  solid  rock, 
and  thus  affording  proof  of  their  immemorial  antiquity,  are  found  even  on  the  summits 
of  mountains  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  They  are  frequently  used  for  the  destruction 
of  the  animal,  for  in  the  steeper  places,  where,  on  climbing  up  or  down,  it  is  obliged 


THE   HIPPOPOTAMUS.  725 

to  stretch  out  its  body,  so  that  the  abdomen  nearly  reaches  the  ground,  the  Javanese 
fix  large  scythe-like  knives  into  the  rock,  which  they  cover  with  moss  and  lierhage, 
thus  forcing  the  poor  rhinoceros  to  commit  an  involuntary  suicide,  and  teaching  him, 
though  too  late  to  profit  by  his  experience,  how  difficult  it  is  to  escape  the  cuuuing  of 
man,  even  on  the  mountain  peak. 

"  Behold  now  Behemoth,  which  I  made  with  thee  ;  he  eateth  grass  as  an  ox  ;  his 
bones  are  as  strong  pieces  of  brass ;  his  bones  are  like  bars  of  iron  ;  he  lieth  under 
the  shady  trees  in  the  covert  of  the  reed  and  fens.  The  shady  trees  cover  him  with 
their  shadow  ;  the  willows  of  the  brook  compass  him  about.  Behold  he  drinketh  up 
a  river  ;  he  trusteth  that  he  can  draw  up  Jordan  into  his  mouth."  Thus,  in  the  book 
of  Job,  we  find  the  Hippopotamus  portrayed  with  few  words  but  incomparable  power. 
How  tame  after  this  noble  picture  must  any  lengthened  description  appear !  * 

According  to  the  inspired  poet,  the  hippopotamus  seems  anciently  to  have  inh:d)ited 
the  waters  of  the  Jordan,  but  now  it  is  nowhere  to  be  found  in  Asia;  and  even  in 
Africa  the  limits  of  its  domain  are  perpetually  contracting  before  the  persecutions  of 
man.  It  has  entirely  disappeared  from  Egypt  and  the  rivers  of  the  Cape  Colony, 
where  Le  Vaillant  found  it  in  numbers  during  the  last  century.  In  many  respects  a 
valuable  prize ;  of  easy  destruction,  in  spite,  or  rather  on  account  of  its  size,  which 
betrays  it  to  the  attacks  of  its  enemies  ;  a  dangerous  neighbor  to  plantations,  it  is  con- 
demned to  retreat  before  the  waves  of  advancing  civilization,  and  would  long  since 
have  been  extirpated  in  all  Africa,  if  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  the  interior  of  that  va.st 
den  of  barbarism  were  as  busily  plowed  over  as  ours  by  boats  and  ships,  or  their 
banks  as  thickly  strewn  with  towns  and  villages. 

For  the  hippopotamus  is  not  able,  like  so  many  other  beasts  of  the  wilderness,  to 
hide  itself  in  the  gloom  of  impenetrable  forests,  or  to  plunge  into  the  sandy  tltjsert, 
traversed  by  the  Bedouin  on  his  dromedary;  it  requires  the  neighborliood  of  tiie 
stream,  the  empire  of  which  it  divides  with  its  amphibious  neighbor  the  crocodile. 
Occasionally  during  the  day  it  is  to  be  seen  basking  on  the  shore  amid  ooze  and  mud, 
but  throughout  the  night  the  unwieldy  monster  may  be  heard  snorting  and  blowing 
during  its  aquatic  gambols ;  it  then  sallies  forth  from  its  reed-grown  coverts  to  graze 
by  the  light  of  the  moon,  never,  however,  venturing  to  any  distance  from  the  river, 
the  stronghold  to  which  it  betakes  itself  on  the  smallest  alarm. 

In  point  of  ugliness  the  hippopotamus,  or  river-horse,  as  it  has  also  very  inappropri- 
ately been  named,  might  compete  with  the  rhinoceros  itself.  Its  shapeless  carca^ 
rests  upon  short  and  disproportioned  legs,  and,  with  its  vast  belly  almost  trailing  upon 
the  ground,  it  may  not  inaptly  be  likened  to'an  overgrown  "prize-pig."  Its  immensely 
large  head  has  each  jaw  armed  with  two  formidable  tusks,  those  in  the  lower,  whicii 
are'' always  the  largest,  attaining  at  times  two  feet  in  length  ;  and  the  inside  of  the 
mouth  is  said  to  resemble  a  mass  of  butcher's  meat.  The  eyes,  which  are  placed  in 
prominences  like  the  garret  windows  of  a  Dutch  house,  the  nostrils,  and  ears,  are  all 
on  the  same  plane,  on  the  upper  level  of  the  head,  so  that  the  unwieldy  monster, 

*  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  it  is  not  altogether  certain  that  tlie  Ilippopotnmns  is 
really  the  Behemoth  of  Job.  Dr.  Thomson,  than  whom  there  can  hardly  bo  better  a.ithor.ty. 
in  his  admirable  work  "The  Land  and  the  Book,"  argues  plausibly  that  Buhem-.th  is  the 
Syrian  Buffalo. 


726  THE  TROPICAL  WORLD. 

when  immersed  in  its  favorite  element,  is  able  to  draw  breath,  and  to  use  three  senses 
at  once  for  hours  together,  without  exposing  more  than  its  snout.  The  hide,  which  is 
upwards  of  an  inch  and  a  half  in  thickness,  and  of  a  pinkish  brown  color,  clouded 
and  freckled  with  a  darker  tint,  is  destitute  of  covering,  excepting  a  few  scattered  hairs 
on  the  muzzle,  the  edges  of  the  ears  and  tail.  Though  generally  mild  and  inoffensive, 
it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  a  creature  like  this,  which  when  full  grown  attains  a 
length  of  eleven  or  twelve  feet,  and  nearly  the  same  colossal  girth,  affords  a  truly 
appalling  spectacle  when  enraged,  and  that  a  nervous  person  may  well  lose  his  presence 
of  mind  when  suddenly  brought  into  contact  with  the  gaping  monster. 

As  among  the  sperm-whales,  sea-bears,  elephants,  and  other  animals,  elderly  males 
are  sometimes  expelled  from  the  herd,  and,  for  want  of  company,  become  soured  in  their 
temper,  and  so  misanthropic  as  to  attack  every  boat  that  comes  near  them.  The  herd 
is  never  dangerous  except  when  a  canoe  passes  into  the  midst  of  it  when  all  are  asleep, 
and  some  of  them  may  strike  it  in  terror.  To  avoid  this,  it  is  generally  recommended 
to  travel  by  day  near  the  bank,  and  by  night  in  the  middle  of  the  stream.  The 
"  solitaires,"  or  "rogue-hippopotami,"  frequent  certain  localities  well  known  to  the  in- 
habitants of  the  banks,  and,  like  the  outcast  elephants,  are  extremely  dangerous.  Dr. 
Livingstone,  passing  a  canoe  which  had  been  smashed  to  pieces  by  a  blow  from  the 
hind  foot  of  one  of  them,  was  informed  by  his  men  that,  in  case  of  a  similar  assault 
being  made  on  his  boat,  the  proper  way  was  to  dive  to  the  bottom  of  the  river,  and 
hold  on  there  for  a  few  seconds,  because  the  hippopotamus,  after  breaking  a  canoe, 
always  looks  for  the  people  on  the  surface,  and  if  he  sees  none,  soon  moves  off.  He 
saw  some  frightful  gashes  made  on  the  legs  of  the  people  who,  having  had  the  misfor- 
tune to  be  attacked,  were  unable  to  dive.  One  of  these  "  bachelors  "  one  day  actually 
came  out  of  his  lair,  and,  putting  his  head  down,  ran  with  very  considerable  speed 
after  the  missionary  and  his  party ;  and  another  time  they  were  nearly  overturned  by 
a  hippopotamus  striking  the  canoe  with  its  forehead.  The  butt  was  so  violent  as  to  tilt 
one  of  the  boatmen  out  into  the  river,  while  the  rest  sprang  to  the  shore,  which  was 
only  about  ten  yards  off;  the  beast  looking  all  the  time  at  the  canoe,  as  if  to  ascertain 
what  mischief  it  had  done. 

In  rivers  where  it  is  seldom  disturbed,  such  as  the  Zambesi,  the  hippopotamus  puts 
up  its  head  openly  to  blow,  and  follows  the  traveler  with  an  inquisitive  glance,  as  if 
asking  him,  like  the  "  moping  owl  "  in  Grey's  Elegy,  why  he  came  to  molest  its  "  ancient 
solitary  reign  ?  "  but  in  other  rivers,  such  as  those  of  Londa,  where  it  is  much  in  dan- 
gler of  .being  shot,  the  hippopotamus  takes  good  care  to  conceal  its  nose  among  water- 
plants,  and  breathe  so  quietly  that  one  would  not  dream  of  its  existence  in  the  river, 
except  by  footprints  on  the  banks.  Notwithstanding  its  stupid  look — its  prominent  eyes 
and  naked  snout  giving  it  more  the  appearance  of  a  gigantic  boiled  calf's  head  than 
anything  else — the  huge  creature  is  by  no  means  deficient  in  intelligence,  knows  how 
to  avoid  pitfiills,  and  has  so  good  a  memory  that,  when  it  has  once  heard  a  ball  whiz 
about  its  ears,  it  never  after  ceases  to  be  cautious  and  "  wide  awake  "  at  the  approach 
of  danger.  Being  vulnerable  only  behind  the  ear,  however,  or  in  the  eye,  it  requires 
the  perfection  of  rifle-practice  to  be  hit ;  and  once  in  the  water,  is  still  more  difiBcult  to 
kill.  It  dives  and  swims  with  all  the  ease  of  a  walrus  or  a  sea  elephant,  its  huge  body 
being  rendered  buoyant  by  an  abundance  of  fat. 

Its  flesh  is  said  to  be  delicious,  resembling  the  finest  young  pork,  and  is  considered 


HUNTING  THE  HIPPOPOTAMUS.  727 

as  great  a  delicacy  in  Africa  as  a  bear's  paw  or  a  bison's  hump  in  the  prairies  of  North 
America.  The  thick  and  almost  inflcxil.lo  hide  may  be  dragged  from  the  ribs  in  strips, 
like  the  planks  from  a  ship's  side.  These  serve  for  the  manufacture  of  a  superior  de- 
scription of  sjambok,  the  elastic  whip  with  which  the  Cape  boer  governs  his  team  of 
twelve  oxen  or  more,  while  proceeding  on  a  journey.  In  Northern  Africa  it  is  used  to 
chastise  refractory  dromedaries  or  servants  ;  and  among  the  collection  brought  by  Du 
Chaillu  from  Equatorial  Africa  were  several  whips  of  hippopotamus-hide,  which  any 
one  wlio  has  had  opportunity  of  examination  would  pronounce  to  be  amonff  the  most 
effective  instruments  of  flagellation  ;  and  tlie  ancient  Egyptians  employed  it  largely  in 
the  manufacture  of  shields,  helmets,  and  javelins.  But  the  most  valuable  part  of  the 
hippopotamus  is  its  teeth  (canine  and  incisors),  which  are  considered  greatly  superior 
to  elephant  ivory,  and  when  perfect  and  weighty,  will  fetch  as  much  as  one  guinea  per 
pound,  being  chiefly  used  for  artificial  teeth,  since  it  does  not  readily  turn  yellow. 
Many  a  belle,  whose  fascinating  "  ivories  "  are  the  wonder  of  her  admirers,  is  in- 
debted for  them  to  the  ugly  river-horse.  All  these  qualities  and  uses  to  which  the 
hippopotamus  may  be  applied  are  naturally  so  many  prices  set  upon  its  head  ;  and  the 
ravages  it  occasions  in  the  fields  are  another  motive  for  its  destruction.  On  the  White 
Nile  the  peasantry  burn  a  number  of  fires,  to  keep  the  huge  animal  away  from  their 
plantations,  where  every  footstep  ploughs  deep  furrows  into  the  marshy  ground,  to  the 
great  injury  of  the  harvest.  At  the  same  time,  they  take  care  to  keep  up  a  prodigious 
clamor  of  horns  and  drums,  to  scare  away  the  ruinous  brute,  which,  as  may  well  be 
imagined,  is  by  no  means  so  great  a  favorite  with  them  as  with  the  visitors  of  the  ZoOlugi- 
cal  Gardens. 

They  have  besides  another,  and,  where  it  takes  effect  far  more  efficacious  method  of 
freeing  themselves  from  the  depredations  of  this  animal.  They  remark  the  places  it 
most  frequents,  and  there  lay  a  large  quantity  of  pease.  When  it  comes  on  shore 
hungry  and  voracious,  it  falls  to  eating  what  is  nearest,  and  fills  its  vast  stouHich  with 
the  pease,  which  soon  occasion  an  insupportable  thirst.  The  river  being  close  at  hand, 
it  immediately  drinks  whole  buckets  of  water,  as  if  it  were  intent  upon  swallowing  up 
not  merely  the  little  Jordan,  but  the  whole  Nile  itself,  which,  by  swelling  the  pease, 
cause  it  to  blow  up,  like  an  overloaded  mortar. 

The  natives  on  the  Teoge,  and  other  rivers  that  empty  themselves  into  Lake  Ngami, 
kill  the  hippopotamus  with  iron  harpoons,  attached  to  long  lines  ending  with  a  float. 
A  huge  reed  raft,  capable  of  carrying  both  the  hunters  and  their  canoes,  with  all  that 
is  needful  for  the  prosecution  of  the  chase,  is  pushed  from  the  shore,  and  afterwards 
abandoned  to  the  stream,  which  propels  the  unwieldy  mass  gently  and  noiselessly  for- 
wai-d.  Long  before  the  hippopotami  can  be  seen,  they  make  known  their  presence 
by  awful  snorts  and  grunts,  whilst  splashing  and  blowing  in  the  water.  On  approach- 
ing the  herd— for  the  gregarious  animal  likes  to  live  in  troops  of  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty — the  most  skillful  and  intrepid  of  the  hunters  stands  prepared  with  the  harpoons, 
whilst  the  rest  make  ready  to  launch  the  canoes  should  the  attack  prove  successful. 
The  bustle  and  noise  caused  by  these  preparations  gradually  subside.  At  length  not 
even  a  whisper  is  heard,  and  in  breathless  silence  the  hunters  wait  for  the  decisive 
conflict.  The  snorting  and  plunging  become  every  moment  more  distinct;  a  bend 
in  the  stream  still  hides  the  animals  from  view ;  but  now  the  point  is  pa.ssed,  and 
monstrous  figures,  that  might  be  mistaken  for  shapeless  cliffs,  did  not  ever  and  anon 


728  THE  TROPICAL  WORLD. 

one  or  the  otber  of  them  plunge  and  reappear,  are  seen  dispersed  over  the  troubled 
waters.  On  glides  the  raft,  its  crew  worked  up  to  the  highest  pitch  of  excitement, 
and  at  length  reaches  the  herd,  which,  perfectly  unconscious  of  danger,  continue  to 
enjoy  their  sports.  Presently  one  of  the  animals  is  in  immediate  contact  with  the  raft. 
Now  is  the  critical  moment ;  the  foremost  harpooner  raises  himself  to  his  full  height  to 
give  the  greater  force  to  the  blow,  and  the  next  instant  the  iron  descends  with  uner- 
ring accuracy,  and  is  buried  deep  in  the  body  of  the  bellowing  hippopotamus.  The 
wounded  animal  plunges  violently  and  dives  to  the  bottom,  but  all  its  efforts  to  escape 
are  as  ineffectual  as  those  of  the  seal  when  pierced  with  the  barbed  iron  of  the 
Greenlander. 

As  soon  as  it  is  struck,  one  or  more  of  the  men  launch  a  canoe  from  the  raft,  and 
hastening  to  the  shore  with  the  harpoon  line,  take  a  round  turn  with  it  about  a  tree, 
so  that  the  animal  may  either  be  brought  up  at  once,  or  should  there  be  too  great  a 
strain  on  the  line,  "  played,"  like  a  trout  or  salmon  by  the  fisherman.  Sometimes  both 
line  and  buoy  are  cast  into  the  water,  and  all  the  canoes  being  launched  from  off  the 
raft,  chase  is  given  to  the  poor  brute,  who  whenever  he  comes  to  the  surface  is  saluted 
with  a  shower  of  javelins.  A  long  trail  of  blood  marks  his  progress,  his  flight  becomes 
slower  and  slower,  his  breathing  more  oppressive,  until  at  last,  his  strength  ebbing  away 
through  fifty  wounds,  he  floats  dead  on  the  surface. 

But  as  the  whale  will  sometimes  turn  upon  his  assailants,  so  also  the  hippopotamus 
not  seldom  makes  a  dash  at  his  persecutors,  and  either  with  his  tusks,  or  with  a  blow 
from  his  head,  staves  in  or  capsizes  the  canoe.  Sometimes  even,  not  satisfied  with 
wreaking  his  vengeance  on  the  craft,  he  seizes  one  or  other  of  the  crew,  and  with  a 
single  grasp  of  his  jaws,  either  terribly  mutilates  the  poor  wretch  or  even  cuts  his  body 
fairly  in  two. 

The  natives  of  Southern  Africa  also  resort  to  the  ingenious  plan  of  destroying  the 
hippopotamus  by  means  of  a  downfall,  consisting  of  a  log  of  wood  with  stones  attached 
to  it  to  increase  its  weight,  and  a  harpoon  affixed  to  its  lower  end.  This  formidable 
weapon  depends  from  the  branch  of  an  overhanging  tree  by  means  of  a  line,  which  is 
then  made  to  cross  horizontally  the  pathway  which  the  hippopotamus  is  in  the  habit  of 
frequenting  during  the  night,  at  a  short  distance  from  the  ground.  When  the  animal 
comes  in  contact  with  the  line,  which  is  secured  on  either  side  of  the  path  by  a  small 
peg,  it  snaps  at  once,  or  is  disengaged  by  means  of  a  trigger.  The  liberated  down- 
fall instantly  descends  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning,  and  the  harpoon  is  driven  deep 
into  the  back  of  the  monster,  who,  bellowing  with  pain,  plunges  into  the  river,  where 
he  soon  after  dies  in  excruciating  torments. 

A  few  tropical  animals,  for  which  we  have  heretofore  found  no  appropriate  place,  yet 
remain  to  be  considered.  Foremost  of  these  is  the  Camel.  In  many  respects,  the 
vast  sandy  deserts  of  Asia  and  Africa  remind  one  of  the  ocean.  There  is  the  same 
boundless  horizon,  the  same  unstable  surface,  now  rising,  now  falling  with  the  play  of 
the  winds ;  the  same  majestic  monotony,  the  same  optical  illusions,  for  as  the  thirsty 
mariner  sees  phantom  palm-groves  rise  from  the  ocean,  thus  also  the  sand- waste  trans- 
forms itself,  before  the  panting  caravan,  into  the  semblance  of  a  refreshing  lake.  Here 
we  see  islands,  verdant  oases  of  the  sea — there,  oases,  green  islands  of  the  desert ; 
here,  sand-billows — there,  water  waves,  separating  widely  different  worlds  of  plants 


THE   CAMEL.  72y 

and  animals ;  here,  the  ship,  the  camel  of  the  ocean — there,  the  dromedary,  tlie  shin 
of  the  desert. 

But  for  the  camel,  the  desert  itself  would  ever  have  remained  impassahle  and  un- 
known to  man.  On  it  alone  depends  the  existence  of  the  nomadic  tribes  of  the  Orient, 
the  whole  commercial  intercourse  of  North  Africa  and  South-west  Asia,  and  no  wonder 
that  the  Bedouin  prizes  it,  along  with  the  fruit-teeming  date-palm,  as  the  most  precious 
gift  of  Allah.  Other  animals  have  been  formed  for  the  forest,  the  water,  the  savan- 
na ;  to  be  the  guide,  the  carrier,  the  companion,  the  purveyor  of  all  man's  wants  in 
the  desert,  is  the  camel's  destiny.  Wonderfully  has  he  been  shaped  for  this  peculiar 
life  ;  formed  to  endure  privations  and  fatigues  under  which  all  but  he  would  sink.  On 
examining  the  camel's  foot,  it  will  at  once  be  seen  how  well  it  is  adapted  for  walking 
on  a  loose  soil,  as  the  full  length  of  its  two  toes  is  provided  with  a  broad,  expanded, 
and  elastic  sole.  Thus  the  camel  treads  securely  and  lightly  over  the  unstable  sands, 
while  he  would  either  slip  or  sink  on  a  muddy  ground.  He  can  support  hunger  longer 
than  any  other  mammiferous  animal,  and  is  satisfied  with  the  meanest  food.  Frugal, 
like  his  lord  the  wiry  Bedouin,  the  grinding  power  of  his  teeth  and  his  cartilai'inous 
palate  enable  him  to  derive  nutriment  from  the  coarsest  shrubs,  from  thorny  mimosas 
and  acacias,  or  even  from  the  stony  date-kernels,  which  his  master  throws  to  him  after 
having  eaten  the  sweet  flesh  in  which  they  are  imbedded. 

For  many  days  he  can  subsist  without  drinking,  as  the  pouch-like  cavities  of  his 
stomach — a  peculiarity  which  distinguishes  him  from  all  other  quadrupeds,  perhaps, 
with  the  sole  exception  of  the  elephant — form  a  natural  cistern  or  reservoir,  whose 
contents  can  be  forced  upwards  by  muscular  contraction  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the 
journey.  It  is  frequently  believed  that  this  liquid  remains  constantly  limpid  and  pal- 
atable, and  that  in  cases  of  extreme  necessity  camels  are  slaughtered  to  preserve  the 
lives  of  the  thirsty  caravan  ;  but  according  to  Russegger  these  accounts  are  fabulous,  as, 
particularly  after  a  long  abstinence  from  drinking,  the  dromedary's  supply  is  nothing 
but  a  most  nauseous  mixture  of  putrid  water  and  half  digested  food,  from  which  even 
Tantalus  would  turn  away  disgusted.  But  the  "  ship  of  the  desert "  is  not  only  pro- 
vided with  water  for  the  voyage,  but  also  with  liberal  stores  of  fat,  which  are  chiefly 
accumulated  in  the  hump  ;  so  that  this  prominence,  which  gives  it  so  deformed  an  ap- 
pearance, is  in  reality  of  the  highest  utility — for  should  food  be  scarce,  and  this  is 
almost  always  the  case  while  journeying  through  the  desert,  internal  absorption  makes 
up  in  some  measure  for  the  deficiency,  and  enables  the  famished  camel  to  brave  for 
some  time  longer  the  fatigues  of  the  naked  waste.  Yet  all  mortal  endurance  has  its 
limit  ,  and  even  the  camel,  though  so  well  provided  against  hunger  and  thirst,  must 
frequently  succumb  to  the  excess  of  his  privations,  and  the  bleached  skeletons  of  the 
much  enduring  animal  strewed  along  the  road  mark  at  once  the  path  of  the  caravan 
and  the  dreadful  sufierings  of  a  desert-journey. 

But  even  these  horrid  wastes,  where  the  glowing  Khamsin  whirls  the  sands  in  sufl<>- 
cating  eddies,  have  beauties  of  their  own.  Particularly  when  the  full  moon  shines  in 
the  dark  blue  sky,  bespangled  with  constellations  of  a  brilliancy  unknown  to  the 
northern  firmament,  when  the  mountains  throw  their  dark  shades  far  away  over  the 
yellow  sands,  and  the  picturesque  effect  of  the  scene  is  enhanced  by  the  aspect  of  the 
tents,  the  watch-fires,  and  the  reposing  animals ;  then  we  may  well  conceive  how  the 
wanderin"-  Bedouin  loves  the  desert  no  less  than  the  mariner  loves  the  ocean,  or  the 


730  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

Swiss  peasant  his  snow-clad  mountains ;  and  how  it  inflames  the  imagination  of  the 
oriental  poets  to  many  a  song,  solacing  the  tediousness  of  the  encampment,  and  handed 
on  from  one  generation  to  another. 

To  the  camel  the  vagrant  Arab  owes  his  immemorial  liberty  and  independence; 
when  attacked,  he  places  at  once  the  desert  between  the  enemy  and  himself.  Thus  he 
has  ever  been  indomitable,  and  when  in  other  parts  of  the  world  we  find  that  the  fatal 
possession  of  an  animal — the  sable,  the  sea-otter — has  entailed  the  curse  of  slavery 
upon  whole  nations,  the  dromedary  in  Arabia  appears  as  the  instrument  of  lasting 
freedom.  Many  a  conquering  horde  has  been  stopped  in  its  career  by  the  desert,  and 
while  the  false  glory  of  the  scourges  of  mankind  that  have  so  often  thrown  the  East 
into  bondage  passed  like  a  shadow,  one  century  after  another  looks  down  from  the 
bights  of  Sinai  upon  the  free  and  unfettered  sons  of  Ishmael. 

But  the  Arab  too  often  tarnishes  his  liberty  by  crime,  and  degrades  the  "ship 
of  the  desert  "  to  be  the  accomplice  of  a  robber.  The  liedouin,  anxious  to  pursue  this 
base  profession,  inures  himself,  from  an  early  age,  to  every  fatigue,  banishes  sleep, 
patiently  endures  thirst,  hunger  and  heat ;  and  in  the  same  manner  accustoms  his 
dromedary  to  every  privation.  A  few  days  after  the  animal's  birth  he  folds  its  legs 
under  its  body,  forces  it  to  kneel,  and  loads  it  with  a  weight  which  is  gradually 
increased  as  it  increases  in  strength.  Instead  of  allowing  it  to  seek  its  food  whenever 
it  pleases,  or  completely  satisfy  its  thirst,  he  accustoms  it  to  perform  longer  and  longer 
journeys  without  eating  or  drinking,  trains  it  to  equal  the  horse  in  swiftness,  as  it  sur- 
passes him  in  strength — and  when  perfectly  assured  of  its  fleetness  and  endurance, 
loads  it  with  the  necessary  provisions,  rides  away  upon  its  back,  waylays  the  traveler, 
plunders  the  secluded  dwelling,  and  when  pursued  and  forced  to  save  his  booty  by  a 
speedy  flight,  then  shows  what  he  and  his  dromedary  can  perform.  Hurrying  on  day 
and  night,  almost  without  repo.se,  or  eating  or  drinking,  he  travels  two  hundred  leagues 
in  a  week,  and  during  this  whole  time  his  dromedary  is  allowed  but  one  hour's  rest  a 
day,  and  a  handful  of  meal  for  food.  On  this  meagre  diet  the  unwearied  animal  often 
speeds  on  seven  or  eight  days  without  finding  any  water ;  and  when  by  chance  a  pool 
or  a  spring  lies  on  his  way,  he  smells  it  at  a  distance  of  half  a  league,  his  burning 
thirst  imparts  new  vigor  to  his  speed,  and  he  then  drinks  at  once  both  for  the  past  and 
the  future,  as  his  journeys  often  last  several  weeks,  and  his  privations  endure  as  long 
as  his  journeys. 

While  the  Bactrian  Camel,  with  a  double  hump,  ranges  from  Turkestan  to  China,  the 
single-hump  camel  or  Dromedary,  originally  Arabian,  has  spread  in  opposite  directions 
towards  the  East  Indies,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Niger,  and  is  used  in  Syria,  Egypt, 
Persia,  and  Barbary,  as  the  commonest  beast  of  burden.  It  serves  the  robber,  but  it 
serves  also  the  peaceful  merchant,  or  the  pilgrim,  as  he  wanders  to  Mecca  to  perform 
his  devotions  at  the  prophet's  tomb.  In  long  array,  winding  like  a  snake,  the  caravan 
traverses  the  desert.  Each  dromedary  is  loaded,  according  to  its  strength,  with  from 
six  hundred  to  a  thousand  pounds,  and  knows  so  well  the  limit  of  its  endurance,  that 
it  suffers  no  overweight,  and  will  not  stir  before  it  be  removed.  Thus,  with  slow  and 
measured  pace,  the  caravan  proceeds  at  the  rate  of  ten  or  twelve  leagues  a  day,  often 
requiring  many  a  week  before  attaining  the  end  of  its  journey. 

When  we  consider  the  deformity  of  the  camel,  we  cannot  doubt  that  its  nature  has 
suffered  considerable  changes  from  the  thraldom  and  unceasino-  labors  of  more  than 


THE   CAMEL— THE   GIRAFFE.  731 

one  millenium.  Its  servitude  is  of  older  date,  more  complete,  and  more  irksome,  than 
that  of  any  other  domestic  animal :  of  older  date,  as  it  inhabits  the  countries  which 
history  points  out  to  us  as  the  cradle  of  mankind  ;  more  complete,  as  all  other  domestic 
animals  still  have  their  wild  types  roaming  about  in  unrestrained  liberty,  while  tlie 
whole  camel  race  is  doomed  to  slavery ;  more  irksome,  finally,  as  it  is  never  kept  for 
luxury  or  state  like  so  many  horses,  or  for  the  table  like  the  ox,  the  pig,  or  the 
sheep,  but  is  merely  used  as  a  beast  of  transport,  which  its  master  does  not  even  give 
himself  the  trouble  to  attach  to  a  cart,  but  whose  body  is  loaded  like  a  living  wagon, 
and  frequently  even  remains  burdened  during  sleep.  Thus  the  camel  bears  all  the 
marks  of  serfdom.  Large  naked  callosities  of  horny  hardness  cover  the  lower  part  of 
the  breast  and  the  joints  of  the  legs ;  and  although  they  are  never  wanting,  yet  they 
themselves  give  proof  that  they  are  not  natural,  but  that  they  have  been  produced  by 
an  excess  of  misery  and  ill-treatment,  as  they  are  frequently  found  filled  with  a  puru- 
lent matter. 

The  hardships  of  long  servitude,  which  have  thus  gradually  deformed  the  origin- 
ally, perhaps,  not  ungraceful  camel,  have  no  doubt  also  soured  its  temper,  and  ren- 
dered its  character  as  unamiable  as  its  appearance  is  repulsive.  "  It  is  an  abominably 
ugly  necessary  animal,"  says  Mr.  Russell ;  "  ungainly,  morose,  quarrelsome,  with 
tee-totalling  propensities  ;  unaccountably  capricious  in  its  friendships  and  enmities ; 
delighting  to  produce  with  its  throat,  its  jaws,  its  tongue,  and  its  stomach,  the  most 
abominable  grunts  and  growls.  Stupidly  bowing  to  the  yoke,  it  willingly  submits  to 
the  most  atrocious  cruelties,  and  bites  innocent,  well-meaning  persons,  ready  to  take  its 
part.  When  its  leader  tears  its  nostril,  it  will  do  no  more  than  grunt;  but,  ten  against 
one,  it  will  spit  at  you  if  you  offer  it  a  piece  of  bread.  For  days  it  will  march  along, 
its  nose  close  to  the  tail  of  the  beast  that  precedes  it,  without  ever  making  the  least 
attempt  to  break  from  the  chain;  and  yet  it  will  snort  furiously  at  the  poor  European 
who  amicably  pats  its  ragged  hide."  The  camel  seems  to  have  been  rather  harshly 
dealt  with  in  this  description ;  at  any  rate,  it  may  plead  for  its  excuse  that  it  would  be 
too  much  to  expect  a  mild  and  amiable  temper  in  a  toil-worn  slave. 

Which  of  all  four-'footed  animals  raises  its  bead  to  the  most  towering  hight  ?  Is  it 
the  colossal  elephant  or  the  "ship  of  the  desert?"  No  doubt  the  former  reaches 
many  a  lofty  branch  with  its  flexible  proboscis,  and  the  eye  of  the  long-necked  camel 
sweeps  over  a  vast  extent  of  desert;  but  the  Giraffe  embraces  a  still  wider  horizon, 
and  plucks  the  leaves  of  the  mokaala  at  a  still  greater  hight.  A  strange  and  mast 
surprising  animal,  almost  all  neck  and  leg,  seventeen  feet  high  against  a  length  of 
only  seven  from  the  breast  to  the  beginning  of  the  tail,  its  comparatively  small  and 
slanting  body  resting  on  long  stilts,  its  diminutive  head  fixed  at  the  summit  of  a  col- 
umn ;  and  yet  in  spite  of  these  apparent  disproportions,  which  seem  rather  to  belong 
to  the  world  of  chimeras  than  to  the  realities  of  nature,  of  so  elegant  and  pleasing  an 
appearance,  that  it  owes  its  Arabic  name,  Xirapha,  to  the  graceful  ease  of  its  ntftve- 
ments.  The  beauty  of  the  giraffe  is  enhanced  by  its  magnificently  spotted  skin,  and 
by  its  soft  and  gentle  eyes,  which  eclipse  those  of  the  far-famed  gazelle  of  the  Kast, 
and,  by  their  lateral  projection,  take  in  a  wider  range  of  the  horizon  than  is  subject 
to  the  vision  of  any  other  quadruped,  so  as  even  to  be  able  to  anticipate  a  threatened 
attack  in  the  rear  from  the  stealthy  lion  or  any  other  foe  of  the  desert. 


732  THE   TROPICAL  WORLD. 

The  long,  black  tail,  invariably  curled  above  the  back,  no  doubt  renders  it  good 
service  against  many  a  stinging  insect ;  and  the  straight  horns,  or  rather  excrescences 
of  the  frontal  bone,  small  as  they  are,  and  muffled  with  skin  and  hair,  are  by  no  means 
the  insigniticant  weapons  they  have  been  supposed  to  be.  "  We  have  seen  them 
wielded  by  the  males  against  each  other  with  fearful  and  reckless  force,"  says  Maun- 
der, "  and  we  know  that  they  are  the  natural  arms  of  the  giraffe  most  dreaded  bv  the 
keeper  of  the  present  living  giraffes  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  because  they  are  most 
commonly  and  suddenly  put  in  use.  The  giraffe  does  not  butt  by  depressing  and  sud- 
denly elevating  the  head,  like  the  deer,  ox,  or  sheep,  but  strikes  the  callous  obtuse 
extremity  of  the  horns  against  the  object  of  his  attack  with  a  sidelong  sweep  of  the 
neck.  One  blow  thus  directed  at  full  swing  against  the  head  of  an  unlucky  attendant 
would  be  fatal.  The  female  once  drove  her  horns  in  sport  through  an  inch  board." 
The  projecting  upper  lip  of  the  giraffe  is  remarkably  flexible,  and  its  elongated  pre- 
hensile tip,  performing  in  miniature  the  part  of  the  elephant's  proboscis,  is  of  material 
assistance  in  browsing  upon  the  foliage  and  young  shoots  of  the  prickly  acacia,  which 
constitute  the  animal's  chief  food.  With  feet  terminating  in  a  divided  hoof,  and  a 
ruminant  like  our  ox,  the  giraffe  has  four  stomachs,  and  an  enormous  intestinal  length 
of  288  feet :  a  formation  which  bears  testimony  to  the  vast  and  prolonged  powers  of 
digestion  necessary  to  extract  nutrition  from  its  hard  and  meagre  diet. 

Ranging  throughout  the  wide  plains  of  Central  Africa,  from  Caffraria  to  Nubia,  the 
giraffe,  though  a  gregarious  animal,  generally  roams  about  only  in  small  herds.  It  is, 
indeed,  by  no  means  common  even  at  its  head-quarters,  and  Captain  Harris,  who  trav- 
ersed the  desert  as  far  as  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  seldom  found  giraffes  without 
having  followed  their  trail,  and  never  saw  more  than  five-and-thirty  in  a  day.  Not- 
withstanding the  rapidity  with  which  the  cameleopard  strides  along,  the  fore  and  hind 
leg  on  the  same  side  moving  together,  instead  of  diagonally  as  in  most  other  quadru- 
peds, yet  a  full  gallop  quite  dissipates  its  power ;  and  the  hunters,  being  aware  of  this, 
always  try  to  press  the  giraffes  at  once  to  it,  knowing  that  they  have  but  a  short 
space  to  run  before  the  animals  are  in  their  power.  In  doing  this  the  old  sportsmen 
are  careful  not  to  go  too  close  to  the  giraffe's  tail ;  for  this  animal,  says  Dr.  Living- 
stone, "  can  swing  his  hind  foot  round  in  a  way  which  would  leave  little  to  choose 
between  a  kick  with  it  and  a  clap  from  the  arm  of  a  windmill." 

After  man,  the  giraffe's  chief  enemy  is  the  lion,  who  often  waits  for  it  in  the  thick 
brakes  on  the  margin  of  the  rivers  or  the  pools,  and  darts  upon  it  with  a  murderous 
spring  while  it  is  slaking  its  thirst.  Andersson,  as  we  have  already  narrated,*  once 
saw  five  lions,  two  of  whom  were  in  the  act  of  pulling  down  a  splendid  giraffe,  while 
the  other  three  were  watching  close  at  hand  the  issue  of  the  deadly  strife  ;  and  Captain 
Harris  relates  that,  while  he  was  encamped'  on  the  banks  of  a  small  stream,  a  ca- 
meleopard was  killed  by  a  lion  whilst  in  the  act  of  drinking,  at  no  great  distance  from 
the  wagons.  It  was  a  noisy  affair;  but  an  inspection  of  the  scene  on  which  it  occurred 
proved  that  the  giant  strength  of  the  victim  had  been  paralyzed  in  an  instant.  Some- 
times the  giraffe  saves  itself  from  the  attacks  of  its  arch-enemy  by  a  timely  flight ;  but 
when  hemmed  in,  it  offers  a  desperate  resistance,  and  in  spite  of  its  naturally  gentle 
and  peaceable  disposition,  gives  such  desperate  kicks  with  its  fore-feet  as  to  keep  its 
antagonist  at  a  respectful  distance,  and  finally  to  compel  him  to  retreat. 

*Ante,-p.Qm. 


GIRAFFES— ZEBRAS— QUAG  GAS.  73:5 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  were  well  acquainted  with  the  giraffe  ;  and  Aristoth',  de- 
scribing it  under  the  name  of  hippardion,  or  panther-horse,  probably  knew  it  bettor 
than  Buffon,  who  never  saw  more  of  it  than  a  stuffed  skin.  Pliny  relates  that  Julius 
Cresar  (45  b.  c.)  first  exhibited  it  to  the  Romans  in  the  amphitheatre,  and  from  that 
time  it  often  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  bloody  spectacles  with  which  the  military 
despots  of  the  declining  empire  used  to  entertain  the  rabble  of  Rome,  P^vcn  during 
the  middle  ages  giraffes  were  sometimes  seen  in  Europe.  The  sultan  of  Kgypt  pre- 
sented the  German  emperor,  Frederick  II.,  with  a  cameleopard ;  and  Lorenzo  de  Medicis 
was  honored  with  a  similar  gift.  But  since  that  time  three  full  centuries  elapsed  be- 
fore a  single  giraffe  was  ever  transported  across  the  Mediterranean  ;  and  when  at  length 
the  wily  old  tyrant  Mehemet  Ali,  who  knew  how  to  flatter  the  French  while  grindinj: 
his  poor  Fellahs,  sent  one  of  them  to  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  in  1827,  it  raised  no  less 
a  sensation  than  if  it  had  been  the  unicorn  itself.  Thenceforth,  the  spell  being  broken, 
many  giraffes  have  been  imported  into  Europe  and  America.  There  are  many  analo- 
gies between  the  giraffe  and  the  ostrich  ;  both  long-legged,  long-necked,  fit  for  cropping 
the  tall  mimosas,  or  scouring  rapidly  the  plain  ;  both,  finally,  defending  themselves  by 
striking  their  feet  forwards,  the  one  against  the  jackal  or  hyuena,  the  other  against  the 
assaults  of  the  formidable  lion. 

As  if  to  make  up  for  the  hideous  deformity  of  the  rhinoceros  and  hippopotamus,  the 
African  wilds  exclusively  give  birth  to  the  beautifully-striped  Zebras,  the  most  gor- 
geously attired  members  of  the  equine  race. 

The  tawny-colored  Quagga,  irregularly  banded  and  marked  with  dark  brown  stripes, 
which,  stronger  on  the  head  and  neck,  gradually  become  fainter,  until  lost  behind  the 
shoulders,  has  its  high  crest  surmounted  by  a  standing  mane,  banded  alternately  brown 
and  white.  It  used  formerly  to  be  found  in  great  numbers  within  the  limits  of  the  Capo 
Colony,  and  still  roams  in  vast  herds  in  the  open  plains  farther  to  the  north.  Thus, 
in  the  desert  of  the  Meritsane,  Major  Harris,  after  crossing  a  park  of  magnificent 
camel-thorn  trees,  soon  perceived  large  herds  of  quaggas  and  brindled  gnus,  which  con- 
tinued to  join  each  other,  until  the  whole  plain  seemed  alive.  The  clatter  of  their 
hoofs  was  perfectly  astounding,  and  could  be  compared  to  nothing  but  to  the  din  of  a 
tremendous  charge  of  cavalry  or  the  rushing  of  a  mighty  tempest.  The  accumulated 
numbers  could  not  be  estimated  at  less  than  15,000,  a  great  extent  of  country  being 
actually  chequered  black  and  white  with  their  congregated  masses. 

The  Douw,  or  Burchell's  Zebra,  differs  little  from  the  common  quagga  in  point  of 
shape  or  size;  but  while  the  latter  is  faintly  striped  only  on  the  head  and  neck,  the 
former  is  adorned  over  every  part  of  the  body  with  broad  black  bands,  beautifully 
contrasting  with  a  pale  yellow  ground.  Major  Harris,  who  had  many  opportunites  of 
seeing  this  fine  species  in  a  state  of  nature,  remarks  that,  "  Beautifully  clad  by  the 
hand  of  nature,  possessing  much  of  the  graceful  symmetry  of  the  horse,  with  great 
bones  and  muscular  power,  united  to  easy  and  stylish  action,  thus  combining  comeli- 
ness of  figure  with  solidity  of  form,  this  species,  if  subjugated  and  domesticated,  would 
assuredly  make  the  best  pony  in  the  world."  Although  it  admits  of  being  tamed  to  a 
certain  extent  with  the  greatest  facility— a  half-domesticated  specimen,  with  a  jockey 
on  its  brindled  back,  being  occasionally  exposed  in  Cape  Town  for  sale— it  has  hitherto 
contrived  to  evade  the  yoke  of  servitude.     The  senses  of  sight,  hearing  and  smell,  are 


734  THE   TROPICAL  WORLD. 

extremely  delicate.  The  slightest  noise  or  motion,  no  less  than  the  appearance  of  any 
object  that  is  unfamiliar,  at  once  rivets  their  gaze,  and  causes  them  to  stop  and  listen 
with  the  utmost  attention  ;  any  taint  in  the  air  equally  attracting  their  olfactory 
organs. 

"  Instinct  having  taught  these  beautiful  animals  that  in  union  consists  their  strength, 
they  combine  in  a  compact  body  when  menaced  by  an  attack,  either  from  man  or 
beast;  and,  if  overtaken  by  the  foe,  they  unite  for  mutual  defence,  with  their  heads 
together  in  a  close  circular  band,  presenting  their  heels  to  the  enemy,  and  dealing  out 
kicks  in  equal  force  and  abundance.  Beset  on  all  sides,  or  partially  crippled,  they 
rear  on  their  hinder  legs,  fly  at  their  adversary  with  jaws  distended,  and  use  both 
teeth  and  heels  with  the  greatest  freedom." 

The  Gnu  and  the  common  quagga,  delighting  in  the  same  situation,  not  unfrequently 
herd  together  ;  but  Burchell's  Zebra  is  seldom  seen  unaccompanied  by  troops  of  the 
brindled  Gnu,  an  animal  differing  very  materially  from  its  brothers  of  the  same  genus, 
from  which,  though  scarcely  less  ungainly,  it  is  readily  distinguishable  at  a  great  dis- 
tance by  its  black  mane  and  tail,  more  elevated  withers,  and  clumsier  action. 

Whilst  the  douw  and  the  quagga  roam  over  the  plains,  the  zebra  inhabits  mountain- 
ous regions  only.  The  beauty  of  its  light  symmetrical  form  is  enhanced  by  the  narrow 
black  bands  with  which  the  whole  of  the  white-colored  body  is  covered.  Buffon  and 
Daubenton  wished  to  see  this  elegant  creature  acclimatized  in  Europe,  which  would 
procure  us  a  beast  of  burden  stronger  than  the  ass,  and  more  beautiful  in  its  naked- 
ness than  the  horse,  even  when  adorned  with  the  richest  trappings.  A  king  of  Portu- 
gal used  frequently  to  drive  about  with  four  zebras  ;  and,  about  the  year  1761,  two  of 
these  animals  that  were  kept  in  the  park  of  Versailles  had  been  so  far  tamed  as  to  allow 
themselves  to  be  mounted.  In  spite  of  the  proverbial  obstinacy  of  the  zebra,  there 
are  thus  no  insuperable  obstacles  to  its  domestication,  and  a  course  of  training,  contin- 
ued through  several  generations,  would  most  likely  subdue  its  reluctant  nature  as  com- 
pletely as  that  of  the  original  wild  horse  and  ass.  The  zebra  is  supposed  to  be  the 
real  hippotigris,  or  tiger-horse  of  the  ancients ;  and  this  is  the  more  probable,  as  he  ranges 
much  farther  to  the  north  than  the  quagga  or  the  douw,  and  approaches  the  regions  of 
Africa  comprised  within  the  Roman  empire.  Historians  inform  us  that  in  the  year  202 
after  Christ,  Plautius,  a  governor  or  prefect  of  Egypt  sent  several  centurions  to  the 
island  of  the  Erythraean  Sea  to  fetch  horses  which  "looked  like  tigers."  The  zebra 
seeks  the  wildest  and  most  secluded  spots,  so  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  of  approach. 
The  herds  graze,  on  the  steep  hill-side,  with  a  sentinel  posted  on  some  adjacent  crag 
ready  to  sound  the  alarm  in  case  of  any  suspicious  approach  to  their  feeding  quarters ; 
and  no  sooner  is  the  alarm  given  than  away  they  scamper  with  pricked  ears,  and 
whisking  their  ears  aloft,  to  places  where  few,  if  any,  would  venture  to  pursue  them. 

We  have  styled  the  hippopotamus  and  the  rhinoceros  "  gigantic  hogs,"  and  such 
they  are  to  all  seeming.  But  in  Southern  Africa  the  real  hog  itself  reaches  a  size  and 
.strength,  of  which  we,  who  know  only  his  tame,  lazy  kindred,  can  hardly  form  a  con- 
ception. Thus  Andersson  incidentally  mentions  these  animals.  "  Wild  boars,"  he 
says,  "  were  rather  numerous,  and  afforded  us  excellent  coursing.  The  speed  of  these 
animals  is  surprisingly  great.  On  open  ground,  when  fairly  afoot,  I  found  the  dogs 
no  match  for  them.     They  fight  desperately  ;  and  I  have  seen  wild  boars  individually 


THE   WILD   BOAR. 


73;- 


keep  off  most  effectually  half  a  dozen  fierce  assailants.     I  have  also  Been  them,  wlicn 
hotly  pursued,  attack  and  severely  wound  their  pursuers." 


But  of  all  the  hog-tribe  one  of  the  most  remarkable  is  the  Babirusa,  or  "  pig-deer," 
as  it  is  called  by  the  Malays,  from  its  long  and  slender  legs  and  curved  tusks,  which 


736  THE   TROPICAL   WORLD. 

resemble  horus.  "  This  extraordinary  animal,"  says  Wallace,  "  resembles  a  pig  in  its 
general  appearance ;  but  it  does  not  dig  with  its  snout,  as  it  feeds  on  fallen  fruits. 
The  tusks  of  the  lower  jaw  are  very  long  and  sharp ;  but  the  upper  ones,  instead  of 
growing  downward  in  the  usual  way,  are  completely  reversed,  growing  upward  out  of 
bony  sockets,  through  the  skin  on  each  side  of  the  snout,  curving  backward  to  near 
the  eyes,  and  in  old  animals  often  reaching  eight  or  ten  inches  in  length."  As  far  as 
we  know,  no  living  specimen  of  this  extraordinary  creature  has  ever  reached  Europe 
or  America ;  but  its  skulls,  and  drawings  therefrom,  are  found  in  our  museums.  The 
uses  of  its  curious  tusks,  like  those  of  the  elephant,  are  a  problem  which  naturalists 
have  yet  to  solve. 

Here  we  bring  to  a  close  the  results  of  our  researches  into  some  of  the  character- 
istic forms  of  Animal  and  Vegetable  Life,  as  manifested  in  the  Polar  and  Tropical 
Worlds. 


INDEX 


Adelie,  Terre,  discovery  of,  402. 

Agouti,  the,  of  Patagonia,  419. 

Agriculture,  state  of,  in  Iceland,  79. 

Aigun,  treaty  of,  196. 

Air,  remarkable  moisture  of*,  the,  in  Taimurland, 
225. 

,  its  perpetual  motion  in  the  Arctic  zones,  225. 

Akurig,  eider-ducks  of,  81. 

Albasin,  the  Russian  fort  of,  built,  195. 

,  destroyed  by  the  Chinese,  but  rebuilt,  196. 

Albatross,  wanderintr,  of  the  Ant  irc  ic  seas,  395. 

Alc3'onians  on  the  coasts  of  Greenland,  59. 

Aleutian  Islands,  causes  which  led  to  the  discovery 
of  the,  201. 

,  extent  of  the,  270. 

Aleuts,  their  wretched  condition  under  their  mas- 
ters, 273. 

,  their  skill  and  intrepidity  in  hunting,  273- 

276. 

Alexander,  Cape,  discovery  of,  365. 

I.sland,  discovery  of,  401. 

Algerine  pirates,  ravages  of,  in  Iceland,  95  ;  and  in 
the  Westman  Islands,  119. 

Alaska,  discovery  of,  202. 

,  climate  of  the,  269. 

,  mountains  and  forests  of,  269. 

,  purchase  of,  by  the  Americans,  277. 

• ,  telegraph  through,  278. 

,  travelling  in,  278-289. 

,  natives  of,  278-289. 

,  climate  of,  284. 

,  food  in,  287. 

Almannagja,  description  of  the,  73. 

Altai  Mountains,  crossed  by  the  Cossacks,  195. 

Alten,  copper  mines  of,  128. 

Altenfjord,  vegetation  of  the  borders  of  the,  128. 

America,  North,  treefess  zone  of,  18-22. 

,  character  of  the  Coniferoe  of,  23,  24. 

,  range  of  the  caribou,  or  reindeer,  of,  36-39. 

,  the  musk-ox  of,  41. 

,  the  white  dolphin  in  the  rivers  of,  61. 

,  the  black  dolphin  of,  61. 

,  walruses  of  the  shores  of,  64. 

,  history  of  the  fur-trade  of,  307  et  seq. 

,  first  discoverers  and  settlers  of,  335. 

America,  North,  destruction  of  the  Greenland  colo- 
nies, 335. 

,  subsequent  discoveries,  335  et  seq. 

,  attempts  to  discover  the  north-western  pas- 
sage to  India,  342  et  seq. 

America,  Russian,  its  transferto  the  United  States, 
272,  note. 

Amoor,  river,  discovery  of  the,  by  the  Russians,  who 
relinquish  it  to  the  Chinese,  195,  196. 

,  the  countr}-  annexed  bv  Russia.  196. 

47 


Anakerdluk,  in  North  Greenland,  l)uricd  forest  of, 

29. 
Angekoks,  or  priests  of  the  Esquimaux,  .301. 
Animals,  comparativelj'  small  number  of,  in   the 

Arctic  regions,  25. 

,  the  forests  the  head-quarters  of  many,  41. 

of  the  Arctic  Seas,  59. 

of  the  coasts  of  .Spitzbergen,  134. 

,  fur-bearing,  of  Siberia,  209. 

,  the,  of  Taimurland,  227. 

of  Nishne-Kolymsk,  235. 

of  Newfoundland,  378. 

^ ,  no  land,  in  the  Antarctic  region,  394. 

of  Patagonia,  418. 

Aniuj,  vegetation  of  the  valley  of  the,  235. 

,  chief  resource  of  the  people  of  the,  237. 

Anjou,  Lieut.,  his  Arctic  explorations,  233. 
Archangel,  foundation  of,  192. 

,  New,  site  of  the  town  of,  272. 

,  fur-trade  of,  273. 

,  medium  of  exchange  at,  276. 

Archers,  the  Ostiaks  as,  187. 
Arctic  regions,  rivers  of  the,  17. 

,  limits  of  the,  18. 

,  the  forests  of  the,  18-23. 

,  their  treeless  wastes,  or  Tundra,  18. 

,  in  summer  and  winter,  19. 

,  their  extent  and  boundaries,  21. 

,  animal  life  in  the,  25. 

,  influence  of  the  sea  and  winds  on  the  severity 

of  the  winter  of  the,  27. 

,  the  lowest  temperatures  felt  by  man,  27,  28. 

,  how  man  becomes  accustomed  to  the  rigors  of 

the  winter  of  tire,  28. 
,  proofs  of  a  former  milder  climate  in  the  nortii- 

ern  regions  of  tlie  globe,  29. 

,  beauties  of  Nature  in  the,  31-33. 

,  land  quadrupeds  and  birds  of  the,  34. 

,  the  seas  of  the,  49. 

compared  with  the  Antarctic  regions,  391. 

Arctic  voyages  of  di.scovery.  history  of,  3.'55  d  seq. 

Are  Thorgilson,  his  Icelandic  works,  94. 

Argali  (Ovis  arqnlf)  of  Siberia,  41. 

Arrows  of  the  Ostiaks,  187, 188. 

Ascidians  on  the  coasts  of  Grcenlaiul,  59. 

Ash,  the,  in  the  Arctic  regions,  24. 

Asia,  treeless  zone  of,  18-22. 

Athabascan  Indians,  hunting-grounds  of  the.  327. 

Atlassoll',  the  Cossack,  his  treatment  of  the  natives 

of  Kamchatka,  198. 
Atmosphere,  transparency  of  the,  in  the  Polar  re- 
gions, .54,  55. 
,  phenomena  of,  reflection  and  refraction,  and 

their  probable  cau.scs,  6.'). 
Auk,  the  giant,  its  rarity  at  present  in  Iciland,  85. 
Aurora  boreal  is,  33. 
,  splendor  of  the,  in  the  Arctic  regions,  33. 


738 


INDEX. 


Aurora  borealis,  terror  of  the  Lapps  at  the,  157. 

, ,  at  Nulato,  281. 

Austin,  Captain,  his  search  for  Franklin,  357. 

Avalanches  of  ice  in  Spitzbergen,  135. 

Awaklok   and  Myouk,  their  imprisonment  on  an 

iceberg,  298. 
Awatscha  Bay,  sea-birds  of,  255. 
,  its  magnificence  and  extent,  256. 


B. 


Baaty  Khan,  his  subjection  of  Russia,  191. 
Bachelor  river,  the,  412. 

Back  (Mr.,  afterwards  Sir  George),  his  Arctic  voy- 
ages, 346,  347,  349. 

■ ,  his  search  for  Captain  Boss,  354. 

,  his  discovery  of  Great  Fish  Kiver,  355. 

,  voyage  in  1835,  355. 

Back's  river,  discovery  of,  355. 

Badarany,  desert  of  swamps,  the,  234. 

Baer,  Herr  von,   his   scientific   journey   to  Nova 

Zembla,  151. 
Baffin,  his  voyages  of  discoverj',  343. 
Baffin's   Bay,"  probable  inflnence  of  the    northerly 

winds  on  the  depression  of  the  temperature  of, 

27. 
Baffin's  Bay,  walruses  of  the  coasts  of,  64. 

,  discovery  of,  343. 

Balleny,  his  discoveries  in  the  Antarctic  ocean,  401. 

Islands,  discovery  of,  401. 

Banks's  Land,  proofs  of  a  former  milder  tempera- 
ture in,  29. 
Bards,  or  Scalds,  of  Iceland,  94. 
Barentz,  William,  visit  of,  to  Spitzbergen,  138. 

■ ,  his  voyages  of  discovery,  339. 

,  his  winter  in  Nova  Zembla,  340. 

,  his  death,  342. 

Barley,  cultivation  of,  in  Norway,  124. 

Barren  grounds,  barrens,  or  tundri,  Arctic  belt  of 

the,  18. 

,  causes  of  their  barrenness,  18. 

,  their  appearance  in  winter  and  in  summer,  19. 

,  indistinct  and  irregular  boundaries  of  the,  21. 

,  those  of  Newfoundland,  377. 

Barrow  Point,  traffic  of,  302. 

Barter  Eeef,  traffic  of,  302. 

Bear,  black,  muskwa  (^Ui'stis  americnnus),  value  of 

the  fur  of  the,  315. 

■ ,  description  of  him,  315,  318. 

,  brown,  of  North  America,  315. 

■ ,  value  of  the  skins  of  the  voung  brown  bear, 

211. 
,  grizzlj',  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  (Ursiis  fe- 

roxj,  315. 

,  his  skin,  315. 

,  the  polar,  his  mode  of  hunting,  65,  446,  448. 

,  his  favorite  food  and  mode  of  seizing  it,  65, 

447,  450,  451. 

,  anecdote  of  one,  65. 

• ,  instances  of  his  sagacity,  65. 

,  parental  care  of  the  she-bear,  65. 

— '—,  her  winter  nursery,  65,  66. 

,  her  internal  store  of  food  for  her  hybernation, 

66. 

,  immense  strength  of  claws  and  teeth.  66,  67. 

,  bis  unwelcome  visits  to  Iceland,  81. 

of  Spitzbergen.  137. 

of  Nova  Zembla,  149. 

,  Lapp  mode  of  hunting  the,  164-166. 

,  Esquimaux  methods  of  hunting  the,  163. 


Bear  of  Newfoundland,  378. 

,  abundance  of,  in  Kamchatka,  258. 

,  sea-,  value  of  the  skins  of  the,  in  China,  374, 

,  chase  of  the,  in  the  Pribilow  Islands,  274. 

families  and  battles,  274,  275. 

,  the  Austral  sea-,  399. 

,  hunted  by  dogs,  453. 

Bear  Island,  or  Cherie  Island,  account  of,  143. 

,  climate  of,  144. 

,  walruses  of,  144. 

,  boat-voyages  of  Norwegian  sailors  from,  145. 

,  discovery  of,  340. 

,  surveyed  bj'  the  Russians,  200. 

Beaver  {Custor  jiber),  its  skin  the  standard  of  ex- 
change with  the  Canadian  Indians,  313. 

,  former  enormous  trade  in  the  fur  of  the,  317. 

of  Newfoundland,  378. 

Beaver  Indians,  their  hunting-grounds,  327. 
Bee,  sand  (^Andrena'),  of  Nova  Zembla,  154. 
Beech,  Antarctic  (Fa^s  betuloides),  410. 
Beechey,  Captain,  his  voj'age  to  Bering's  Straits, 

350. 
Beerenberg  mountain,  146. 

Bering,  Titus,  never  passed  through  the  straits  bear- 
ing his  name,  197. 

,  his  second  yo3'agc,  201. 

,  his  second  voyage  of  discovery,  248,  249. 

,  his  bad  conduct,  250. 

,  his  death,  252. 

Bering  Island,  Bering  and  Steller  on,  251. 

Sea,  description  of  the,  268. 

,  barren  lands  at,  22. 

,  seals  and  walruses  of,  63,  64. 

,  its  climate,  269. 

,  character  of  the  shores  of  the,  270. 

,  animals  of  the,  271. 

Bering's  Straits,  view  of  the  Old  and  New  worlds  in 
the^  271. 

,  Captain  Beechey 's  voyage  to,  350. 

Belcher,  Sir  Edward,  his  search  for  Franklin,  359. 

Bellinghausen,  his  discovery  of  the  islands  Paul  the 
First  and  Alexander,  401. 

Bellot,  Lieut.,  his  gallant  search  for  Franklin,  359. 

,  his  death  and  monument,  362. 

Beluga,  or   white  dolphin  {Del^phinus   leucas),  de- 
scription of  the,  61. 

,  domain  of  the,  61. 

Beluga  Bay,  visit  of  Von  Baer's  party  to,  151. 

Bennet,  Stephen,  his  visit  to  Bear  Island,  143,  144. 

Berry-gathering  in  Nishne-Kolymsk,  238. 

Bilberries  of  the  Arctic  regions,  24. 

Billings,  voyage  of,  on  the  coast  of  Siberia.  201. 

Birch,  paper,  value  of  the,  in  North  America,  304. 

Birch-trees  in  the  Arctic  regions,  24. 

Birds,  flights  of  wild,  in  summer  months,  in  the 
Tundra,  19. 

,  their  migrations  to  and  from  high  latitudes, 

43,  44,  67. 

,  the  polar  singing-bird,  the  snow-bunting,  43. 

,  raptorial,  of  the  Arctic  regions,  43. 

,  enormous  numbers  of,  along  the  Arctic  shores, 

67. 

,  Icelandic,  81. 

of  the  coast  of  Norway,  124. 

of  Spitzbergen,  133,  134,  137. 

of  Nova  Zembla,  154. 

,  a  bird  bazar,  154. 

j  abundance  of  sea-fowl  on  the  coast  of  Kam- 
chatka, 255. 

,  Esquimaux  mode  of  bird-catching,  295. 

,  abundance  of,  on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  S88. 


INDEX. 


7;i9 


Birds  of  the  coasts  of  the  Antarctic  sea,  394. 

of  Patagonia,  419. 

Biikarls.  their  final  subjugation  of  the  Lapps,  156. 

Biscoe,  his  discovery  of  Enderby  Land,  and  of  Gra- 
ham Land,  401. 

Black  death,  ravages  of  the,  in  tlie  North,  383. 

Blackfeet  Indians,  their  wars  with  the  Tinue  and 
Crees,  319,  320. 

Bloody  Falls,  on  the  Coppermine  river,  294. 

Boats  of  the  Esquimaux,  293. 

,  the  birch-bark  canoes  of  North  America,  304. 

Boglierries  of  the  Arctic  regions,  24. 

Booth,  Sir  Felix,  his  Arctic  expedition,  251. 

Bougainville,  his  voj'age  through  the  Strait  of  Ma- 
gellan, 414- 

Brandt,  the  Danish  forester,  his  journev  with  Von 
Middendorff,  220. 

Brandy,  fondness  of  the  Samoiedes  for,  171-173. 

drank  at  Kolyuisk,  238. 

Brant  Ysbrantzoun,  his  voyages  of  discovery,  339. 

Bread  of  the  poor  Icelanders,  79. 

Bredal,  Eric,  his  education  of  Lapps  in  Christianity, 
156. 

Bridges,  swing,  of  Iceland,  111. 

Browne,  T.  Ross,  74,  95,  104, 115. 

Buchan,  Captain,  his  Arctic  voyage,  344. 

Bunting,  its  migrations  to  and  from  the  north,  43. 

,  the  Lapland  {Centrophams  Lapponicus),  lati- 
tudes inhabited  by  the,  43,  44. 

Bunting,  the  snow,  the  polar  singing-bird,  44. 

Bunting,  its  nest  and  food,  44. 

of  Iceland,  81. 

of  Spitzbergen,  137. 

Burglars,  treatment  of,  in  Eussia,  206. 

Burrough,  Stephen,  his  voyage  to  discover  the 
north-eastern  passage,  336. 

Busa,  Jelissei,  his  ascent  of  the  rivers  Lena  and 
Olekma,  195. 

,  his  discovery  of  the  Tana,  195. 

,  his  residence  among  the  Jukahirs,  195. 

Butter  made  from  the  reindeer  milk,  36. 

Butterflies  in  Taimurland,  227. 

Byron,  Commodore,  his  voyage  through  the  Strait 
of  Magellan,  414. 


C, 


Cabot,  John  and  Sebastian,  their  re-discovery  of 
parts  of  North  America,  335. 

,  their  re-discovery  of  Newfoundland,  379. 

Canada,  enterprise  of  the  French  settlers  in,  306. 

,  results  of  the  English  conquest  of,  306, 

,  history  of  the  fur-trade  of,  307. 

Cano,  Sebastian  el,  his  voyage  round  the  globe,  413. 

Canoes,  birch-bark,  of  North  America,  .304,  305. 

Cape,  North,  description  of  the,  129, 130. 

Caribou,  or  reindeer  of  North  America,  range  of 
the,  36. 

Carrancha,  the,  of  Patagonia,  419,  420.      • 

Cartier,  Jacques,  his  voyages,  335. 

Caryophylhe,  the,  of  the  treeless  zone,  21. 

Cascades  of  (c.dand,  78. 

Castor  and  Pollux  river,  discovery  of,  356. 

Castren,  Matthias  Alexander,  account  of  him  and 
of  his  journey.'^,  168-178. 

Catherine's  Foreland,  Queen,  409. 

Cattle,  value  of,  to  the  Icelands,  80. 

Cavendish,  his  voyages,  414. 

Chancellor,  his  discovervof  the  passage  from  Eng- 
land to  the  White  Sea,  192. 


Chancellor,  his  voyage  to  discover  the  north-eastern 
route  to  China,  336.     ' 

,  his  visit  to  Moscow,  and  sul)8eqnont  fate,  33G. 

Charles  IX.,  King  of  Sweden,  his  kindness  to  the 
Lapps,  15G. 

Chatanga  river,  scanty  population  of  the,  220. 

,  Middendorfi's  journey  to  tiie,  220,  221. 

Chatangsk,  JliddendorlTs  journey  to,  221. 

Cheese  made  from  reindeer  milk,  36. 

Cherie  Island,  account  of,  144. 

Chess-players  of  the  Tungusi,  246. 

Chickweed,  the,  on  the  Mary  Miiitum  river,  20. 

Chimengo,  the,  of  Patagonia,  419. 

China,  Castrun's  journey  over  the  mountains  into, 
177. 

Chinese  take  the  Russian  fort  of  Alljasin,  195 ;  and 
make  the  treaty  of  Nertschinsk  with  the  Rus- 
sians, 196. 

,  the  treat}'  broken  by  the  Russians,  who  com- 
pel the  Chinese  to  give  them  (he  Amoor,  196. 

Chinga  {MtpkiUs  chinr/d'),  its  foetid  secretion,  316. 

Christian  IV.,  King  of  Denmark,  his  treatment  of 
the  Lapp  jiriests  and  sorcerers,  156. 

,  his  expedition  to  Greenland,  383. 

Christianity,  introduction  of,  into  Iceland,  92. 

Churches  of  the  Icelanders,  104. 

Clavering,  his  voyage  to  Greenland,  386. 

Clergy  of  the  Lapps,  their  povertv  and  self-denial, 
157. 

,  their  sermons,  157. 

,  those  of  Iceland  all  blacksmitiis,  101,  note,  106. 

,  their  poverty,  106. 

Coal,  does  not  exist  in  Iceland,  88. 

of  Spitzbergen,  137. 

in  Coal  Bay,  145. 

Coal  Bay,  145.  ' 

Cochlearia  fencstrata,  the  onlv  esculent  plant  in 
Spitzbergen,  136, 142. 

Cod  and  cod- fishing  of  the  coast  of  Iceland,  Sd.  87. 

,  the,  called  stockfish,  87. 

,  the  cod-tishery  of  Norway,  125-l;!0. 

,  wretched  state  of  the  fishermen,  127. 

,  exports  of.  to  various  countries,  129. 

,  cod-fishery  of  Grc  enland,  38S. 

,  value  of  the  cod-fisherv  of  Newfoundland, 

379,  380. 

,  mode  of  fishing  and  curing  tiie  cod,  380. 

,  dangers  of  the  fishery.  3>!1. 

,  immense  numbers  of,  381. 

Cod-liver  oil  of  TromsO,  128. 

Collinson,  Captain,  his  search  for  Franklin,  ."59, 
.361. 

Commodore  IsLinds,  chase  of  the  sea-bear  on  tlie, 
274. 

Condor,  the,  of  Patagonia,  420. 

Conifene,  Arctic  forests  almost  confined  to  the,  2t. 

■,  difference  between  the  European  and  .Vsiatic 

and  American  species,  24. 

Constitution,  Capo,  discovery  of,  369. 

Cook,  his  attempt  to  discover  the  northwest  pas- 
sage, 344. 

Cook,  Captain,  his  discovery  of  South  Georgia,  393. 

,  his  Antarctic  voyages,  401. 

Copper  mines  near  Drontheim,  124. 

of  Alten,  128. 

of  Raipass,  128. 

Coppermine  river.  Dr.  Richardson's  voyage  to  the, 
349. 

Cornelius  Ryp,  his  voyages  of  di.«covery,  ."WO,  .HI. 

Cornelius  Corneli.szoon,  his  voyages  of  discovery, 
839. 


740 


INDEX. 


Corniculariae,  carpets  of,  and  the  treeless  zone,  21. 
Cortereal,  liis  voyages  of  discoverj-,  325. 
Cossacks,  Don,  their  depredations,  192. 

,  their  conquest  of  Siberia  for  the  Czar,  193. 

,  their  privileges  and  duties   in  Nishne-Ko- 

lymsk,  236. 
Coiireur  des  bois, 'the,  of  North  America,  SOI. 
Cranberries  of  the  Arctic  regions,  24. 
Cree  Indians,  uses  of  the  paper-birch-tree  to  the, 

305. 

,  range  of  the  various  tribes  of,  819. 

,  their  conquests  of  the  Tinne,  but  subsequent 

defeat,  319,  320. 

. :  their  wars  with  the  Blackfeet,  320,  321 

,  their  character,  321. 

,  their   customs,  habits,  and    dress,  321,  322, 

323. 

,  their  wives  and  families,  323. 

,  their  cradles,  323. 

,  their  wigwams,  or  tents,  324. 

,  their  medicine-men  and  vapor-baths,  324. 

,  their  games  and  sports,  324,  325. 

,  their  wooden  figures  for  worship,  325. 

,  their  malicious  or  capricious    spirit,  called 

Kepoochican,  325. 
,  their  notion  of  the  Great  Spirit  and  of  the 

Deluge,  325. 

,  their  Tartarus  and  Elysium,  325. 

,  prospects  of  Christianity  amongst  them,  326. 

Cross,  the  game  of,  of  the  Cree  Indians,  325. 
Crowe,  Mr.,  his  copper  mines  at  Alten,  128. 
Crozier,  Captain,  his  last  voyage,  356. 

,  the  last  heard  of  him,  364. 

,  his  Antarctic  voyages,  402. 

CrucifersB,  the,  of  the  treeless  zone,  20. 
Crustaceans,  immense  numbers  of,  on  the  coast  of 

Greenland,  59. 
Cumberland  Strait,  Davis's  discovery  of,  337,  338. 
Currents,  magnificent  system  of,  and  their  effects 

on  the  accumulation  of  ice,  56,  57. 


Dances  of  the  Tchuktchi,  266. 

Darwin,  jMr.,  his  ascent  of  Mount  Tarn,  411. 

Davis,  John,  his  voyages  to  discover  an  Arctic  pas- 
sage to  India,  337. 

,  his  visit  to  Labrador,  338. 

,  his  subsequent  life,  338. 

Davis's  Straits,  probable  influence  of  the  northerly 
winds  on  the  depression  of  the  temperature  of, 
27. 

,  Sebastian  Cabot's  discovery  of,  335. 

Dead,  reverence  paid  to  the,  by  the  Samoiedes,  181. 

Dease,  Peter  Warren,  his  land  Arctic  expedition, 
355. 

Death,  black,  its  ravages  in  Iceland,  95. 

Deception  Island,  account  of,  393. 

Deer,  red  {Cei-vus  elephas),  its  habitat  and  uses  to 
man,  40. 

Deer  of  Vogelsang  and  Treurenberg  Bay,  137. 

Deluge,  Cree  legend  of  the,  325. 

Demidoff,  foundation  of  the  family  of,  219. 

,  their  enormous  wealth,  219. 

Deschnew,  Semen,  his  the  first  and  last  voyage 
through  Bering's  Strait,  197. 

Desolation,  South,  412. 

Detti-foss,  an  Icelandic   cascade,  Mr.    Gould's  de- 
scription of  the,  78. 
Disco  bay,  icebergs  formed  in,  49. 


Divers,  their  migrations  to  and  from  the  north,  42. 
Dog-rib  Indians,  hunting-grounds  of  the,  327. 

,  their  character,  dress,  and  customs,  327,  329. 

,  their  want  of  hospitality,  329. 

,  their  honesty,  329. 

,  their  notions  of  a  future  life,  329. 

Dog,  the  reindeer  of  the  Lapps,  161. 

,  Wrangell's  dog-sledges   on   the  Polar    sea, 

239. 

,  Icelandic,  80. 

■ ,  the,  of  the  people  of  Kolymsk,  236. 

,  the  Kamchatkan,  and  dog-sledges,  258,  259. 

,  their  mode  of  foretelling  storms,  259. 

-,  mode  of  training  sledge-dogs,  259. 

,  trained  by  Esquimaux  to  attack  the  bear, 

297. 

,  description  of  the,  and  dog-sledges  of  the  Es- 

imaux,  299. 

qu.  Dr.  Kane's  Newfoundland   and  Esquimaux, 

367. 

,  epidemic  amongst  the  Esquimaux,  372. 

Dolgorouky,  Prince,  his  exile  to  Siberia,  205. 
Dolphin,  white,  or  beluga,  of  Nova  Zembla,  155. 

,  Greenland  fishery  of  the,  387. 

Dolphins  of  the  Polar  seas,  61,  398. 

,  the  beluga,  or  white  dolphin,  61, 

,  the  black  dolphin,  "  ca'ing  "  whale,  or  grind, 

61. 

,  the  ore,  or  grampus,  62. 

■ of  Spitzbergen,  137. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  his  voyage  through  the  Strait 

of  Jlagellan,  414. 
Drifanda  Foss,  an  Icelandic  cascade,  114. 
Drontheim,  the  red  deer  near,  40. 

,  description  of,  124. 

Ducks,  wild,  of  the  Arctic  regions,  19. 

,  their  migrations  to  and  from  the  north,  42. 

•  of  Iceland,  81,  84. 

Dudinka,  Castren's  visit  to,  176. 

Dungeness,  Point,  409. 

Durfoorth,  his  voj'age  and  death,  336. 

D'Urville,  Dumont,  his  discoveries  in  the  Antarctic 

ocean,  402. 
Dutch,  their  expeditions  to  discover  an  Arctic  pas- 
sage to  India,  339. 


Eagle,  the  sea-  {[lalicBtns  albicilla),  of  the  north, 
44. 

,  his  food,  44. 

• ,  white-tailed,  of  Iceland,  85. 

,  value  of  the  skins  of  the,  85. 

,  the,  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  125. 

,  in  the  Tundra  in  summer,  19. 

Ebierbing,  441,  466. 

Egede,  Hans,  his  voyage  to  Greenland,  384. 

Egg-vare  of  the  coast  of  Norway,  124. 

Egilson,  Olaf,  the  Westman  clergyman,  his  slavery 
in  Algiers,  118. 

Eider-duck,  its  migrations  to  and  from  the  north, 
43. 

•  of  Iceland,  81. 

,  breeding  of,  83. 

,  Mr.  Shepherd's  visit  to  one  of  its  head-quar- 
ters, 83. 

Elder,  the,  in  the  Arctic  regions,  24. 

Elephant,  sea-,  of  the  Antarctic  ocean,  399. 

Elk,  or  moose  deer,  of  the  forests  of  the  north,  38. 

,  CiBsar's  account  of  it,  39. 

.  its  food  and  present  habitat,  40. 


INDEX. 


11 


Elk,  its  mode  of  defending  itself,  40. 

Enara,  Lake  of,  the  Fisher  Lapps  of,  166. 

,  description  of  the,  169. 

Enderby  Land,  discovery  of,  401. 

English  pirates,  ravages  of,  in  Iceland,  95. 

Erelms,  mount,  eruption  of,  403. 

Eric  the  Red,  his  visit  to  Greenland,  382. 

Ermine  {Mustebi  erminea)  beauty  and  importance 
of  the  fur  of  the,  210. 

,  those  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Territory,  316. 

Esk,  volcano,  146. 

Esquimaux  (see  also  Innuits),  their  wide  extension, 
290. 

,  their  own  name  of  Innuit,  290. 

. -,  character  of  the  regions  they  inhabit,  290. 

,  their  physical  character,  habits,  and   man- 
ners, 290,  29i. 

women,  291. 

,  their  dress  and  snow-huts,  291,  292. 

,  their  boat,  the  kayak  or  baidar,  293. 

,  their  weapons,  and  fishing  and  hunting  im- 
plements, 293,  294. 

,  enmity  between  them  and  the  Red  Indians, 

294. 

,  their  chase  of  the  reindeer,  and  bird-catching, 

295. 

,  their  whale  and  seal  hunts,  295,  296. 

;  their  "  keep  kuttuk,"  296. 

,  their  bear  and  walrus  hunts,  296,  298. 

-,  their  dogs  and  dog-sledges,  299. 

■ ,  their  games  and  sports,  300. 

■ ,  constitution  of  their  society,  300. 

— ■■ — ,  their  angekoks,  or  priests,  300,  301. 

,  their  moral   character,  self-reliance,  and  in- 
telligence, 801,  302. 

-,  their  maps,  and  predilection  for  commercial 

pursuits,  302.  | 

,  their  voracity,  and  seasons  of  abundance  and  ; 

distress,  302,  303.  j 

,  their  depots  of  food,  302,  303. 

,  their  wars  with  the  Kutchin  Indians,  333. 

,  their  attack  of  Franklin's  boats,  349. 

■ ,  their  hunting  expeditions  with  Dr.  Kane's 

party,  370. 

• — — ,  their  ravages  on  the  Greenland  coast,  383. 

Europe,  treeless  zone  of,  18-24. 

Evil  Spirit  of  the  woods  of  the  Laplanders,  157. 

Exiles,  Siberian,  204,  205. 

,  annual  number  of,  206. 

Eyjafialla,  eruption  of,  in  1821,  96. 

Evstein,  King,  his  benevolence,  126. 


F. 


Faeroe  Tsr.ANDS,  chase  of  the  black  dolphin,  or 
"  ca'ing"  whale,  in  the,  61. 

Falkland'  Islands,  climate  of,  394. 

Famine,  Port,  rich  vegetation  of,  410,  414. 

Festuca  of  the  Arctic  regions,  20. 

Finback  whales  of  Spitzl>ergen,  137. 

Finches  in  the  Tundra  in  summer,  19. 

Finmark,  trade  and  fisheries  of  the  coast  of,  129. 

Finnur  Johnson,  the  Icelander,  his  "  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  Iceland,"  98. 

Fir,  different  species  of,  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Amer- 
ica, 24. 

Fish,  and  fi.shing  season  of  Iceland,  86. 

,  abundance  of,  in  Kamchatka,  255. 

of  Newfoundland,  379. 

of  Greenland,  387. 


I'"ish  river.  Great,  Back's  discovery  of,  355. 

Fisher  Lapps,  account  of  the,  160. 

Fiskernasset,  cod-lishery  of,  388. 

Fitzroy,  Cnptain,  his  surveys  of  Patagonia  and 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  415. 

Fjiill  Lappars,  or  Mountain  Lapps,  account  of  the, 
159. 

Flatey,  eider-ducks  of,  81,  82. 

Flat-fish,  almndance  of,  on  the  coasts  of  Iceland,  87. 

Floki,  the  Viking,  his  visit  to  Iceland,  90. 

Flora.of  Spitzbergen,  136. 

Flowers  of  the  Arctic  regions,  20. 

of  tiie  island  of  St.  Lawrence,  271. 

of  Tainiurland,  226. 

of  Unalasciika,  269. 

Fogs  of  the  Arctic  .seas  in  sunmier,  51. 

near  the  island  of  St.  Lawrence,  270. 

off  Newfoundland,  l!80. 

Food,  amount  of,  required  by  man  in  the  Arctic  re- 
gions, 28. 

Forest  regions,  Arctic,  18. 

,  extent  of  the,  22. 

,  character  of  the  trees  of  the,  24. 

,  distinctive  character  of  the  forests,  25. 

,  characters  of  the  Arctic  forests  of  tlie  Miocene 

period,  28,  29. 

,  legions  of  gnats  in  the,  25. 

,  changes  being  effected  by  the  agencv  of  man, 

25. 

Forests,  the,  head-quarters  of  many  of  the  Arctic 
fauna,  41. 

■ — ~,  more  in  than  aiotethe  earth  iiiNovaZembla, 
153. 

of  Newfoundland,  .376. 

Forget-me-not  found  in  Nova  Zembla,  153. 

Forster,  Captain,  his  expedition  to  the  Antarctic 
sea,  393. 

Fossils,  Arctic,  in  New  Siberia,  203. 

Foulke,  Port,  Dr.  Hayes's  winter  at,  372. 

Fox,  the  Arctic  {CanL^  larjojnts),  its  mode  of  protect- 
ing itself  from  the  most  intense  cold.  42. 

Fox,  the  Arctic,  its  food  and  enemies,  42. 

of  Spitzbergen,  137. 

in  Nova  Zembla,  154. 

found  in  Taimurland,  227. 

of  Newfoundland,  378. 

,  black,  of  Siberia,  value  of  the  fur  of  the.  211. 

,  the  Brazilian  (Canw  Azara),  of  Patagonia, 

419. 

,  red  {rulpesfulnis),  the,  211,  317. 

•,  value  of  the  fur  of  the,  317. 

Fox  Islands,  discovery  of  the,  201. 

France,  right  of  the  people  of,  to  fish  on  the  Itanks 
of  Newfoundland,  379. 

Franklin,  Lieut,  (afterwards  Sir  John),  his  first 
Arctic  voyage,  344. 

,  his  first  land  journey,  346. 

.  his  second  land  journey  to  the  shores  of  tiie 

Polar  sea,  349. 

,  loss  of  his  first  wife,  350. 

,  his  last  voyage,  356. 

,  searching  expeditions  sent  for  him,  3.56. 

,  his  fate  and  that  of  his  companions,  362-364. 

Franklin  Island,  discovery  of,  40.3. 

Eraser  river,  voyage  of  Mackenzie  down  tlic.  .308. 

Frederick  II.,  King  of  Denmark,  his  expedition  to 
Greenland,  .383. 

Frederick  IV.,  his  foundation  of  the  Finmark  mis- 
sion, 156. 

Friedrich.  the  Saxon  bishop,  introduces  Christiuni- 
tv  into  Iceland,  92. 


r42 


INDEX. 


Fritillaria  Sarrana,  used  as  food  in  Kamchatka,  258. 
Frobisher,  Martin,  his  endeavors    to   discover  an 

Arctic  passage  to  India,  337. 

,  discovery  of  relics  of,  466. 

,  his  subsequent  career,  337. 

Frovvard,  Cape,  scenery  of,  410. 
Frozen  sailor,  464. 
Fruits  of  the  Arctic  regions,  24. 
Fuego,  Tierra  del,  climate  of,  393. 

■ ,  origin  of  the  name,  413. 

■ ,  Captain  Fitzroy's  survey  of,  415. 

■ ,  account  of  the  Fuegians,  425. 

,  degradation  of  the  Fuegians,  425,  426. 

,  their  powers  as  mimics,  426. 

• ,  their  notions  of  trade,  427. 

,  causes  of  their  low  state  of  civilization,  427. 

,  their  food,  428. 

,  their  dress,  huts,  arms,  and  ornaments,  428, 

429. 

,  their  cannibalism,  430. 

,  their  language,  430. 

,  Captain  Fitzroy's  three  Fuegians,  430,  431. 

,  missionary  labors,  431. 

,  Captain  Gardiner,  431. 

Fuel,  kinds  of,  used  in  Iceland,  89. 

Fur,  account  of  the  Russian  Fur  Company,  and  its 

operations,  272. 
,  account  of  the  fur-trade  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 

Company,  304  et  seq. 

,  trade  in,  at  the  fair  of  Obdoisk,  189. 

of  Siberia,  208. 

,  importance  of  the  trade  in,  212. 

of  the  Tchuktchi,  264. 


G. 


Gabriel  Channel,  williwaws  of,  412. 

Gadflies  which  attack  the  reindeer,  38. 

Galictis  vittata,  the,  of  Patagonia,  418. 

Gambling  of  the  Cree  Indians,  324. 

Gardar,  the  northern  pirate,  his  the  first  circum- 
navigation of  Iceland,  90. 

Gardar's  Holn;,  or  Gadar's  Island,  Iceland  so  called, 
90. 

Gardiner,  Captain,  his  mission  to  Fuegia,  and  mel- 
ancholy end.  431. 

Gawrilow,  produce  of  the  gold  mine  of,  218. 

Geese,  wild,  of  tlie  Arctic  regions,  19. 

,  snow,  their  migrations  to  and  from  the  north, 

43. 

of  Iceland,  81. 

"George  Henry,"  the  ship,  436. 

George,  St.,  climate  of  the  island  of,  270. 

,  sea-lions  and  guillemots  of,  271. 

Georgia,  South,  discovery  of,  393. 

Germany,  the  elk  or  moose-deer  of,  in  the  time  of 
Cresar,  39. 

Geysir,  the  Great,  description  of  the,  71. 

Gheritz,  Dirck,  his  discovery  of  the  New  Shetland 
Islands,  392. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey',  takes  possession  of  New- 
foundland, 379. 

Ginkloli,  or  children's  disease,  in  the  Westman 
Islands,  118. 

Gissur,  his  work  on  his  voyages  to  the  East,  94. 

,  the  Icelander,  his  learning  and  travels,  98. 

Gjas,  or  chasms,  in  Iceland,  76,  77. 

Glacier,  the  great,  in  the  Gulf  of  Penas,  394. 

Glaciers,  enormous  dimensions  of  the,  of  the  polar 
regions,  50. 


Glaciers  of  Magdalena  Bay,  135 ;  ice  cliffs  and  ava- 
lanches of,  135. 

• of  the  Beerenberg  mountain,  146. 

Glottolf,  Stephen,  his  discovery  of  Kadiak,  202. 

Gloves,  reindeer,  of  Tornea,  37. 

Glutton,  or  wolverine,  strength  and  fierceness  of 
the,  37. 

Glutton,  its  attack  of  the  reindeer,  37,  38. 

,  its  voracity,  38. 

,  found  in  Taimurland,  227. 

,  those  of  North  America,  316. 

,  value  and  uses  of  the  fur  of  the,  316. 

Gnats,  legions  of,  in  the  forests  and  swamps,  26. 

Goda-foss,  the,  an  Icelandic  cascade,  78.      ' 

Gold  diggings  of  Eastern  Siberia,  208. 

,  description  of  the  gold-fields,  214. 

Gomez,  his  voyages  of  discovery,  335. 

Goose,  bean  (^Anser  ser/etum'),  of  Nova  Zenibla,  155. 

Goose,  Brent,  its  migrations  to  and  from  the  north, 
43. 

,  its  rapid  flight,  43. 

Graah,  Captain,  his  explorations  of  the  coast  of 
Greenland,  386. 

Graham  Land,  discovery  of,  401. 

Grampus,  or  ore  (^Delphinus  orca),  description  of 
the,  02. 

— ,  his  ferocity  and  mode  of  ploughing  the  seas, 

62. 

of  Nova  Zembla,  155. 

of  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  398. 

,  conflict  of  one  with  a  whale,  398. 

Grasses,  tufted,  of  the  .j^rctic  regions,  20. 

■ of  the  treeless  zone,  21. 

■ ,  paramount  importance  of  the  grasses  in  Ice- 
land, 79. 

■ of  Taimurland,  226. 

Greenland,  vast  ice-fields  of,  27. 

• ,  proofs  of  a  former  milder  climate  in,  29. 

,  enormous  dimensions  of  the  glaciers  of,  50. 

,  the,  whale,  60. 

,  transparency  of  the  water  on  the  coast  of,  59. 

• ■,  abundance  of  animal  life  in  the  seas  of,  60. 

,  walruses  of  the  coasts  of  the  north  of,  64. 

■ ,  Kane's  sledge  journey  along  the  coast  of,  367. 

,  unknown  extent  of,  382. 

• ,  ancient  Scandinavian  colonists  of,  382. 

,  the  name  of,  given  to  it,  382. 

,  introduction  of  Christianit}-  in,  382. 

,  decline  and  fall  of  the  country,  383. 

,  subsequent  explorations  of,  383. 

,  Hans  Egede,  the  pastor,  his  voj'age  to,  384. 

,  foundation  of  Godthaab  in,  384. 

,  arrival  of  Herrenhuth  missionaries  in,  384. 

,  explorations  of  the  coast  of,  385. 

• ,  present  Danish  settlements  of,  386. 

,  scantv  population  of,  386. 

,  mode'of  life  of  the  people  of,  386,  387,  389. 

,  fisheries  of,  388. 

,  poorness  of  the  land  in,  388. 

,  quantities  of  drift-wood  at,  388, 

,  minerals  of,  389. 

,  Christianity  in,  389. 

■ .  climate,  mountains,  and  fjords  of,  389. 

,  ice-caves  of  the  coast  of,  o'JO. 

,  the  capital  of,  437. 

Greenlanders,  their  discovery  of,  and  colonics  in 
America,  335. 

,  destruction  of  their  colonies,  335. 

,  their  habits,  437. 

Greitl'enfeld,  his  imprisonment  in  Munkliolni,  124. 

Grinds.      See  Dolphins,  black. 


INDEX. 


743 


Grinnell  Land,  vegetation  of,  20. 

,  Dr.  Hayes's  discoveries  in,  372-374. 

Guanaco.  the,  of  Patagonia.  419. 

Guano,  circumstances  wliicli  favor  tlie  diposit  of, 

418. 
Guillemot,  on  the  Pribilow  Islands,  271. 
(julf  Stream,  influence  of,  on  the  south  and  west 

coasts  of  Iceland,  79  ;     and  on    the  climate  of 

Norway,  1'21. 
Gull,  Ross's,  distance  north  at  which  it  has  been 

seen,  67. 
Gull,  ivory,  in  Taimurland,  227. 
GustavMS  I.,  King  of  Sweden,  his  kind  treatment 

of  the  Lapps,  156. 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  his  foundation  of  a  school  for 

the  Lapps,  156. 

H. 

Haddocks,  abundance  of,  on  the  coast  of  Iceland, 
87. 

Hakon,  King  of  Norway,  his  annexation  of  Iceland, 
95. 

Hall,  Charles  Francis,  his  Arctic  expedition,  433- 
467. 

,  James,  his  voyage  to  Greenland,  383. 

Hammerfest,  description  of  the  town  of,  129. 

,  traffic  of,  129. 

,  the  people  of,  129. 

• ,  cargoes  of  walruses  and  seals  brought  from 

Spitzbergen,  143. 

Hare,  the  fur  of  the,  of  Siberia,  212. 

,  ice  (Lepus  glaciaiis),  317. 

— —  found  in  Taimurland/  227. 

Hare  Indians,  hunting-gi'ounds  of  the,  327. 

,  their  women,  328. 

Harold  Haafager,  or  the  Fair-haired,  his  establish- 
ment of  an  absolute  monarchy  in  Norway,  90. 

,  exodus  caused  by  his  tyranny,  91. 

Harp-seal  of  the  Polar  seas,  62. 

Hatherton,  Cape,  discovery  of,  365. 

Haven,  Lieut,  de,  his  search  for  Franklin,  357,  358. 

Hawks  in  the  Tundra,  in  summer,  19. 

Haves,  Dr.,  his  sledge  journey  over  Kennedy  Chan- 
nel, 368. 

■ -,  his  Arctic  voyage  in  1860,  372-374. 

,  his  opinion  as  to  what  may  be  done  in  the 

Arctic  regions,  374. 

Hecla,  eruptions  of,  since  the  colonization  of  Ice- 
land, 95-97. 

"  Hecla"  and  "Fury"  Straits,  discovery  of,  348. 

Heemskerk,  his  voyages  of  discovery,  340. 

Heineson,  Mogens,'the  "sea-cock,"  his  voyage  to- 
wards Greenland,  383. 

Hepburn,  John,  the  sailor,  his  overland  journey, 
346. 

Herald  Ishind,  discovery  of,  360. 

Heimaey,  or  Home  Island,  description  of,  116. 

Herring,  the  fishery  of  the  coast  of  Norway,  125. 

,  food  for  the  rorqual,  or  fin-whales,  61. 

,  abundance  of  the,  on  the  coasts  of  Iceland, 

87. 

Hesperis,  the,  on  the  Mary  :Minturn  river,  20. 

Hildringen,  agriculture  of,  124. 

Hobson,  Lieut.,  his  search  for  Franklin,  362,  364. 

Holme,  the,  of  Norway,  124. 

Hood,  Robert,  his  Arctic  journey,  346. 

,  murdered,  347. 

Horn,  Cape,  discovery  of  the  passage  round,  414. 

Horse,  the,  in  Iceland,  80. 

■ of  the  Jakuts,  230-232. 


Hrafnagja,  75. 

Hudson,  Henry,  visit  of,  to  Spitzbergen,  138. 

-.  his  the  first  attempt  to  sail  across  the  North 

Pole,  342. 

,  his  subsequent  voyage*  and  discoveries,  'M'l. 

,  his  melancholy  cud,  343. 

Hudson's  Bay,  barren  lands  of,  22. 

,  characters  of  the  ( 'onifeni?  of,  24. 

,  walruses  of  tlie  coasts  of,  <il. 

,  discovery  of,  312. 

Hudson's  Bav  Companv,  account  of  the  fur-trade 

of  the,  304' 
,  the  old  coureur  des  hois  and  the  modern  voy- 

ageur  of,  3()4,  305. 

,  history  oi"the,  307. 

,  formation  of  a  rival  comjianv,  and  sultscquent 

amalgamation  of  the  two,  307-310. 

,  i)almy  days  of  tlie,  310. 

,  its  reconstruction  in  1863,  310. 

,  its  trading-posts,  and  their  management,  310, 

311. 

,  its  efforts  to  civilize  the  native  tribes.  312. 

,  the  standard  of  exchange,  the  beaver-skin, 

313. 

,  extent  of  the  fur-trade  of,  313. 

,  account  of  the  fur-bearing  animals  of  tlie 

Territory,  313,  314. 
Hudson  river,  discovery  of  the,  342. 
Hudson's   Straits,  Sebastian  Cabot's  discovery'  of, 

335. 
Humboldt  Glacier,  the  Great,  50. 

-,  Kane's  description  of  the,  :!G7. 

Humming-bird  on  the  peninsula  of  Aliaska,  269. 

in  Newfoundland,  378. 

of  Patagonia,  420. 

Huts  of  the  Esquimaux,  293. 

of  the  Icelanders,  102. 

Ilvali),  island  of,  129. 
Hvita  river,  in  Iceland,  78. 


IcK,  vast  fields  of.  in  the  plateaus  of  Spitzbergen, 

Greenland,  and  Nova  Zcmbla,  27. 

,  floating  masses  of,  in  the  Polar  seas,  45. 

.  enormous  extent  of  the  Polar  glaciers,  49,  50. 

,  causes  which  prevent  the  accumulation  of 

Polar  ice,  55,  56. 

,  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  57. 

,  ice-fields  of  Iceland.  69. 

,  glaciers,  ice-clifls,  and  avalanches  of  Spitz- 
bergen, 135,  136. 
,  impediments   offered   by  the   hummocks  to 

travellers  on  the  Polar  sea,  210. 

,  icebergs  of  the  Antarctic  sea,  392. 

,  ice-caves  of  Greenland,  390. 

,  the  great  ice-barriir  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean. 

403. 

,  pack-ice  of  the  AnUirctic  Ocean,  404,  405. 

Icebergs,  4G. 

,  forms  and  size  of,  48. 

,  origin  of,  48. 

,  lociilities  in  which  most  of  the  irclHTg.-*  of  the 

North  Atlantic  arc  formed,  49. 
,  Dr.  Ilaves's  description  of,  in  a  midnight  sun, 

50. 

,  how  distinguished  nt  night  and  in  fogs,  52. 

,  dangers  of  collisions  with,  52. 

— — ,  protection  to  ships  afforded  by,  53. 
,  dangers  of  anchoring  to,  53. 


744 


INDEX. 


Icebergs,  "calving"  of,  54. 

,  crumbling  of,  54. 

Ice-blink,  description  of  the  phenomenon  of,  54. 

,  its  advantages  to  the  Arctic  navigator,  54. 

Ice-fields,  46. 

,  hummocks  on,  46. 

,  collision  of,  48. 

,  dangers  caused  by,  to  ships,  48. 

Ice-grotto  of  Surts-hellir,  77. 

Iceland,  volcanic  origin  of,  68. 

-,  the  country  in  winter  and  in  summer,  68,  79. 

-,  sterile  portions  of  the  island,  69. 

,  its  immense  ice-fields,  69. 

,  its  lava-streams,  69,  77. 

,  the  burning  mountains  of  Krisuvik,  69. 

,  the  mud-caldrons  and  hot  springs,  70, 

• •,  the  Great  Geysir,  71. 

,  the  Strokkr,  72. 

,  crystal  pools,  73. 

• •,  the  Almannagja,  73,  74. 

,  the  Surts-hellir,  or  caves  of  Surtur,  77. 

,  rivers  and  cascades  of,  78. 

,  influence  of  the  ocean  currents  on  the  cli- 
mate, 78. 

,  mean  annual  temperature,  79. 

,  absence  of  trees  in,  79. 

,  vegetation  and  condition  of  agriculture,  79. 

-,  indigenous  land  quadrupeds,  80. 

,  cattle  of  the  Icelanders,  80. 

,  beverages,  80. . 

,  mode  of  shearing  sheep,  80. 

,  characteristics  and  number  of  horses,  80. 

,  the  reindeer,  80,  81. 

,  the  polar  bear,  81. 

,  the  eider-duck,  81,  88. 

■ ,  the  giant  auk,  85,  86. 

,  Icelandic  fish  and  fishing  season,  86,  87. 

,  hospitality  of  tlie  people,  87. 

,  minerals  of  the  countrj%  88. 

,  fuel  used  by  the  Icelanders,  88. 

,  history  of,  89. 

,  Naddodr's  discovery   of  the   Ice    Land,  89 ; 

which  he  named  Snowland,  90. 

,  circumnavigated   by  the  pirate    Gadar,  and 

called  by  him  Gardar's  holm,  90. 

,  visited  by  the  viking  Floki,  and   called  by 

him  Iceland,  90. 

,  foundation  of  Reykjavik  bv  Ingolfr  and  Leif, 

90. 

,  exodus  from  Norway  to,  91. 

,  introduction  of  the  Norwegian  language  and 

customs,  91. 

,  code  of  laws  of  Uftliot  the  Wise,  91. 

,  the  ancient  Althing  at  Thingvalla,  91,  92. 

■ ,  introduction  of  Christianity  into  the  island, 

92. 

,  the  golden  age  of  Icelandic  literature,  94. 

,  history  of,  annexation  of  the  island  to  Nor- 
way, 95. 

,  its  subsequent  misfortunes,  95. 

,  volcanic  eruptions,  95. 

,  misery  caused  by  the  curse  of  monopoly,  97. 

,  hope  for  the  future  of  the  islanders,  97." 

,  account  of  the  Icelanders  of  the  present  dav, 

98.  1  .  » 

,  Skalkott,  the  former  capital  of  the  island,  98. 

,  the  present  capital,  Reykjavik,  100. 

• ,  state  of  trade  in,  100. 

,  the  merchant  and  the  peasant,  101. 

,  temperate  habits  of  the  people,  101. 

,  condition  of  agriculture,  102. 


Iceland,  a  harvest  home,  102. 

■ ,  winter  life,  102, 108,  109. 

,  huts  of  the  Icelanders,  102,  103. 

,  churches,  104. 

,  clergymen    all  blacksmiths,  101 ;   note,  106 ; 

their  poverty,  106-108. 

■ ,  the  Iceland  poet,  John  Thorlakson,  107. 

■ ,  education  of  the  clergy  and  children,  108, 109. 

,  industrj'  and  thirst  fcr  knowledge  of  the  peo- 
ple, 109  ;  their  language,  109. 

• ■,  the  library  of  Reykjavik,  109. 

,  the  Icelandic  Literary  Society,  110. 

— — ,  Icelandic  newspapers,  110. 

,  health  of  the  people,  110. 

,  diflSculties  and  expense  of  travelling,  110-113. 

nijss,  eaten  and  exported  by  the  Icelanders, 

79. 

moss,  food  for  the  deer  of  Spitzbergen,  137. 

-,  in  the  treeless  zone,  21. 

Idols  of  the  Samoiedes,  180. 

Igloolik,  island  of,  348. 

Iligliuk,  the  Esquimaux,  her  intelligence  and  pas- 
sion for  music,  348. 

Indians,  Red,  theirenmity  with  the  Esquimaux,  294. 

,  their  decimation  by  smallpox  and  drunken- 
ness, 308. 

,  efforts  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  to  civ- 
ilize them,  312,  313. 

,  the  beaver  skin  their  standard  of  exchange 

with  the  Company,  313. 

Inglefield,  Captain,  his  search  for  Franklin,  359. 

,  his  discoveries,  365. 

Ingolfr,  the  Norwegian  yarl,  his  visit  to  Iceland, 
and  foundation  of  Reykjavik,  90. 

Innuits,  the.  see  also  Esquimaux,  433,  467. 

,  their  character,  439,  461. 

,  amusement  of,  440. 

• ,  their  dwellings,  443,  457,  462. 

,  distress  in  winter,  444. 

,  seal,  feasts  of,  445. 

,  mode  of  capturing  seals,  446,  448,  452. 

,  their  dogs,  445,  450,  454. 

,  their  opinion  of  the  bear,  451. 

,  mode  of  hunting  the  walrus,  454. 

,  their  implements,  456. 

,  mode  of  constructing  an  igloo,  457.. 

,  their  use  of  the  reindeer,  458. 

,  their  clothing,  460. 

,  reindeer  feasts,  459. 

,  food  and  mode  of  eating,  460. 

,  their  religious  ideas,  460. 

,  treatment  of  the  sick,  461. 

,  gradual  extinction,  462. 

Insects  of  Taimurland,  227. 

Irish  colonists  on  the  Westman  Islands,  115. 

Irkutsk,  extreme  cold  of,  208. 

,  Wrangell's  visit  to,  233. 

,  summer  flowers  of,  233. 

Iron  mines  near  Drontheim,  124. 

Isabella,  Cape,  discover3-of,  365. 

Ishemsk,  Castren's  visit  to,  174. 

,  the  Isprawnik  of,  and  his  wife,  174,  176. 

Islands  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  barren  grounds  of 
the,  18. 

Isleif,  the  oldest  chronicler  of  the  North,  98. 

Issakow,  of  Kem,  rounds  the  north-eascern  extrem- 
ity of  Nova  Zemhla,  150. 

Italmenes,  cruelty  of  their  conquerors,  the  Rus- 
sians, 198. 

Ivan  Wasiljowitsch  I. ,  first  Czar  of  Russia,  his  de- 
feat of  the  Tartars,  191. 


INDEX. 


74r, 


Ivan  Wasiljewitsch  I.,  subdues  the  Great  Novgo- 
rod, I'Jl. 

,  becomes  head  of  tlie  Greek  orthodox  Church 

and  the  first  Czar,  192. 

,  Chancellor's  visit  to  him  at  Moscow,  336. 

Ivan  Wasiljewitsch  II.,  his  conquest  of  Kasan,  192. 

,  his  surname  of  the  Terrible,  192. 

Ivory,  fossil,  in  the  islands  of  New  Siberia,  202. 

Iwalo  river,  in  Lapland,  Castren'd  journey  on  the, 
169. 


J. 


Jakowlew  family,  219. 

,  their  enormous  wealth  in  gold  mines,  219. 

Jakuts,  the,  confirmed  bj-  the  Czar  in  their  posses- 
sions, 199. 

,  their  snares  and  traps,  213. 

,  their  energy  and  cunning,  228. 

,  their  language,  origin,  character,  and  person- 
al appearance,  228. 

,  their  summer  and  winter  huts,  229. 

,  their  horsey,  230. 

,  their  powers  of  endurance  and  sharpness  of 

vision,  230. 

,  their  manufactures  and  articles  of  dress,  231. 

,  their  gluttony,  231. 

,  the  universal  carriers  to  the  east  of  the  Lena, 

231. 

,  their  superstitions,  232. 

,  their  offerings  of  horsehair  to  the  spirit  of  the 

mountains,  232. 

,  their  songs,  232. 

,  wretched  condition  of  the  river,  252. 

Jakutsk,  mean  temperature  of,  in  summer  and  win- 
ter, 27. 

,  extreme  cold  of,  208. 

,  gloomy  appearance  of  the  town,  233. 

: ,  trade  of,  233. 

Jan  Mej'en,  description  of.  146. 

Jelly,  made  from  the  horns  and  claws  of  the  rein- 
deer, 37. 

Jellj'-fish  (Pleiirobrac/iia pileus)  in  the  sea  of  Kara, 
151. 

Jenissei  river,  Castren's  journey  to  the,  176. 

Jeniseisk,  Castren's  visit  to,  177. 

• ,  the  ostrog  of,  founded,  195. 

Jyrfalcon  (Falco  gyrfalco),  its  head-quarters  in  Ice- 
land, 85. 

,  former  trade  in  the,  85. 

Jilibeambaertje,  or  Num,  the  Supreme  Being  of  the 
Samoiedfes,  179. 

"John,  Gentleman,"  the  English  pirate,  118. 

John'.s,  St.,  capital  of  Newfoundland,  378. 

Jdkuls,  or  ice-mountains  of  Iceland,  68. 

Jokulsa  i  Axarfirdi  river,  in  Iceland,  78. 

Jukulsa  river,  in  Iceland,  78. 

Jones's  Sound,  discovery  of  the  entrance  to,  343. 

Jukahires,  chief  resource  of  those  of  the  Aniuj, 
237. 

,  Jelissei  Busa's  residence  among  the,  195. 


K. 


Kadiak,  island  of,  discovery  of  the,  202. 
Kaiak,  island  of,  landing  of  Stella  on  the,  249. 
"Kalewala,"  Castren's  Swedish  translation  of  the, 

170. 
Kamchatka,  subjugation  of,  by  the  Kussians,  198. 
,  crueltv  of  the  conquerors,  198, 


Kamchatka,  Steller'.s  scientific  journey  to,  248. 

,  it.'*  climate  and  fertility,  2.'j4. 

,  abundance  of  fish  in  the  rivers,  255. 

,  bird-catchers  of,  255. 

,  population,  255. 

,  mountain  chain  and  volcanoes,  256. 

,  climate  and  mineral  springs,  250, 

,  harbors  and  population,  2."i(i. 

,  healthiness  of  the  people,  257. 

,  their  food,  258. 

,  their  animals,  258,  260, 

,  character  of  the  j)eople,  200,  201, 

Kane,  Dr.,  his  Arctic  voyages,  365. 

,  his  account  of  his  "first  winter  in  Kenssclacr 

Bay,  365. 

,  his  description  of  the  Polar  night.  300. 

,  his  sledge  journev  along  the  coast  of  Green- 
land, 367. 

,  his  illness  on  the  voj-age  and  recovery,  308. 

.  resolves  to  winter  a  second  time  in  Rensselaer 

Bay,  369. 
.  departure  and  return  of  part  of  his  crew,  309, 

370. 

,  sufferings  of  his  paftj',  371. 

,  abandonment  of  his  ship,  and  boat  journey  to 

Upernavik,  371. 

,  his  return  to  New  York,  and  death,  372. 

Kara  Gate,  reached  by  Stephen  Burrough,  336. 
Kara,  Sea  of,  147. 

,  expeditions  to  the,  147. 

Kassm,  Russian  conquest  of,  192. 

Kellett,  Captain,  his  search  for  Franklin,  359. 

Kendall,  Lieut.,  his    vo\age   to    the   Copi)crmine 

river,  349. 

,  his  account  of  Deception  Island,  .S93. 

Kennedy,  William,  his  search  for  Franklin,  358. 

.,  his  sledge  journey  with  Bellot,  359. 

Kenned}'    Channel,  Dr.    Hayes's   sledge   journey 

across,  368. 

,  his  voyage  across,  373. 

Kerguelen  Land,  climate  of,  39.3. 

Khipsack,  destruction  of  the  empire  of  the  Khans 

of,  191. 
King,  Captain,  his  survev  of  the  Magellan  Strait, 

415. 
King   William's   Island,  coast  of,  traced   by   Mr. 

Thomas  Simpson,  356. 
Klofa  jdkul,  extent  of  the,  69. 
Knight,  John,  his  melancholy  Arctic  voyage,  3^11. 

,  nmrdercd  by  the  Esquimaux,  342. 

Koldewev,  Captain,  his  journey  tow  ards  the  North 

Pole,  374. 
Kohva,  Castren's  visit  to,  174. 
Kolyma  river,  inundations  of  the,  237. 
Kolymsk,  Nishnei,  foundation  of  the  town  of,  197. 

,  AVrangell's  visit  to,  234. 

,  situation  and  climate  of,  234. 

,  vegetable  and  animal  life,  235. 

,  population  of  the  district,  2.36. 

,  dwellings  of  the  Russian  rcsMents,  236, 

,  mode  of  life  of  the  natives,  230,  237. 

,  their  dogs,  230,  237. 

,  berry-gathering  in  the  district,  238. 

,  famine  of  the  people,  238. 

,  social  parties  at,  23H. 

Koriaks,  the,  conlirmcd  by  the  Czar  in  their  jws- 

sessions,  199. 
Koronnoie  Filippowskoi,  Von  MiddendorflTs  journey 

to,  221. 
Kostin  Schar,  visit  of  Von  Baer  to,  152, 
,  storm  in,  152. 


746 


INDEX. 


Kdtlugja,  eruptions  of,  since  the   colonization  of 

Iceland,  95,  97. 
Krasnojarsk,  Castren's  visit  to,  175,  176. 

,  extravagance  of  the  gold  aristocnicj'  of,  218. 

Krenitzin,  his  discovery  of  the  peninsula  of  Aljaska, 

202. 
Kresdowosdvvishensk,  produce  of  the  gold  mine  of, 

218. 
Krisuvik,  burning  mountains  of,  69. 
Krotow,  Lieutenant,  lost  off  Nova  Zembla,  1-17. 
Kutchin  Indians,  their  dwelling-place,  331. 

,  their  personE^l  appearance  and  dress,  331. 

■ ,  their  medium  of  exchange,  331. 

. J  tht;ir  women  and  children,  332. 

,  their  amusements,  332. 

,  their  wars  with  the  Esquimaux,  333. 

,  their  suspicious  and  timorous  lives,  333. 

,  their  mode  of  pounding  the  moose-deer,  333. 

,  their  frequent  distress,  331. 

,  their  huts,  334. 

Kutchum  Khan,  his  conquest  of  Silieria,  192. 
,  defeated  by  Yermak  the  robber,  at  Tobolsk, 

193,  191. 
,  his  revenge,  194. 


L. 


Labkador,  barren  lands  of,  22. 

,  effect  of  the  icy  seas  and  cold  currents  on  the 

climate  of,  22. 
,  discovered  and  colonized  by  Greenlanders, 

335. 
Liichow  Islands,  discovery  of  the,  202. 
Lagarfliot  river,  in  Iceland,  78. 
Lakes  of  Newfoundland,  377. 
Lambert,  M.  Gustave,  his  opinion  as  to  the  route 

to  the  Pole,  375. 
Lancaster  Sound,  discovery  of  the  entrance  to,  343. 
Lapps,  their  history  and  conversion  to  Christianity, 

156. 

,  poverty  and  self-denial  of  their  clergy,  157. 

,  their  ancient  gods  and  present  superstitions, 

156,  157. 

, Evil  Spirit  of  the  woods,  157. 

,  sorcery  and  witchcraft,  158. 

,  their  personal  appearance,  158. 

Lappars,  the  Fjall,  or  Mountain  Lapps,  159. 

,  their  dwellings,  15?. 

■ ,  their  reindeer  pens,  160. 

,  their  summer  and  winter  encampments,  161. 

,  their  sledges  and  skates,  161. 

,  natural  beauties  of  their  country,  162. 

,  their  love  of  home,  162. 

,  their  mode  of  hunting  the  bear  and  the  wolf, 

163,  164. 

,  the  wealthy,  and  their  mode  of  living   164. 

• -,  their  annual  visits  to  the  fairs,  165. 

,  their  drunlvcnness,  165. 

,  their  worship  of  mammon,  treasure  hoard- 
ing, 165. 

,  their  fondness  for  brand}'  and  tobacco,  165. 

,  their  affectionate  disposition,  166. 

.  the  Skogslappars,  or  Forest  Lapps,  166. 

\  the  Fisher,  166. 

Laptew,  Lieut.  Cheriton,  his  explorations  of  the 

coasts  of  Taimurland,  200. 

,  his  explorations  to  the  east  of  the  Lena,  200. 

Lai-ch,  the,  of  Siberia,  24. 

,  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Territor\',  24. 

Lawrence,  St.,  climate  and  vegetation  of  the  island 

of.  271 


Lava  streams  of  Iceland,  69,  77. 

,  streams  of,  thrown  out  by  the  great  eruption 

of  Skaptar  Jukul,  95-97. 

L;ixaa,  or  Salmon  river,  abundance  of  fish  caught 
in  the,  87. 

Leif,  the  Norwegian  jarl,  his  visit  to  Iceland,  90. 

,  murdered  by  his  Irish  slaves,  91. 

Lemming,  its  habitat  and  food.  42. 

,  exaggerations  of  Olaus  Magnus  and  Pontop- 

pidan  respecting  the,  42. 

,  its  enemies,  and  accidents  to  which  it  is  lia- 
ble, 42. 

•  of  New  Siberia,  27. 

of  Nova  Zembla,  154. 

Lena  river,  ascended  W  the  Cossacks,  195. 

,  importance  of  the,  17. 

,  barren  grounds  near  the,  22. 

V ,  Wrangell's  journey  down  the,  2.33. 

Leprosy,  or  "  likthra,"  of  Iceland,  110. 

Lichens,  gray,  of  the  "barren  grounds,"  18. 

,  food  for  tlie  reindeer,  27. 

,  the  Lichen  rangifcriiius,  the  food  of  the  rein- 
deer, 36. 

of  Nova  Zemlila,  153. 

of  the  Pribilow  Islands,  271. 

Liddon,  Lieut.  M.,  his  Arctic  voyages,  345. 

Lindenow,  Godske,  his  voyage  to  Greenland,  383. 

Lion,  sea-  (Otaria  Stelkri),  value  of  the  skin  of  the, 
276. 

,  the  sea-,  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  399. 

Lister,  Cape,  discovery  of,  385. 

Lithuania,  the  elk  of,  39. 

Louisa,  Garcia  de,  liis  vo3-age  round  the  globe,  413. 

Lofoten  Islands,  the,  125. 

,  cod-fishery  of  the,  125, 126. 

Looming  objects  in  the  Arctic  regions,  55. 

Loschkin,  the  walrus-hunter,  his  voj'age  on  the  coast 
of  Nova  Zembla,  147. 

Liistadius,  the  Lapp  priest,  his  self-denial  and  pov- 
erty, 157. 

Loucheux.     See  Kutchin  Indians. 

Louis-Philippe  Terre,  discovery  of,  402. 

Lovunnen,  puffins  of,  125. 

l>owenorn,  his  voyage  to  Greenland,  385. 

Liitke,  Admiral,  his  endeavors  to  penetrate  along 
the  coast  of  Nova  Zembla,  147. 

Lychnis,  purple,  of  tlie  Arctic  regions,  20. 

Lvnx,  Canada,  or  pishu  {Lynx  Canadensis),  317. 

— — ,  value  of  the  fur  of  the,  212,  317. 

Lyon,  Captain,  liis  unsuccessful  voyage,  348. 


M. 


M.vcKENZiE,  Alexander,  his  voyages  of  discovery 
in  North  America,  308. 

Alackenzie  river,  importance  of  the,  17.  ^ 

,  forests  and  barren  lands  near  the,  22. 

,  influence  of  the  southerly  winds  on  the  tem- 
perature of  the  valley  of  the,  27. 

,  di-covery  of  the,  308. 

Maesnikow,  Nikita,  his  gold-fields  in  Eastern  Sibe- 
ria,'214,  217,  218. 

Magdalena  Bay,  description  of,  133. 

Magellan,  Strait  of,  408. 

,  description  of  the,  408. 

-,  entrances  to,  409. 

,  opening  into  the  Pacific,  411. 

,  discovery  of  the,  b}'  Magellan,  413. 

-,  Sir  J.  Narborough's  chart,  414. 

,  Captains  King  and  Fitzroy's  surveys  of,  415. 


INDEX. 


Magero,  island  of,  129. 

Magicians  of  the  Samoiedes,  180,  181. 

Malewiuskv,  Lieutenant,  liis  gold  mine  of  Olginsk 

218. 
Matlstrom,  the,  126. 
Mummoth,  fossil  remains  of  the,  iu  New  Siberia, 

202. 
Man,  his  difficulty  in  establishing  a  footing  in  the 

Arctic  regions,  17. 
,  how  he  is  able  to  stand  the  rigors  of  an  Arc- 
tic winter,  28. 
Maps  of  the  Esquimaux,  ."02. 
Mariiiisk,  station  of,  built  by  the  Itussians,  196. 

,  gold  mine  of,  217. 

Marshes  of  Newfoundland,  377. 
Marten,  pine  {Mnrtes  abi<-iui),)^  the,  316. 

,  value  of  the  fur  of  the,  316. 

Mary  Minturn  river,  flowers  of,  20. 

Matiuschkin,  his  sledge  journey  over  the  Polar  Sea, 

241. 
Miitoschkin  Schar,  visits  to,  147-152. 
Matthew,  St.,  island  of,  inhospitable  character  of 

the,  271. 
Matthew's   Straits,  visited  by  Eosmysslow,  Pach- 

tussow,  and  Herr  von  Baer,  147-152. 
McClintock,  Lieut,  (now  Sir  Leopold),  his   search 

for  Franklin,  360. 
■,  his  voyage  in  the  "  Fox,"  and  discovery  of 

the  fate  of  Franklin  and  his  companions,  362-364. 
McClure,  Captain,  his  search  for  Franklin,  359-361. 

,  his  discovery  of  the  north-west  passage,  360. 

Mecham,  Lieut.,  his  search  for  Franklin,  360. 
Mediterranean,  dried  codfish  sent  to  the,  129. 
Medusa;,  enormous  numbers  of,  in  the  Polar  world, 

59. 

,  in  the  seas  offSpitzbergen,  133. 

Melville  Bay,  enormous  glaciers  of,  41),  50. 

Melville  Island,  discovery  of,  345. 

Mentschikoff,  Prince,  his  exile  and  death  in  Siberia, 

205. 
,  his  son  restored  to  the  honors  of  his  house, 

20.O. 
Mercy  Bay,  discovery  of,  301. 
Mercy,  harbor  of,  412. 
Middendorff.  Von,  his  adventures  in   Taimurland, 

220. 

,  his  visit  to  the  Chatanga  river,  221. 

■ ,  his  journej'  down  the  Taimur  river  to  tiie 

Polar  Sea,  221-223. 

,  his  return  journey  and  illness,  223-225. 

■ ,  gratitude  of  the  Samoiedes,  224. 

,  his  observations  on  the  climate  and  natural 

productions  of  Taimurland,  225. 
Midnight,  silence  of,  in  Spitzbergen,  135. 
Milk  of  the  reindeer,  36. 
IMinerals  of  Iceland,  88. 
Mink  {Vison  Americamts),  value  of  the  fur  of  the, 

316. 
Miser}',  Mount,  145. 
ISIollusca,  small,  of  the  Polar  Seas,  59. 
Moonlight  nights  in  the  Arctic  regions,  32,  33. 
Morse.     »S'ee  Walrus. 
Morton,  one  of  Dr.  Kane's  crew,  his  illness,  368. 

,  his  discovery  of  Washington  Land,  369. 

Mosquitoes  of  Nishne-Kolymsk,  235. 
Mosses,  dingy,  of  the  "  barren  grounds,"  18. 

■ of  Nova  Zembla,  153. 

of  the  Pribilow  Islands,  270,  271. 

Mourawieff,  Count  Nicholas,  his  annexation  of  the 

Amoor,  196. 
Mouse,  field,  of  Spitzbergen,  137. 


Mnclianior,  the  fungus,  used  as  food  by  ili<-  Kam- 

chatkans,  25.S. 
Mud-springs,  boiling,  of  Iceland,  70. 
Munich,  Marslial,  liis  exile  to  Siberia.  205. 

,  his  return  and  sul>si-(iuent  life,  206. 

Munk,  Jens,  his  voyages,  343. 

Muidcliolm,  castle  of,  124. 

Murderers,  treatnunt  of,  in  Russia,  200. 

Muscovy    Company,  its   endeavors   to   discover   a 

nortli-east  passage  lo  India,  336. 
Musk-ox  {Ocibos  mosc/tatus),  description  of  the,  40. 

,  its  former  and  present  habitat,  40,  41. 

Musquash,  musk-rat,  or  omUura  {I'ib'r  zibethkus), 

317. 

,  villages,  318. 

,  modes  of  catching  the  animal,  318. 

,  value  of  the  fur  of  the.  .118. 

iMussels  on  the  coast  of  (ireeuland,  59. 
]Mvvatn,  ducks  of  the,  84. 


N. 


N.VDDODR,  the  Norwegian  pirate,  his  discovery  of 

Iceland,  89. 
Naniar,  or  boiling  mud-springs  of  Iceland,  70. 
Narborough,  Sir  John,  his  chart  of  the  Strait  of 

Magellan,  414. 
Narwhal,  or  sea-unicorn,  domain  of  the,  60. 

,  its  tu.'^k,  61. 

,  Greenland  fishery  of  the,  387. 

Narym,  Castren's  visit  to,  175. 
Necromancy  of  the  Samoiedes,  180. 
Nertschinsk,  treaty  of,  190. 

,  criminals  at  the  mines  of,  206. 

Ness,  Castren's  visit  to  the  Samo.edc  village  of,  172. 
Newfoundland,  discovered  and  colonized  by  Green- 
landers,  335. 

,  its  desolate  appearance.  376. 

,  its  forests,  marshes,  and  barrens,  376,  377. 

-,  its  lakes  and  ponds,  377,  378. 

,  its  fur-bearing  animals,  378. 

,  its  reindeer  and  wolves,  378. 

,  its  climate  and  inhabitants,  M78. 

,  its  capital,  St.  John's,  .■'>78,  379. 

■ — — ,  history  of  the  island,  379. 

,  taken  possession  of  by  the  English,  .379. 

,  right  of  the  French  and  Americans  to  fi.sh 

on  the  banks  of,  379. 

,  tlie  French  town  of  Placentin,  379. 

,  the  whole  island  ceded  to  England,  379. 

,  importance  of  the  cod-lishcries,  379. 

,  the  great  banks  of,  380. 

,  account  of  the  mode  of  fishing,  380. 

,  fogs  and  storms,  3(^0,  3*il. 

,  seal-catching,  381. 

Newspapers  of  Iceland,  110. 

Night  of  a  Polar  winter,  Kane's  description  of,  ,160. 

Nicolayevsk,  station  of,  built  by  the  Kussinns,  196. 

Noil)a,"  gold-diggings  on  the,  210. 

Norfolk  Bay,  i)osition  and  fur-trade  of,  272. 

North-eastern  route  to  India  and  China,  Sebastian 

Cabot's  idea  of,  335. 

,  attempts  to  discover  it,  .335-,'?.'17. 

North  Pole,  the  first  attempt  to  .-sail  across  the,  342. 

,  the  plan  first  suggested  l)y  Thorne,  342. 

^  Scoresby's  near  approach  to  the,  314 

,  Parry's  boat  and  sUdge  journey  towards  the, 

350. 
,  Dr.  Hayes's  o[(inion  as  to  the  practicability 

of  reaching  the,  across  Kennedy  (  liann.  1.  374. 


748 


INDEX. 


North  Pole,  opinions  of  other  scientific  authorities 

as  to  the  best  way  to  reacli,  374. 
North-west  passage  to  India,  attempts  to  discover 

the,  342,  343. 

• ,  M'Clure's  discovery  of  the,  3G0. 

• Company  of  Canada,  formation  and  trade  of 

the,  307. 
' ,  its  wars  with  the  Hudson's  Baj-  Company, 

and  final  amalgamation,  808-310. 
Northumberland  Sound,  temperature  of,  28. 
Notothenia,  the,  of  the  Antarctic  seas,  400. 
Norway,  the  lemming  of  the  Dovrefjeld,  in,  42. 
,  an  absolute  monarchy  e>tablished  by  Harold 

Haarfager  in,  90. 

,  causes  of  the  mild  climate  of  the  coast  of,  121. 

,  condition  of  the  soil,  and  of  the  cultivators 

of  it,  121-123. 
,  constitution  of,  and  education  of  the  people, 

121. 

,  population  of,  121. 

,  coast  scenery  of,  123. 

■ -,  Drontheim  and  its  industry,  124. 

,  birds  of  the  coast  of,  124,  125. 

' ,  the  herring  and  cod  fisheries  of,  125-128. 

Nova  Zembla,  iavestigations  of  the  shores  of,  147. 

,  circumnavigated  by  Pachtussow,  147, 148. 

■ ,  meteorological  observations  of  Ziwollia,  150. 

• ,  the  climate  of,  151. 

• ,  Von  Baer's  scientific  joiirne}',  151. 

• ,  scientific  results  of  his  journey,  152,  153. 

,  vegetation  of,  153. 

• ,  solitude  and  silence  of,  154. 

,  rarity  of  insects  in,  154. 

• — — ,  lemmini^'s  and  foxes  of,  154. 

,  birds  of,  154. 

■ ,  ottier  animals  of,  154,  155. 

■ ,  wintering  of  the  Dutch  under  Barentz  at,  340. 

Novgorod,  the  Great,  subdued  by  the  Czar  Ivan  I., 

191. 
Nowodsikoff,  Michael,  his  discoveries,  201. 
Nudibranchiata,  enormous  numbers  of,  in  the  Polar 

seas,  59. 
Nullipores  on  the  coast  of  Greenland.  59. 
Nun,  or  Jiliheambaertje,  the  Supreme  Being  of  the 

Samoiedes,  179. 


O. 


Obdorsk,  Castren's  visit  to,  174. 

,  description  of  the  town,  188. 

,  the  fair  at,  189. 

Obi  river,  importance  of,  17. 

,  barren  grounds  near  the,  22. 

,  its  importance  to  the  Ostiaks,  185. 

,  Castren's  journey  to  the,  174. 

• ,  misery  caused  by  the  overfiow  of  the,  175. 

,  inhabitants  of  the  banks  of  the,  175. 

Ochota  river,  the,  246. 

Ochotsk,  sea  of,  reached  by  a  partv  of  Cossacks 
195. 

,  description  of  the  town,  246. 

Olaf  Truggeson,  King  of  Norway,  sends  a  mission- 
ary to  Iceland,  93,  94. 

Olginsk,  gold  mine  of,  218. 

Olonez,  number  of  bears  killed  for  their  skins  everv 
year  in,  212. 

Ommaney,  Captain,  his  search  for  Franklin,  357. 

,  his  discovery  of  Franklin's  first  winter-quar- 
ters, 357. 

Onkilon,  or  sedentary  Tchuktchi,  267. 

,  their  mode  of  life,  267. 


Oraefa  Jokul,  height  of,  69. 

,  eruptions  of,  since  the  colonization  of  Iceland, 

95. 
Orange  Island,  visited  by  Barentz,  339. 
Ore.     See  Grampus. 
Osborne,  Captain   Sherard,  his   opinion  as  to  the 

method  of  reaching  the  North  Pole,  374. 
Ostiaks,  their  fishing-grounds  on  the  Obi,  175. 

,  their  summer  huts  and  mode  of  life,  185, 186. 

,  th.ir  poverty,  186. 

,  their  winter  huts,  186. 

,  their  attachment  to  their  ancient  customs. 

186,  187. 

,  their  clans,  and  princes,  or  chieftains,  187. 

,  their  excellence  as  archers,  187. 

,  their  personal  appearance,  and  customs,  188. 

,  annual  tribute  levied  by  Yermak,  the  robber, 

on  them,  194. 
,  confirmed  b}-  the  Czar  in  the  possession  of 

their  lands,  199" 
Ostrich,  Darwin's,  of  Patagonia,  420. 
Ostrownoje,  town  and  fair  of,  263-265. 
Otter,  the  sea-,  or  kalan  (^Enliydris  lutris),  value  of 

the  fur  of  the,  211,212. 

,  description  of,  211. 

,  chase  of  the,  in  Kamchatka,  258. 

liunting  of  the  Aleuts,  273. 

Otter,  the  fish-  (Lutra  Canadensis),  317. 

,  fur  of  the,  317. 

Owl,  its  favorite  food,  43. 

,  its  winter  in  the  highest  latitudes,  43. 

Ox,  the,  in  Iceland,  80. 

Oyster,  most  northerly  limit  where  found,  126. 


P.\CHTrssow,  his  circumnavigation  of  the  southern 
island  of  Nova  Zembla,  148. 

,  his  second  voyage  and  death,  149,  150. 

Pack-ice,  46. 

,  its  tendency  to  separate  in  calm  weather,  54. 

Paikoft"  his  discovery  of  the  Fox  Islands,  201. 

Parrots  of  Patagonia,  420. 

Parry,  Lieut.  W.  E.  (afterwards  Admiral  Sir),  his 
Arctic  voyages,  344. 

,  his  second  voj'age,  348. 

,  liis  third  voyage,  349. 

,  abandonment  of  the  "  Fury,"  349. 

,  his  boat  and  sledge  journev  towards  the  Pole, 

350. 

,  his  subsequent  career,  351. 

Parrj',  Mount,  discover^'  of,  369. 

,  Dr.  Hayes's  journey  to,  373,  374. 

,  Mountains,  discovery  of  the,  403. 

P  sina  river,  scanty  population  of  the,  220. 

Patagonia,  Caprain  Fitzroy's  survey  of,  415. 

,  the  people  of,  417,  420. 

,  dift'erence  of  climate  between  the  east  and 

west,  417. 

,  aridity  of  the  east  of,  417,  418. 

,  large  rivers  of,  418. 

,  animals  of,  418,  419. 

,  introduction  of  the  horse,  424. 

,  fashions  of  the  Patagonians,  421. 

,  their  religious  ideas,  421. 

,  their  superstitions  and  astronomical  knowl- 
edge, 422. 

,  their  division  into  tribes,  422. 

,  their  huts,  422. 

,  their  trading  routes,  423. 


INDEX. 


710 


Patagonians,  their  system  of  government,  and  great 
cacique,  423. 

,  tlieir  arms,  amusements,  and  character,  424. 

Paul,  St.,  climate  of  the  island,  271. 

,  chase  of  the  sea-bear  on  tlie,  313. 

Paul  the  First,  discovery  of  the  Island  of,  274. 

Pekan,  or  woodshock  {.UarUs  Canadensis),  fur  of 
the,  .316. 

Penas,  gulf  of,  glacier  at  the,  394. 

Penguin,  the,  of  the  Antarctic  seas,  895. 

,  its  food,  397. 

Penny,  Master,  his  search  for  Franklin,  357,  358. 

Peruvian  current,  influence  of  the,  394. 

Petermann,  Dr.  Augustus,  his  view  of  the  route  to 
the  Pole,  374. 

Petrel,  the  giant  (^ProceUaria  gigantea'),  of  the  An- 
tarctic seas,  394. 

Petropavlosk,  its  population,  257. 

,  unsuccessful  attack  of  the  English  and  French 

on,  256. 

Petschora  river,  149. 

Philip's  bay,  409. 

Phipps,  Captain  (afterwards  Lord  Mulgrave),  his 
voyage  to  discover  the  north-west  passage,  344. 

Pipit  {Anthns  praltnsis),  the,  of  Iceland,  81. 

Plachina,  Castren's  residence  and  study  at,  176. 

Plover  island,  discovery  of,  3G0. 

Plovers  of  Iceland,  81. 

Poland,  the  elk  of,  39,  40. 

Pole,  North,  probable  condition  of  the  land  (if  any) 
at  the,  27. 

Popow,  Fedor,  his  discovery  of  the  gold  fields  of 
Eastern  Siberia,  214. 

Population  of  Norway,  122. 

Potato,  cultivation  of,  in  Norway,  124. 

Pribilow  Islands,  climate  of,  271. 

,  sea-lions  and  guillemots  of,  271. 

,  chase  of  the  sea-bear,  274. 

Prontschischtschew,  "his  fruitless  endeavors  to  dou- 
ble the  capes  of  Taimurland,  200. 

,  death  of  him  and  his  wife,  20. 

Prussia,  East,  tlie  elk  of,  39,  40. 

Ptarmigan  {Lagnpus  albus),  its  residence  in  tlie  liigh- 
est  latitudes  in  winter,  43. 

of  Spitzbergen,  137. 

,  its  summer  visits  to  Taimurland,  227. 

in  the  Tundra  in  summer,  19. 

Pteropods,  food  for  the  Greenland  whale,  60. 

Puffins  of  Lovunnen  island,  125. 

,  mode  of  catching  them,  125. 

Punta  Arenas,  colony  of  Germans  at,  416. 

Pustosersk,  visit  of  Castren  to,  171,  173. 

Pvm,  Lieut.,  his  sledge  journey  of  search  for  Frank- 
"lin,  360. 


FtAcooN  {Procyon  /otn-),  315,  378. 

,  value  and  trade  in  the  skins  of  the,  316. 

Rae,  Dr.,  his  search  for  Sir  John  Richardson,  357. 

,  his  discoveries  in  the  Arctic  seas,  .357. 

,  his  discovery  of  the  fate  of  Franklin  and  his 

crew,  362. 
Eaipass,  copper  mines  at,  128. 
Ranunculus,  snow  {Ranunculus  nivalis),  of  Nova 

Zembla,  153. 
Rat,  musk-.      See  Musquash. 
Ravens  of  Iceland,  84. 

,  in  Scandinavian  mythologj',  84,  85. 

,  superstitions  of  the  Icelanders  respecting  the, 

85. 


Razor-bill,  its  nests  on  the  most  northern  rocks.  67. 

Red-knife  Indians,  tlieir  liunting-ground.s,  327. 

Red-pole,  tlie,  of  Spitzbergen,  137. 

Red  river  colony,  destruction  of  the,  308. 

Red  sharks  of  Iceland,  81. 

Reindeer,  its  summer  and  winter  quarters  in  the 
Arctic  regions,  19. 

,  food  found  by  the,  in  Spitzbergen.  27. 

,  its  importance  to  man  in  the  northern  regions, 

34. 

,  its  formation  and  adaptation  to  tlie  circum- 
stances in  which  it  is  placed,  .34.    . 

,  clattering  sound  of  its  feet,  34. 

,  its  antlers,  34. 

■ ,  its  j'oung,  35. 

,  its  milk,  36. 

,  its  food  and  olfactory  powers,  .36. 

,  the  caribou  of  North  America,  36. 

,  its  geographical  range  in  the  Old  and  New 

World,  36. 

,  its  love  of  a  cold  climate,  36. 

,  its  services  to  man,  37. 

,  its  enemies,  and  di.-orders  to  which  it  is  lia- 
ble, 37,  38. 

,  a  nuisance  in  Iceland,  81. 

of  Spitzbergcii,  137. 

,  the,  pens  of  tlie  Lapps,  160. 

,  milking  the,  160. 

,  the,  sledges  of  the  Lapps,  161. 

,  attempt  made  to  acclimatize  the,  in  Scotland, 

162. 

,  ravages  of  wolves  in  herds  of,  164. 

,  rich  Lapp  owners  of  herds  of,  164. 

,  Lapp  mode  of  killing  the,  164. 

,  its  two  annual  migrations,  237. 

hunts  of  the  .Tukahiresof  the  Aniuj,  237,  238. 

races  of  the  Tchnktchi,  266. 

hunting  of  the  Esquimaux,  29."). 

.  the  Kutchin  Indian  mode  of  pounding  the, 

333. 

,  chase  of  the,  in  Greenland,  .388. 

Rensselaer  bay,  temperature  of,  in  mid-winter,  19, 
20. 

,  Kane's  winters  at,  365,  369. 

Resanow,  Jakin,  his  gold-fields,  214. 

"  Rescue,"  wreck  of  the,  440. 

Reykjahlid,  boiling  mud-caldrons  of,  70. 

Reykjavik,  mean  annual  temperature  of,  78. 

— '—,  the  present  capital  of  Iceland,  91. 

,  account  of,  99,  100. 

,  the  annual  fair  of,  100. 

,  salarv  of  the  bishop  of,  106. 

,  schools  and  library  of,  Hi8.  109. 

,  the  Icelandic  Literary  .Society,  110. 

Rhinoceros  remains  found  on  the  coast  of  North- 
ern Siberia,  203. 

Richardson,  Dr.  (afterwards  Sir  John),  liis  .Vrctic 
land  vovages,  346,  349. 

,  dreadful  sufferings  of  the  party,  .W..  347. 

J  his  search  for  Sir  John  Franklin.  3,"i6. 

Rivers  discharging  their  waters  into  the  Polar 
ocean,  17. 

of  Iceland,  78. 

Rocky  Mountains,  the  wild  sheep  of  the,  41. 

Roebuck,  near  Lake  Baikal,  4it. 

Rorquals,  or  fin-whales,  habitat  and  size  of  the,  60. 

,  their  food,  60. 

Rosmysslow,  his  investigations  of  the  shores  of 
Nova  Zembla,  147. 

Ross,  ('apt.  (afterwards  Sir  John),  Arctic  voyages 
of,  344. 


750 


INDEX. 


Eoss,  Sir  John,  his  second  journey,  351. 

,  his  five  years  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  351-354. 

,  his  return  home  and  honors,  354. 

,  Sir  James,  his  Arctic  voyages,  351. 

,  his  search  for  Franlilin,  357. 

,  his  discoveries  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  402. 

,  collision    between   his   ships,  the    "Erebus" 

and  "  Terror,"  405,  406. 

,  his  danger  between  two  icebergs,  406. 

Kum,  effects  of,  on  an  Iceland  clerg^'iniin,  101. 
Eupert's  Land,  held  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 

310. 
Eussia,  character  of  the  coniferae  of,  23,  24. 
,  the  elk  of  the  woods  of  the  northern  parts  of, 

40. 
,  conquest   of.    by   the   Tartars    under    Baaty 

Khan,  191. 
,  liberated  from  the  Tartar  yoke  by  Ivan  I., 

191. 

,  advances  of,  in  Siberia,  195. 

■ ,  annexes  the  country  of  the  Amoor,  196. 

,  condition  of  the  natives  under  the  yoke  of, 

197,  198. 

■ ,  exiles  from,  to  Siberia,  204-206. 

• ,  value  of  the  skins  annually  imported  by,  212, 

213. 

,  life  and  dwellings  in  Nishne-Kolymsk,  236. 

,  first  treaty   of  commerce  between  England 

and,  336. 
. ,  Company,  patent  granted   to  the,  to  fish  off 

Greenland,  l.'i8. 
Eussian  Fur  Company,  account  of  the,  and  its  trade, 

272. 


Sabine,  Mount,  discovery  of,  402. 

Sable,  value  of  the,  to  the  Cossack  conquerors  of 

Siberia,  195. 

,  importance  and  beauty  of  the  fur  of  the,  209. 

,  hunting,  210. 

Sabrina  Land,  discovery  of,  401,  402. 

Sagiimen,  or  historians,  of  Iceland,  94. 

Sajan  Mountains,  Castren's  journej-  over  the,  177. 

Salmon,  Alpine  (^Salmo  al/)inus),  immense  numbers 

of,  in  Nova  Zemlila,  155. 
Salmon,  shoals  of,  in  the  rivers  of  the  Arctic  regions, 

19. 

,  abundance  of,  in  Iceland,  87. 

,  of  the  Ssa  of  Ochotsk,  246,  247. 

,  abundance  of,  in  Kamchatka,  255. 

Samoiedes,  European,  Castren's  journey  among  the, 

170. 

,  their  drunkenness,  171. 

,  tlieir  impatience  of  confinement,  171-173. 

,  their  barbarism,  179. 

.  their  Supreme  Being,  Num,  or  Jilibeamhaert- 

je,  179. 

,  their  recourse  to  incantations,  180. 

,  their  idols,  180,  181. 

,  their  reverence  paid  to  the  dead.  181. 

,  their  mode  of  taking  an  oath,  182. 

,  their  personal  appearance  and  habits,  182. 

,  their  wealth  in  reindeer,  183, 184. 

■ ,  their  entire  number  in  Europe  and  Asia,  184. 

,  their  traditions  of  ancient  heroes,  184. 

,  confirmed  by  the    Czar  in  their  possessions, 

199. 
,  the  companions   of  Yon  Middendorff  on  his 

journey,  221,  225. 
S:imund  Erode,  his  Icelandic  works,  94. 


Sand-bee  (Andrena)  of  Nova  Zembla,  154. 

Sand-reed  bread  used  in  Iceland,  79. 

Sarmiento,  Pedro,  his  voyage,  414. 

Sawina  river,  148. 

Saxifragas,  the,  of  the  treeless  zone,  20. 

Scalds,  or  bards,  of  Iceland,  94. 

Scandinavia,  character  of  the  conifersE  of,  22. 

Schalaurow,  his  journeys  on  the  coast  of  Siberia, 
201. 

Scharostin,  his  residence  at  Spitzbergen,  142. 

Schelagskoi,  Cape,  rounded  bj^  Count  Michael  Stad- 
uchin,  197. 

,  reached  by  Schalaurow,  201. 

Scoresb}',  Dr.,  his  visit  to  Spitzbergen,  132. 

,  Captain,  his  near  approach  to  the  North  Pole, 

344. 

,  his  voyage  to  Greenland,  385,  386. 

Scotia,  Nova,  discovered  and  colonized  by  Green- 
landers,  335. 

Scurvy  in  Spitzbergen,  140-142. 

,  preservative  against,  141. 

• ,  Lapp  mode  of  preventing  the,  166. 

Sea,  influence  of  the,  on  the  severity  of  the  Arctic 
winter,  27. 

Sea,  Antarctic,  compared  with  the  Arctic  regions, 
391. 

• ,  absence  of  vegetation  in  the,  391. 

,  causes  of  the  inferiority  of  the  Antarctic  cli- 

'      mate,  391,  392. 

,  immensitj'  of  the  icebergs  of  the,  392. 

,  the  Peruvian  current,  394. 

,  birds  of  the  coasts,  394. 

■ ,  cetaceans,  397-399. 

,  Austral  fishes,  400. 

,  voyages  of  dij^coverj',  401. 

■,  storms  and  pack-ice,  404  ct  seq. 

Seas,  Arctic,  dangers  peculiar  to  the,  45. 

■ ,  floating  masses  of  ice,  45,  46. 

• ,  ice-blink,  54. 

,  summer  logs,  54. 

,  clearness  of  the  atmosphere  and  apparent  near- 
ness of  objects,  55. 

■ ,  phenomena  of  reflection  and  refraction  of  the 

atmosphere,  55. 

,  causes   which  pi-event  the  accumulation  of 

Polar  ice,  55-57. 

,  the  animals  cfthe,  40,  43,  44,  59. 

,  Russian  discoveries  off  the  Siberian  coast,  201 

et  seq. 

,  Von  Middcndorff's  journe}-  down  the  Taimur 

river  to  the  Polar  sea,  221. 

,  Wrangell's  nights  on  the  Polar  sea,  2.39. 

,  his  observations  on  the  Polar  sea,  240. 

,  Matiuschkin's  sledge  journey,  241. 

,  voyages  of  the  English  and  Dutch,  335  et 

seq. 

Sea-bear  of  Bering's  sea,  62. 

Sea-eagles  of  the  coast  of  Norway,  125. 

Sea-elephant  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  398,  399. 

Sea-gulls  of  the  coast  of  Norway,  124, 125. 

Sea-lion  of  Bering  sea,  62. 

. of  the  Pribilow  Islands,  271. 

Seal-fishing  at  Spitzbergen,  142. 

of  Nova  Zembla,  155. 

hunts  of  the  Esquimaux,  295,  296. 

■ catching  at  Newfoundland,  381. 

hunting  on  the  coasts  of  Greenland,  384,  446. 

Seals,  the,  of  the  Polar  seas,  62. 

,  their  uses  to  man,  62,  446. 

,  the  Antarctic,  399,  400. 

,  their  igloos,  449. 


INDEX. 


7r,i 


Sea-otter,  value  of  the  skin  and  former  numbers  of 
the,  201,  202. 

Sedger  river,  ronianiic  scenery  of  (lie,  110. 

Semple,  Governor,  murder  of,  SOS. 

Sertularians  on  the  coasts  of  Greenland,  59. 

StTvice-trees  in  the  Arctic  regions,  21. 

Shark,  basking,  on  ihe  northern  coasts  of  Iceland, 
87. 

,  its  uses  to  the  islanders,  87. 

,  oil  manufactured  from  its  liver,  87. 

,  the  northern  {Scymnus  mici'ocejihalus),  ahnnd- 

ance  of,  off  Spitzbergen,  137. 

,  fishery  of,  on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  387. 

Sheep,  wild  {Oris  mmUma'),  of  the   Rocky  Mount- 
ains, description  of  the,  41. 

,  the,  of  Icdand,  and  their  enemies,  80. 

,  mode  of  sheep-shearing,  80. 

Shetland  Islands,  New,  account  of  the,  392,  393. 

Shrimps  off  Spitzbergen,  133.  . 

Siberia,  extent  of  the  treeless  zone  of,  22. 

,  character  of  the  conifenc  of,  23,  24. 

,  the  elk  of,  39. 

,  the  roebuck  and  red  deer  of,  40. 

,  the  argali,  or  wild  sheep  of,  41. 

,  the  white  dolphin  in  the  rivers  of,  61. 

,  conquest  of,  by  the  Cossacks,  for   the  Rus- 
sians, 193,  194. 

— — ,  final  conquest  of,  by  the  Russians,  and  foun- 
dation of  Tobolsk,  195  et  seq. 

,  condition  of  the  natives  of,  under  the  dominion 

of  Russia,  197,  198. 

• ,  scientific  expeditions  sent  to,  200  et  scq. 

,  its  past  ages,  203. 

,  its  extent  and  capal)ilities,  204. 

,  the  exiles  sent  there,  204-206. 

,  their  condition  there,  206. 

,  condition  of  the  West  Siberian  peasants,  207, 

208. 

,  resources  of  the  country,  208. 

■ •,  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  208. 

,  fur-bearing  animals,  209  et  seq. 

,  the  gold-fields  of  Eastern,  and  the  miners,  214- 

216. 

,  value  of  the  produce  of  fome  of  the  mine--, 

217,  218. 

,  entire  value  of  the  produce  of  gold  in  1856 

and  1860,  218. 

-,  luxury   and    extravagance    caused    by    the 

wealth}'  gold  speculators,  218,  219. 

,  the  gold  of  the  Ural.  219. 

,  New,  lemmings  of,  27. 

,  discovery  of  the  islands  of,  201,  202. 

• ,  fossil  ivorv  of.  202. 

Sibir,  the  capital  of  the  Tartars  in  Siberia.  192. 

,  taken  by  Yermak,  the  robber,  for  the  Czar, 

194. 

Simpson,  jNIr.  Thomas,  his  Arctic  land  voyage,  355. 

■ ,  his  discoveries,  356. 

,  assassinated,  356. 

Sirowatskv,  his  discovery   of  the    Archipelago  of 
New  Siberia,  203. 

Skalholt,  tlie  ancient  capital  of  Iceland,  accotmt  of, 
98. 

■ — — ,  its  present  condition,  99. 

,  its  meadow  lands  and  scenery,  99. 

Skaptar  jiikul,  69 

;  the  great  eruption  of,  in  1783,  95. 

Skates  of  Lapps,  161. 

Skeidaia,  Mr.  Holland's  journev  across  the.  111,  112. 

Skjalfandafijot  river  in  Iceland,  78. 

Skogslnppar,  or  I'orest  Lnpps,  account  of  th-,  166. 


Sledges  of  the  Lapps,  161. 

,  tiie  sacred  sledge,  Ilaliengau,  of  tlie  Saiiioi- 

cdes,  180. 

Smith's  Sound,  temperature  of,  27. 

,  icebergs  formed  in,  48. 

,  discovery  of  tlie  entrance  fo.  313,  36.0. 

"  Smoke,  valley  of,"  in  I(;ehuul,  70. 

Snorri  Sturleson,  the  Herodotus  of  the  North,  ac- 
count of  him  and  his  "  lleimskringln,"  01,  1)5. 

Snow-buntings  of  the  "barren  grounds,"  IK. 

Snow,  its  protection  of  the  vegetation  of  tlie  Arctic 
regions,  19. 

,  warnitli  caused  by,  19. 

- — — ,  no  land  j'ct  found  covered  to  tlie  water's  cdgo 
with  eternal  snow,  27. 

,  amount  oftiie  fall  of,  in  Taimurland,  225,  226. 

,  probable  diminution  of  tiie  fujl  of,  advancing 

towards  the  pole,  226. 

,  its  protection  against  cold,  226. 

Socialism  among  the  Dog-rib  Indians.  .">29. 

Solfataras  of  Iceland  and  Sicily  compared,  88. 

Solovetskoi,  convent  of.  180. 

Sorcery  of  the  Laplanders,  158. 

,  of  the  Sanioiedes,  180. 

Spain,  salted  cod-fish  imported  into,  129. 

Spasj',  produce  of  the  gold  mine  of,  21«. 

Spirits,  invisible,  of  tlie  Samoledes,  180,  181. 

Spitzbergen,  flowers  of,  20. 

,  vast  fields  of  ice  in  the  plateau  of,  27. 

,  food  of  the  reindeer  of,  27. 

— — .  proofs  of  a  former  milder  climate  in,  29,  30. 

,  birds  of,  43,  44. 

,  apparent    nearness   of  objects   at,    in    char 

weather,  54. 

,  the  walrus  of  the  coast  of,  64. 

,  description  of  the  archipelago  of,  131,  132. 

-,  the  west  coast,  132. 

,  Scoresby's  ascent  of  a  mountain,  and  excur- 
sion along  the  coast,  132,  133. 

,  Magdaleiia  bay,  133-136. 

,  jce-clills  and  avalanches  of  ice,  1.35. 

,  scientific  exploring  expeditiuns  sent  to,  1.36. 

,  flora  and  fauna  of,  136,  137. 

,  fisheries  of,  139. 

,  coal  and  drift-wood  of,  137,  138. 

,  history  of,  138. 

,  attempts  made  to  cdoni/.e  it,  139-141. 

,  Russian  hunters'  mode  of  winU-ring  at,  142. 

,  walrus  and  .seal-fishing  at,  142. 

,  discovery  of,  340. 

Spout,  the,  of  Newfoundland,  376. 

S|)rings,  hot,  of  Iceland,  70. 

,  the  Geysir,  71. 

,  the  Strokkr,  72. 

Spruce  fir  of  the  Hud.son's  I5ay  teiTitory,  24. 

Squirrel,  value  ol  the  fur  of  the,  212. 

Stadolski  Island,  visit  of  Pachtussou  to.  14S. 

Staduchin,  Count  Michael,  liis  foundation  of  the 
town  of  Nishnei-Kolymsk,  19fi,  197. 

navigates  the  sea  eastward  of  Cape  Sch<  Lir- 

skoi,  197. 

Stawinen  river,  148. 

Steller,  G.  W.,  notice  of  him.  248. 

,  his  scientific  journey  t«>  Kamcliatkn,  248. 

,  ill-treated  by  lloring.  250. 

,  his  sufferings  on  Bering's  Island,  2.51. 

J  death  of  his  comniandor,  H-riiig,  252. 

,  his  return  to  Kamchatka,  252. 

,  perse,  uted  liy  the  Siberian  ntilhoritics,  253. 

,  iiis  death.  253. 

Stockfish  of  Iceland,  87. 


752 


INDEX. 


Storms  on  the  White  Sea,  1G9. 

of  the  Tundras,  172,  173. 

of  the  Arctic  zone,  225,  22t;. 

off  Newfoundland,  S81. 

in  the  Antarctic  ocean,  404,  405. 

,  the   willivvaws,  or  hurricane   squalls,  of  the 

■     Straitof  Magellan,  412. 

StrogonofF,  foundation  of  the  Russian  family  of,  192, 

193. 
Strokkr,  description  of  the,  72. 
Strongbow  Indians  of  the    Rocky  Mountains,  the, 

327. 
Sukkertoppen^  seen  by  Davis,  337. 
Sulphur  of  Iceland,  88. 

,  compared  with  that  of  Sicily,  88. 

Summer,the  perpetual  daylight  of,  ;".6. 

,  fogs  of,  54. 

in  Taimurland,  225. 

Sun,  the  midnight,  effect  of,  on  icebergs,  50-52. 

Sunset,  magnificence  of  a,  32. 

Surgut,  Castren's  visit  to,  175. 

Surts-hellir,  or  caves  of  Surtur,  description  of,  77. 

Suslik,  the,  of  Siberia,  212. 

,  value  of  its  fur,  212. 

Svatoinoss,  Cape,  fossil  ivory  at.  202. 
Sviatoi-uoss,  doubled  by  the  Russians,  200. 
Swans  of  Iceland,  81,  84. 


Tabin,  the  imaginary  Cape,  of  the  Dutch  naviga- 
tors, 339. 

Tadlbes,  or  sorcerers  of  the  Samoiedps,  180. 

,  their  dress  and  incantations,  180. 

Tagilsk,  Nishne,  the  gold-producing  town  of,  219. 

Taiga,  melancholv  character  of  the,  230. 

,  gold-fields  of  the,  213. 

Taimur  Lake,  visited  by  Lieut.  Laptew,  200. 

,  storm  on  the,  223. 

Taimur  river,  visited  b}^  Lieut.  Laptew,  200. 

,  Von  Middendorff's  journey  to  the,  221-223. 

Taimurland,  endeavors  of  Prontschischtschew  to 
double  the  capes  of,  200. 

,  MiddendorfFs  adventures  in,  220,  221. 

,  his  observations  on  the  climate  and  natural 

productions  of,  225. 

,  amount  of  the  fall  of  snow  in,  225,  226. 

Tana  river,  discover}^  of  the,  by  Jelissei  Busa,  195. 

Tarn  Mount,  Darwin's  ascent  of,  411. 

Tartars,  their  subjection  of  the  Russians,  191. 

driven  out  by  Ivan  I.,  191. 

permanently  overthrown  by  Ivan  11.,  192. 

Tattooing,  Cree  Indian  mode  of,  323. 

Tchendoma,  the,  visited  by  Jelissei  Busa,  195. 

Tchuktchi,  barren  grounds  in  the  land  of  the,  21, 
22. 

,  the  land  of  the.  262. 

,  pipes  of,  264. 

,  their  short  summer,  262. 

,  their  independence  and  commercial  enterprise, 

263. 

ladies,  Matiuschkin's  visit  to  some,  265. 

,  amusements  of  the  people,  266. 

,  the  wandering  and  sedentar}',  267. 

,  their  mode  of  life,  267. 

■ -,  population  of  the  land  of  the,  267. 

Tea-parties  at  Nishne-Kolymsk,  238. 

Temperature  of  Rensselaer  bay  in  mid-winter,  19, 
20. 

,  effect  of  the  sea  on,  of  the  Arctic  regions,  27. 


Temperature,  influence  of  the  winds  on,  27. 

,  former  milder,  of  the  Arctic  regions,  29. 

,  probable  causes  of  the  changes  in  the  Arctic 

climate,  29. 

,  the  lowest  ever  felt  by  man,  28. 

,  how  man  is  enabled  to  bear  extraordinary  low, 

28. 

of  Iceland  at  different  places,  78. 

Tennvson's  Monument,  Dr.  Kane's  description  of, 

367. 
Terror,  Mount,  403. 
Terski  Lapps,  Castren's  attempted  journev  to  the, 

170. 
Thangbrand,  Christian  missionary  to   Iceland,  93, 

94. 
Thing  palla,  plain  of,  76. 
,  site  of  the  ancient  Icelandic  Althing  at,  91, 

92. 

,  pastor  of,  104. 

,  church  of.  105. 

Thingvalla  Lake,  in  Iceland,  92. 

Thiorsa  river,  in  Iceland,  78. 

Thorlakson,  Jon,  the   poet  of  Iceland,  account  of 

him  and  his  works,  107. 
Thorne,  Robert,  his  suggestion  for  sailing  across  the 

North  Pole,  842. 
Thorwald  the  traveller,  the  first  Christian  Icelander, 

his  career,  92,  93. 
Tides,  effect  of  the,  in  preventing  the  accumulation 

of  Polar  ice,  57. 
Tinne  Indians,  defeated  bj'  the  Crecs,  319. 

,  their  retaliation,  320. 

,  their  wars  with  the  Blackfeet,  320. 

,  their  wigwams,  or  tents,  324. 

,  various  tribes  of  the,  and  their  range,  327. 

• ,  their  appearance,  manners,  and  customs,  327- 

329. 

,  improvements  in  their  condition,  329,  330. 

,  their  wives  and  children,  330. 

,  their  cruelty  to  the  aged,  330. 

Tjumen,  the  first  settlement  of  Russians  in  Siberia, 

195. 

,  Steller's  grave  at,  253. 

Tobacco,  fondness  of  the  Lapps  for,  165, 167. 
.  eagerness  of  the  wild  tribes  of  the  North  for, 

264. 
Tobolsk,  battle  of,  193, 195. 

,  foundation  of  the  cit}'  of,  195. 

,*condition  of  the  southern  part,  207,  208. 

Tolstoi  Ness,  Castren's  visit  to,  177. 
Tolstych,  Adrian,  his  discoveries,  201. 
Tomsk,  criminals  of,  206.  207. 
Tornea,  reindeer  gloves  of,  37. 
Torsteinson  Jon,  the  martyr  of  the  AVestman  Isl- 
I      ands,  118. 
;  Tookoolito,  442,466. 
'  Train-oil  of  TromsO,  128. 
Transbaikalia,  Castren's  visit  to,  177. 
Travelling  in  Iceland,  110,  111. 
Treeless  zone  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  18-22. 
Treurenberg  baj',  deer' of,  137. 
Trolladj'ngja,  eruptions  of,  since  the  colonization  of 

Iceland,  95. 
Tronso,  cod-fishery  and  cod-liver  oil  of,  128. 

,  description  of  the  town  and  island,  128. 

Tschirigow,  his  voyages,  201. 

Tucutaco  {Ctenomi/sMaffellanica),  the,  of  Patagonia, 

419. 
Tundri,  or  barren  grounds  of  the  Arctic  regions,  18, 

19. 
of  the  European  Samoiedcs,  171. 


INDEX. 


753 


Tundri,  storms  of  the  Tundras,  172. 

Tuiig-ower,  or  hot  spring  at  Ruikholt,  in  Iceland, 

70. 
Tungusi,  the,  their  relationship  to  the  Mantchou, 

244. 
,  their  conquests  and  final  subjugation  by  the 

Russians,  244. 

-,  tbeir  intellectual  development,  244. 

,  their  tribes  and  population,  244. 

,  their  wretchedness,  244. 

,  their  manners  and  customs,  245. 

Tunguska  river,  gold-fields  of  the  Upper,  214. 
Turkey-buzzard,  the,  of  Patagonin,  419. 
Turuchansk,  Castren's  visits  to,  17(),  177. 
Tyndall  glacier,  enormous  size  of,  50. 


U. 


Ui  FLiOT  the  Wise,  his  first  code  of  laws  in  Iceland, 
01. 

Unalaschka,  climate  of,  269. 

— ,  vegetation  of.  269,  270. 

,  people  of,  273. 

Union,  Cape,  Dr.  Hayes's  sledge  voyage  to,  373,  374. 

United  States,  right  of,  to  fish  on  the  banks  of  New- 
foundland, 379. 

Ural  Mountains,  Castren's  passage  of  the,  174. 

,  first  discovery  of  gold  in  the,  214. 

,  quantity  of  gold  found  in  the,  219. 

Ustsvlmsk,  Castren's  visit  to,  and  ill-treatment  at, 
173, 174. 

Utzjoki,  the  pastor  of,  169. 

Uusa  river,  Castren's  journey  up  the,  174. 


Vaage,  cod-fishery  of,  126. 

,  ancient  importance  of,  126. 

Vancouver's  Island,  placed  under  the  management 

of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  310. 
Vapor  baths  of  the  Cree  Indians,  324. 
Vare.  the,  of  Norway,  124. 
Vegetation,  protection  afforded  bj'  snow  to,  19. 
,  distinctive  characters  of  the   Arctic  forests, 

22-24. 

of  the  "  barren  grounds,"  18,  21,  22. 

,  length  of  time  necessary  for  the  formation  of 

even  small  stems  of  trees  in  the  Arctic  regions, 

25. 

,  harmless  character  of  the  Arctic  plants,  25. 

• ,  no  land  yet  discovered  in  which  it  is  entirely 

subdued  by  winter,  27. 
,  former,  of  the  northern  regions  of  the  globe, 

29. 

of  Spitzbergen,  136. 

of  Nova  Zembla,  152. 

of  Taimurland,  226. 

of  Kamchatka,  254. 

of  the  Bay  of  Awatscha,  256. 

of  the  Pribilow  Islands,  271. 

of  Newfoundland,  376. 

• of  Greenland,  388. 

,  absence  of,  in  the  Antarctic  regions,  391. 

of  Port  Famine,  410. 

Vevchnei  Ostrog,  in  Kamchatka,  built,  198. 
Verazzani,  his  voyages,  335. 
Vestfjord,  cod-fishery  of  the,  126. 
Victoria  Land,  discovery  of,  402. 
Videv,  eider-ducks  of,  81,  82. 
48 


I  Vigr,  eider-ducks  of,  83. 

,  Mr.  Siieplierd's  visit  to,  83,  84. 

A'ikings,  tlieir  courage  and  discoveries,  89. 

Virgins,  Cape,  409. 

Vogelsang,  deer  of,  137. 

VoUanic  eruptions  in  Iceland  since  its  colonization. 
95. 

Volcanoes  giving  birlh  to  Iceland,  68. 

,  those  now  existing  tliore,  09. 

,  the  Esk,  on  Jan  I^Icycn,  140. 

,  of  Kamchatka,  250." 

,  eruption  of  Mount  Erebus,  403. 

Vole,  field  {Arvicola  aconomus),  indigenous  to  Ice- 
land, 80. 

Voyageur,  the,  of  Nortli  America,  304. 

,  his  life  and  character,  304,  305. 


W. 


\\"alrus,  or  morse  {Trkhechus  rosmums),  descrij)- 
I      tion  of  the,  02-64. 
I ,  its  aflectionate  temper,  01. 

,  its  parental  love,  04. 

,  its  chief  resorts  and  food,  01. 

; fishing  at  Spitzbergen,  144. 

hunted  on  Bear  Island,  144. 

of  Nova  Zembla,  155. 

I hunting  on  tlie  coast  of  Aliaska,  275. 

,  pieces  of  skin  of,  a  medium  of  exchange,  276. 

,  Esquimaux  mode  of  hunting  it,  29H. 

Washington  Land,  discovery  of,  309. 

-,  Dr.  Hayes's  journey  to,  373. 

Wassiljew,  his  visit  to  the  Lena,  195. 

VVaygatz,  island  of,  the  sacred  island  of  tlic  Samoi- 
edes,  180. 

Weasel,  the  Siberian  (^Vivrrra  Sibn-icn'),  the  fur  of, 
211. 

Weddell,  Captain,  his  Antaixtic  voyages,  401. 

Welden,  liis  visit  to  Bear  Island.  144. 

Wellington  Channel,  temperature  of,  28. 

,  discovery  of,  .345. 

Wenjamin,  tlie  .Archimandrite.  170. 

Western,    Thomas,    preaches    Christian  it)-    to   the 
Lapps,  150. 

Westman  Islands,  description  of  the,  114. 

,  difliculty  of  access  of  tlie,  114. 

,  how  tlic}'  became  colonized.  115. 

,  Ilcimacy,  or  Home  Island.  11(). 

,  food  and  trade  of  the  people,  117. 

j ,  population  and  mortality  of  the  children,  118. 

' ,  their  sutVerings  from  pirates,  lis.  119. 

Weymouth,  his  voyage  to  Hudson's  Bjiy.  341. 

Whale,    tlic    (irecnland    {Balawt    tnt/slicUiis),   or 
smooth-back,  00. 

ofi"  Nova  Zembla,  155. 

,  the  white,  or  beluga,  01. 

,  the  "ca'ing,"  02. 

,  a  stranded,  at  Spitzbergen,  133. 

,  tiie  fin-back,  59,  0(1. 

of  Spitzl)ergen,  137. 

off  Nova  Zembla,  155. 

,  smooth-backed,  of  the  Antarctic  seas,  397. 

,  sperm,  of  the  .Antarctic  Ocean,  39H. 

Whalers,  their  dangers,  in  th  ■  .Arctic  soa.«,  48. 

,  depressing  eflect  of  titc  summer  fogs,  54. 

,  tlieir  operations  in  tlio  Polar  .<ens,  59. 

,  whale  chases  of  tlie  .Aleuts,  275. 

,  whale-hunts  of  the  E.>=quimaux.  205 

,  abundance  afwiialcsin  the  Antarctic  sons,  307. 

,  battle  between  a  whale  and  a  grampus,  39<*. 


(54 


INDEX. 


Whale  Sound,  enormous  glaciers  of,  50. 

White-fish,  or  Coregonus,  of  North  America, 
310,  311. 

White  Sea,  Castre'n's  journey  to  the,  170. 

,  Chancellor's    discovery  of  the  passage 

from  England  to  the,  192. 

,  an  English  expedition  in  the,  336. 

Whymper,  Frederick,  travels  in  Alaska,  277- 
289. 

Wilkes,  Captain,  his  discoveries  in  the  Antarc- 
tic Ocean,  402. 

Wilkes's  Land,  discovery  of,  402. 

Williwaws  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  412. 

Willoughby,  Sir  Hugh,  his  voyage  and  death, 
336. 

Willow,  polar  (Salix  polaris),  of  Nova  Zembla, 
153. 

,  dwarf,  of  the  treeless  zone,  21. 

,  dwarf,  on  the  shores  of  the  rivers  and 

.lakes,  24. 

Wind-hole  Strait  of  the  Dutch  navigators,  339. 

Winds,  effects  of  the  cold  sea-winds  on  vegeta- 
tion, 22. 

,  influence  of  the,  on  an  Arctic  climate,  27. 

Winter  Harbor,  Parry's  winter  in,  345. 

Winteria  Aromatica,  the,  410. 

Witchcraft  and  witches  of  the  Laplanders,  158. 

Wolf,  its  attack  of  the  reindeer,  37,  38. 

,  Lapp  mode  of  hunting  the,  164. 

,  in  Newfoundland,  378. 

Wolverine,     {^'ee  Glutton.) 

,  fur  of  the,  316. 

Wood,  length  of  time  necessary  for  the  forma- 
tion of,  in  the  Arctic  regions,  25. 

Woman,  dying,  abandoned,  462. 


Wrangell,  Lieut,  von,  his  services  as  an  Arctic 

explorer,  233. 
,  his  journey  to  the  shores  of  the  Polar 

sea,  234. 

,  his  winters  at  Kolymsk,  238. 

,  his  night  on  the  Polar  sea,  239. 

,  his  danger,  and  return  to  St.  Petersburg, 

241-243. 
Wrestling  for  a  wife  among  the  Tinne  Indians, 

330 ;  and  among  the  Kutchin  Indians,  332. 


Yenisei  river,  importance  of,  17. 

Yermak  TimodajefF,  the  Cossack  robber,  192. 

,  his  conquest  of  Siberia  and  death,  194. 

,  his  monument  in  Tobolsk,  194,  195. 

York  roads,  beauty  of,  412. 
Yukon  river,  278-289. 

,  ice  in,  283. 

Yukon,  fort,  284. 


Zembla,  Nova,  vast  ice-fields  of,  27. 

,  mean  temperature  of,  in  summer  and 

winter,  27. 

,  the  narwhal  of  the  seas  of,  60. 

— -,  the  walruses  of  the  coasts  of,  64. 
Zinzendorf,  Count,  his  interest  in  Greenland, 

384. 
Ziwolka,  the  Eussian  steersman,  his  voyages, 

149, 150. 
,  his  meteorological  observations,  150. 


THE  TROPICAL  WORLD. 


A. 


Akane^.     (See  Spiders.) 

Aard-vark,  or  earth-hog,  608. 

Abyssinia,  elephant-hunting  in,  717. 

Acacias,  537. 

Adjutant  bird,  625,  657. 

Africa,  Savannas  of,  503 ;  hunting  in,  504;  lake 
region  of,  506;  insects  of,  588,  598;  serpents 
of.  627;  monkeys  of,  677;  lions  of,  700; 
elephants  of,  715;  rhinoceroses  of,  721;  hip- 
popotamus of,  725 ;  camel  of,  729 ;  giraffe  of, 
731;  zebras  and  quaggas  of,  733. 

Alligators,  of  the  old  and  new  world,  635; 
their  prey,  635 ;  size  of,  636 ;  crane  caught 
by,  637 ;  men  caught  by,  638 ;  tenacity  of 
life,  638;  their  young,  639;  their  enemies, 
639 ;  torpidity  in  the  dry  season,  500,  639 ; 
feign  death,  640;  fights  with  the  orang- 
outang, 683. 

Agassiz  Louis :  His  collection  of  fishes,  520 ; 
account  of  natives  of  the  Amazon,  521,  522 ; 
estimate  of  the  productions  of  Amazonia, 


524 ;  description  of  Brazilian  coffee-planta- 
tions, 564 ;  of  the  coffee-moth,  566. 

Agave-plant,  the,  533. 

Alpaca,  the,  483. 

Altos  of  Peru.     (See  Puna.) 

Aluates,  or  howling  monkeys,  690. 

Amache,  ant,  597. 

Amazon,  Kiver  and  Valley  of,  517 ;  extent  of, 
518 ;  lagoons,  518 ;  inundations,  519 ;  vege- 
tation of,  519 ;  fishes  of,  520 ;  animal  life  of, 
520 ;  natives  of,  521 ;  siesta  on,  554  ;  alliga- 
tors in,  636 ;  turtles  of,  641. 

AmphisbEenas,  521. 

Anaconda,  or  water-boa,  620. 

Andersson,  John,  Notes  of,  504,  665,  667,  700, 
701,  704,  724,  732,  735. 

Andes,  the  ascent  of,  490. 

Animal  life,  general  survey  of,  in  different 
zones,  581. 

Animals:  Alpaca,  483;  boars,  735;  babirusa, 
736  ;  camel,  728 ;  dromedary,  750 ;  elephants, 
712;  giraffes,  731;  hippopotamus,  725;  hu- 
anacu.  483 ;  jaguar,  710 ;  leopard,  708  ;  lion, 


INDEX. 


698;  puma,  /lO,  quagga,  733;  rhinoceros, 
721;  sloth,  673;  tiger,  705;  vicuna,  483- 
wild-cats,  711;  zebras,  733. 

Anomaluri,  the,  673. 

Ant-bears,  606;  ant-bear  and  jaguar,  (107 

Ant-hills,  602. 

Ants  :  Their  numbers,  594 ;  pain  of  their  bite 
595;  destructive  of  plants,  590;  household 
pests,  597;  the  bashikouay,  598;  house- 
building ants,  599;  slave-holding  ants,  600. 

Apes.     (See  Monkeys.) 

Aphides,  or  plant-lice,  furnish  honey  for  ants, 
600. 

Arabia,  coffee  culture  in,  505. 

Arabs,  mode  of  hunting  the  lion,  702. 

Aras,  or  macaws,  662. 

Argala,  or  adjutant-bird,  625,  657. 

Armadillos,  609;  extinct  species,  610. 

Arrow-root,  the,  555. 

Arti,  how  natives  of,  shoot  birds  of  paradise, 
654.  ^ 

Atacama,  Peruvian  Desert,  508. 

Ateles,  or  spider-monkeys,  690. 

Atlas,  Mount,  Lion-hunting  in,  700. 

Atmosphere,  the  :  currents  of,  475. 

Atolls,  or  coral  islands,  478. 

Atta  cephalotes,  ant  destructive  of  the  banana 
596. 

Australia,  coral  reef  of,  479;  desert  of,  608; 
birds  of,  655 ;  bower-bird  of,  656 ;  the  tale- 
galla,  656  ;  the  emu  of"  668. 


B. 


Babirusa,  the  736. 

Baboons.     (See  Monkeys.) 

Bacha,  or  African  falcon,  the,  697. 

Bamboos,  uses  of,  532. 

Banana,  and  plantain,  551. 

Banyan,  or  Indian  fig-tree,  529. 

Baobab,  the  giant  tree,  527 ;  Mrs.  Livingstone's 
grave  under,  528. 

Barth,  Henry,  >Jotes  of,  504,  610,  715. 

Bashikouay  ant,  the,  598. 

Basilisk,  the,  632. 

Bat,  the,  669;  character  and  habits,  670;  the 
kalong,  670;  eaten  in  Java,  670;  the  vam- 
pire, 671  ;  horse-shoe  bats,  672  ;■  small  bat  of 
Ceylon,  672. 

Beetles,  abundance  of  in  the  tropical  world, 
581 ;  used  for  ornament,  592. 

Behemoth;  is  he  the  hippopotamus  or  the  buf 
falo?  725. 

Bell-bird,  or  campanero,  647. 

Bete-rouge,  the,  587. 

Birds:  the  condor,  480,  498,  693;  the  asfir, 
509;  the  ostrich,  512,  663;  the  secretary, 
624 ;  the  adjutant,  625 ;  general  view  of  bird- 
life,  645;  the  toucan,  646;  the  humming- 
bird, 647;  cotingas,  647;  the  campanero, 
647 ;  manakins,  648 ;  cock  of  the  rock,  648  ; 
troopials,  648 ;  orioles,  649;  cassiques,  619; 
the  mocking-bird,  649 ;  the  toropishu,  650 ; 
the  tunqui,  650;  goatsuckers,  650;  the  or- 
gan-bird, 650;  the  cilgero,  650 ;  the  flamingo, 
650;  the  ibis,  651;  the  jabiru,  651;  the  ja- 
cana,  651 ;  the  rhinoceros  hornbill,  651  ; 
sun-birds,  652 ;  honey-eaters,  652 ;  ocel- 
lated  turkey,  652;  tlie  lyre-bird,  653 ;  birds 
of  paradise,  653 ;  the  bower-bird,  656 ;  the 
talegalla,  656;    the   coppersmith   657;    the 


devil-bird,  657;  the  tailor-bird.  068;  tlic 
gro.sbeak,  658;  the  korwe,  «58;  weaving 
birds,  ti..9;  parrots,  069;  cockatoof*,  062; 
macaws,  602;  parofjuet-s,  063;  the  ostrich, 
663;  rlicas,  667;  the"  cassowarv,  007;  the 
emu,  068;  the  condor,  his  clmrnctcr  and 
tliglit,  093;  mode  of  capturing,  094;  the  car- 
rion vulture,  695;  the  hari>v  eagle,  096  ;  il.c 
sociable  vulture.  696  ;  the  bacha,  097 ;  the 
fishing  eagle,  697;  the  sparrow-hawk,  09b; 
the  secretary  eagle,  098. 

Boars,  wild,  chase  of,  736. 

Boas,  620;  the  boa  constrictor,  620;  water 
boas,  500,  620. 

Bogota,  table  land  of,  495. 

Bolas,  the,  602. 

Boft,  M.,  his  spider-thread  stockinp.s,  014, 

Borelo,  or  black  rhinoceros,  the,  721. 

Bo-tree,  orPippul,  530. 

Bower-bird,  the,  656. 

Brazil,  Agassiz's  estimate  of  its  future.  523 ; 
cofiee-culture  in,  563;  ants  of,  601 ;  toads  of 
633. 

Bread-fruit,  550. 

Bufo  gigas,  or  great  toad  of  Brazil,  633. 

Buildings  of  ants,  602. 

Bushropes,  or  lianas,  616,  586. 

Butterflies,  682. 

Butterfly,  the  leaf,  583. 


Cacao,  or  chocolate,  567. 

Cactuses,  533. 

Camel,  the,  728;  ships  of  the  land,  728;  forma- 
tion of  its  foot,  729;  its  tbod,  729;  its  water- 
jiouch,  729  ;  its  hump,  and  the  uses  of  it. 
729;  its  desert  home,  729;  the  camel  audits 
master,  730;  training  for  robU'ry,  730;  en- 
durance of  thirst,  730;  distinction  betwi-en 
the  camel  and  the  dromedary,  730;  caravan 
journeys,  73i';  changes  from  servitude,  731  ; 
efiects  upon  its  temper,  731 ;  excuses  for  its 
ill-temper,  731. 

Cameleopard.     (See  Giraffe.) 

Campanero,  or  bell-bird,  047. 

Cassava,  or  Mandioca,  654. 

Cassia.     (See  Cinnamon.) 

Cassiques,  049. 

Cassowary,  the,  667. 

Cattle  and  horses  in  America,  500. 

Caymen.     (See  Alligators.) 

Ceiba-tree.  the.  531. 

Cerastes,  the,  620. 

Ceylon,  Game  in,  505;  parasitic  and  thorny 
plants  of,  536;  Cinnamon  culture.  573;  ants 
of,  595;  serpents  of,  610;  alligators  of,  OH); 
turtles  of,  044 ;  birds  of,  057 ;  monkeys  of. 
686;  elephants  of,  713;  taming  eleplumis, 
717;  Panickeas,  or  elej)liaiit-iat(luTs.  TKs; 
their  mode  of  capturing  the  eleiihanl.  718 ; 
elephant  establishments  of  the  governmeiil. 
721. 

Chacma,  or  pig-faced  liaboon,  087. 

Chaco,  the  grand,  of  Paraguay,  502. 

Chameleon,  the,  030. 

Charming,  by  serpents.  021. 

Chegoes  or  jiggers.  6H5. 

Cheetah,  or  hunting  leoiiard.  the,  708. 

Chelonians,  or  tortoises.  612. 

Chimpanzee,  the,  677. 


756 


INDEX. 


Chirimoya,  the,  492,  556. 

Chocolate,  567.  ^    <.., 

Church,  F.  A.,  his  painting  of  the  Heart  ot  the 

Andes  491. 
Cicadae,  tlie,  592. 
Ciigero,  tiie.  650. 

Cinnamon,  671 ;  the  Dutch  monopoly  ot,  btl; 
amount  produced,  572 ;  historical  notices  of, 
573 ;  present  consumption  of,  574. 
Climbers,  the,  669;  the  bat,  669;  the  flying 
squirrel,    673 ;    the    galeopitheci,    673 ;    the 
anomaluri,673;  the  sloth, 673;  monkeys,  676. 
Climbing  plants,  535. 
Cloves,  574,  576. 
Cobra  de  Capello,  the,  619. 
Coca,  the  leaves  of,  568 ;  effects  of  their  use,  569. 
Cochineal  insect,  the,  591. 
Cockatoos,  662. 
Cock  of  the  rock,  648. 
Cockroaches,  589. 

Cocoa,Cacao,andCoca,nottobeconfounded,o68. 
Cocoa  palm,  the,  538. 

Coffee,  562;    home  of  the  plant,  562;   coffee 
countries,    563,   565;    coffee  plantations   in 
Brazil,    564;    gathering    the    berries,    565; 
enemies  of  the  plant,  566. 
Coffee-bug,  the,  566. 

Coffee- moth,  Mrs.  Agassiz's  description  of,  566. 
Colobi,  the,  691. 

Columbus,  and  the  Gulf-stream,  474. 
Condor,  the,  480,  498 ;  his  character  and  flight, 

693 ;  mode  of  capturing,  694. 
Coppersmith,  bird,  the,  657. 
Coqueros,  or  coca-chewers,  570. 
Coral,  reefs  and  islands,  478,  479 
Cordilleras,  the,  490. 
Cotingas,  647. 
Cougar,  or  puma,  the,  711. 
Crab,  robber,  the,  580. 
Crane,  caught  by  alligator,  637. 
Crocodiles.     (See  Alligators.) 
Cubbeer-burr,  a  famous  tree,  529. 
Currents  of  the  ocean,  473 ;  the  equatorial  cur- 
rent, 474 ;  the  Gulf  Stream,  474. 
Cynocepbali,  monkeys,  the,  687. 


D. 


Dancing  parties  of  birds  of  paradise,  655. 

Deryas,  sacred  monkey  of  Egypt,  the,  688. 

Desplobado,  the,  480,  482,  485. 

Deserts  (See  also  (S'awtnnas.)  Of  Atacaraa, 
508;  of  Australia,  5i'8;  the  Sahara,  509. 

Devil-bird  of  Ceylon,  657. 

Dioscorea,  or  yam-plants,  555. 

Doldrums,  or  equatorial  calm  belts,  476. 

Dorey,  ants  of,  597. 

Douw,  or  Burchell's  zebra,  734. 

Dragon  trees,  528. 

Dromedary,  the.     (See  Camel.) 

Du  Chaillu,  Paul :  Account  of  the  bashikouay 
ant,  598;  of  squirrel  charmed  by  serpent, 
624 ;  kills  large  snake,  627 ;  kills  a  gorilla, 
678 ;  female  gorilla  and  young,  679 ;  number 
of  gorillas  seen  by  him,  680 ;  whips  of  hippo- 
potamus-skin, 727. 

Durion,  the,  557 ;  favorite  food  of  the  orang- 
outang, 684. 

Dutch,  their  monopoly  of  spices,  572,  575. 

Dyaks,  of  Borneo,  681 ;  contest  with  the  orang- 
outang, 684. 


E. 


Eagle,  the  harpy,  696 ;  the  fishing,  698 ;  the 
secretary,  698. 

Ecuador,  characteristics  of,  490. 

Edible  insects,  592;  edible  spiders,  614. 

Ele-vation,  its  influence  upon  climate,  480,  485. 

Elephant,  the,  712;  difierence  between  the 
tamed  and  wild,  712 ;  timidity  of  the  ele- 
phant, 713;  his  power  of  climbing,  713  ;  his 
water-stomach,  713 ;  his  trunk,  and  its  uses, 
713 ;  his  tusks,  and  their  possible  uses,  714; 
elephant  herds,  504,  714 ;  tuskers,  714  ;  rogue 
elephants,  714 ;  distinction  between  African 
and  Asiatic  elephants,  715;  elephants  known 
to  the  ancients,  715;  range  of  the  African 
elephant,  715 ;  how  they  are  hunted  by  the 
natives,  716;  by  Europeans,  716;  in  Abys- 
synia,  716 ;  the  Asiatic  elephant,  717 ;  their 
abundance  in  Ceylon,  717 ;  mode  of  cap- 
turing them,  718;  behavior  of  the  captured 
animals,  719 ;  great  elephant-hunts,  719 ; 
elephant-corral,  719  ;  tied  up,  470,  719 ;  tame 
elephants  assisting  to  capture  wild  ones,  719 ; 
decoy-elephants,  720;  an  obstinate  brute, 
720 ;  a  little  head-work,  720 ;  dying  of  a 
broken  heart,  720 ;  the  elephant  in  captivity, 
720  ;  value  of  their  labor,  720. 

Elliott,  Ensign,  adventure  with  a  tiger,  707. 

Emu,  the,  667. 

Erayda;,  or  marsh-tortoises,  641. 

Enormous  snakes,  steries  of,  627. 

Epiphytic  plants,  535. 


F. 


Fangs,  poison,  of  serpents,  618. 

Fascination  of  serpents,  621. 

Fire-ant  of  Guiana,  595. 

Fire-flies,  584. 

Fishing  eagle,  the,  698. 

Flamingo,  the,  650. 

Flies,  noxious,  587. 

Flying  frog,  Wallace's,  633. 

Flying  lizards,  632. 

Flying  squirrels,  673. 

Forests  of  th^Tropical  World,  514. 

Formica.     (See^?!te.) 

Fox-bat,  or  kalong,  the,  670. 

Franklin,  Dr.,  Account  of  Indian  corn,  549. 

Frogs  and  toads :  Gigantic  of  the  Amazon,  520  ; 
the  pipa,  632 ;  Brazilian  tree-frog,  633 ;  Wal- 
lace's flying  frog,  633;  singular  toad  at 
Bahia,  633  ;  the  bufo  gigas,  634. 

Fruits  and  Plants  of  the  Tropical  World ;  the 
chirimoya,  492,  556 ;  the  leroshua,  504 ;  the 
mokuri,  the  kengwe,  the  naras,  505;  the 
date,  542;  the  litchi,  556;  the  mangosteen, 
557  ;  the  mango,  557  ;  the  durion,  557. 


G. 


Galagos,  semi-monkeys,  the,  688. 
Galapagos,  or  Tortoise  Islands,  640. 
Galeopitheci,  the,  673. 
Gallinazos,  or  carrion  vultures,  695. 
Gavials.     (See  Alligators.) 
Geckoes,  the,  629. 
Gibbons,  monkeys,  the,  685. 
Ginger,  578. 


IXUKX. 


7.-.7 


Giraffe,  tlic,  504 ;  pulled  down  by  lions,  G99 ; 
its  asjioct,  7ol ;  its  weapons  of  defence,  732; 
its  anatomical  structure,  732 ;  chase  of  tlie 
giraffe,  7o2  ;  encounters  with  lions,  699,  7;i2; 
Aristotle  and  Biiffbn  on  tlie  giraffe,  73;j ; 
giraffes  in  Europe  and  America,  733;  analo- 
gies between  the  ostrich  and  the  giraffe,  733. 

Glagah  grass,  the,  546. 

Gnu,  the,  734. 

God's  birds,  name  for  birds  of  paradise,  653. 

Goliath  beede,  the,  582. 

Gorilla,  the,  678 ;  Du  Chaillu's  adventures 
among,  678 ;  female  and  young,  679. 

Gourds,  esculent,  of  the  kalaliari,  505. 

Graminea,  or  grasses,  532. 

Grosbeak,  the,  658. 

Guachos  of  South  America,  502. 

Gum-lac  insect,  592. 


H. 


Haje,  serpent,  the,  620. 

Harpy  eagle,  the,  696. 

Henderso;!,  A.  M.,  on  the  fascination  of  ser- 
pents, 621. 

Himalayas,  mountains  of,  497. 

Hippopotamus,  the,  725 ;  is  it  the  behemoth  of 
Job?  725;  its  ancient  and  present  habitat, 
725;  its  mode  of  life,  725;  its  unpleasing 
aspect,  725 ;  its  inoffensive  character,  726 ; 
the  rogue  hippopotamus,  726 ;  intelligence 
of  the  hippopotamus,  726;  wliips  of  its  hide, 
727 ;  its  ivory,  727 ;  modes  of  destroying, 
727 ;  spearing  the  hippopotamus,  728 ;  the 
downfall,  728. 

Historical  tree,  the  oldest,  530. 

Hog,  the,  destructive  to  the  rattlesnake,  619. 

Honey-eaters,  652. 

Hornbill,  the  rhinoceros,  651. 

Horse,  the,  introduced  into  America,  500;  in- 
fluence upon  the  natives,  502. 

House-building  ants,  599. 

Humming-birds,  647. 

Huanacu,  the,  488. 

Humboldt,  A.  Von :  Notes  of,  498,  517,  525, 
552,  601,  638,  691,  694. 

Huniman,  the  sacred  nvonkey  of  India,  686. 

Hunting,  of  the  vicuna,  484 ;  of  the  gazelle, 
512;  of  the  ostrich,  512,  664;  of  the  lion, 
700;  by  the  cheetah,  708;  of  the  rhinoceros, 
723 ;  of  the  hippopotamus,  727  ;  of  the  wild 
boar,  735. 

Hurricanes,  velocity  of,  477. 

Hj'asna,  the,  709 ;  different  species  of,  709. 

Hydrosauri,  or  water-lizards,  632. 


Ibis,  the,  651. 

Igaripes,  or  canoe  paths  of  the  Amazon,  518. 

Iguanas,  631. 

Incas  of  Peru,  486;  origin  of  their  civilization, 
487 ;  present  aspect  of  their  sacred  island,  487 ; 
fountain  of  the  Incas,  488 ;  their  great  mil- 
itary roads,  489. 

Indians,  of  Ecuador,  493  ;  of  southern  Africa, 
506 ;  of  the  Amazon,  521 ;  of  the  Malay  isl- 
ands, 552. 

Insects,  abundance  of  within  the  tropics,  581 ; 
beetles,  581 ;  goliath,  582;  leaf-butterfly,  582, 


mantis  or  soothsayer.  583 ;  fire-flieB,  684  ; 
mosquitoes,  585;  jiggers,  685;  the  bi-te- 
rouge.  586;  ticks,  587;  land-iecclies,  687; 
the  tsetse,  587 ;  Isait-Salya,  or  zinib,  688 ; 
locusts,  688;  cockroaciics,  689;  the  silk- 
worm, 69Lt;  the  coeliineal  iubect.  691;  ilie 
gum-lac  iii.sect,  592;  edible  ininects,  692;  or- 
namental insects,  593;  aphides,  or  plant-lice, 
600.     (See  also  Auts,  TcrmUts,  and  Hjiidcrs.) 

India-rubber  tree,  the,  636. 

Inundations,  of  the  Amazon,  619. 

Islands :  mostly  tropical,  477  ;  volcanic,  478  ; 
coralline,  478;  volcanic,  479;  how  peopled, 
479. 


J. 


Jabirct,  the,  651. 
Jacana,  the,  651. 
Jaguar,  the,  710;  his  ravages,  710;  modes  of 

hunting,  710. 
Java,  cottee  of,  563  ;  Dutch  monopoly  of  spices 

in,  575  ;  bats  in,  070. 
Jigger,  or  chegoe,  the,  585. 


K. 

Kai.a,  the  rhinoceros-bud,  722. 

Kalahari,  Soutii  African  Savanna,  503;  vege- 
tation of,  505  ;  water  in,  505 ;  insects  of,  iiiOfi ; 
water-finding  ants,  506  ;  inhabitants  of,  600. 

Kalong,  or  fox-bat,  the,  670. 

Keitloa,  or  black  rhinoceros,  the,  721. 

Kengwe,  an  African  plant,  of  5. 

Khamsin,  or  simoom,  the  511,  729. 

Kobaaba,  or  white  rhinoceros,  the  722. 

Korwe',  the,  658. 


Labahri  snake,  the  617. 

Ladang,  or  mountain  rice,  546. 

Lake  Region  of  Africa,  506. 

Land  and  Water,  Proportions  of,  473. 

Lasso,  the,  501. 

Leeches,  Land  of,  Ceylon,  587. 

Leichardt,  Mr.,  e.\i)lorati(ms  in  iNustralia.  r>(t9. 

Lemurs,  semi-monkeys,  688. 

Leopard,  the,  708;  the  cheetah,  or  hunting 
leopard,  708. 

Leroshuii,  an  African  plant,  504. 

Liana,  the,  483. 

Llanos,  of  Venezuela,  the,  499;  in  the  liry 
season,  500;  in  the  wet  season,  6CMI. 

Lianas.     (Sec  Bushropps.) 

Life  and  cold,  struggles  between,  47L 

Lion,  the,  604;  lion  and  rhinoceros.  iM,  7ti4; 
general  characteristics  of  the  lion,  098 :  nimle 
of  seizing  his  prey,  699;  lions  and  giraife. 
699  ;  lion  and  man,  700;  Inniling  the  lion  on 
Mount  Atlas,  700,  702;  man-eating  lions, 
700,  704;  adventure  of  Hottentot  with,  701; 
of  Andersson  with,  701;  of  Livingstone  witli, 
702;  hunted  by  the  Arabs.  702:  by  the 
Bushmen,  703 ;  ancient  range  of,  704  ;  pres- 
ent range  of,  701;  Livingstone's  opinion  of, 
704. 

Litchi,  the,  656. 

Livinfjptone,  David:    Notes  of,  605,  627.  r.86. 


INDEX. 


Livingstone,  David:   Notes  of,  588,  595,  600, 

667,  703.  704,  715,  726,  732. 
Livingstone,  Mrs.,  Grave  of,  528. 
Lizards,  629  ;  tlie  geclcoe,  629;  tlie  anolis,  630; 

the  chameleon,  630;    the  iguana,  681;  the 

teja,  631 ;  liydrosauri,  or  water  lizards,  632 ; 

flying-lizards,  632  ;  the  basilisk,  632. 
Locusts,  589. 

Loris,  semi-monkeys,  688. 
Love-Parrot,  the,  661. 
Lyre-bird,  the,  653. 

M. 

Macaws,  662. 
Mace,  576. 

Magdalena  river,  voyage  up,  495. 
Mahogany  tree,  the,  531. 

Maize,  or  Indian  Corn,  547;    its  productive- 
ness, 548 ;  Frankhn's  account  of,  549. 
Malay  Archipelago,  the,  productions  and  ani- 
mals of.     (See  Wallace.) 
Manakins,  birds,  648. 
Mama  Oella,  legends  of,  486. 
Manco  Capac,  legends  of,  486. 
Mandrils,  monkeys,  the,  687. 
Mandioca,  or  Cassava,  554. 
Mango,  the,  557. 
Mangosteen,  the,  557. 
Manides,  ant-eaters,  008. 
Mantis,  or  soothsayer,  the,  583. 
Marching  termite,  the,  606. 
Mata,  a  plant  of  the  Pana,  483. 
Megatherium,  the,  675. 
Membracidse,  aphides,  600. 
Me.xico,  table-land  of»  496. 
Mias,  or  orang-outang,  680. 
Millet,  550. 
Mimosas,  534. 
Mocking-bird,  the,  649. 
Mokuri,  an  African  plant,  505. 
Monitor,  lizard,  631. 

Monkeys,  their  habits  and  characteristics,  676  ; 
place  in  the  scale  of  being,  677  ;  distinguished 
from  the  human  race,  677  ;  the  chimpanzee, 
677  ;  the  gorilla,  678 ;  the  orang-outang,  or 
mias,  680 ;    the   gibbons,  685 ;    the   senmo- 
pitheci,  686;    the  huniman,  686;  the  cyno- 
cephali,  baboons  and  mandrils,  687 ;  difier- 
ence  between  monkeys   of   the  two   hemi- 
spheres, 688;     abundance    of   monkeys   in 
South  America,  689 ;  miriki,  689 ;  howling 
monkeys,  690;    spider-monkeys,  691;'  fox- 
tail monkeys,  691;  the  SaTmiris,  691;  noc- 
turnal  monkeys,   691;    domesticated   mon- 
keys, 692;  squirrel  monkeys,  692. 
Monoho,  or  white  rhinoceros,  the  721. 
Monsoons,  the,  476. 
Mora-tree,  the,  531. 
Mosquito,  the,  585. 

Mountains:  as  influencing  climate,  476. 
Mule,  the  ship  of  the  desert  of  Atacama,  508. 
Mundaaracus,  of  Amazonia,  5*i!l. 
Mylodon,  the,  675. 


N. 


Naras,  an  African  plant,  505. 

Nests  of  weaving  birds,  658. 

Nocturnal  monkeys,  691. 

Nutmegs,  574;  Dutch  monopoly  of,  57.f. 


Nutritive  Plants  of  the  Tropical  World  (Chap- 
ter VI.  '^ee  s\.\so  Fruits  and  Plants.)  Rice, 
545 ;  Maize,  547 ;  Millet,  550  ;  bread-fruit, 
550;  banana  and  plantain,  551;  the  sago- 
palm,  552  ;  cassava,  or  mandioca,  554;  yams, 
555;  sweet  potato,  555;  arrow-root,  555; 
taro-root,  556. 

Nycteribia  bats,  672. 

Nyclopitheci,  or  nocturnal  monkeys,  691. 


Ocean  and  Atmosphere,  the,  471. 

Ocean,  the,  extent  of,  472  ;  influence  upon  cli- 
mate, 473  ;  laws  governing  them,  475. 

Okhotsk  Sea,  currents  of,  475. 

Orang-outang,  or  mias,  680 ;  Wallace's  account 
of,  681 ;  portrait  of  female,  681 ;  strength 
and  tenacity  of  hfe,  682;  size  of  the  largest, 
682 ;  a  formidable  opponent,  683 ;  fights  with 
the  alligator  and  python,  683  ;  its  habits  and 
food,  683 ;  Wallace's  pet  orang,  684. 

Orchids,  535. 

Orejones,  of  Bogota,  495. 

Organ-bird,  the,  650. 

Orioles,  648. 

Ornamental  insects,  592. 

Oricou,  or  sociable  vulture,  696. 

Orotava,  great  dragon-tree  of,  528. 

Orton,  James  :  Notes  from,  490,  493,  494,  498, 
520,  522,  524,  636,  641. 

Orycteropi,  ant-eaters,  608. 

Ostrich,  the  :  Hunting  of,  512,  664  ;  the  ostrich 
at  home,  663;  its  enemies,  664,  666;  its  in- 
stincts, 665;  care  for  its  young,  665;  con- 
necting link  between  birds  and  quadrupeds, 
666 ;  its  omniverous  appetite,  666 ;  value  of 
its  feathers  and  eggs,  667. 

Ox,  the,  introduced  into  America,  500 ;  their 
vast  increase,  501. 


Pachtdermati  of  the  tropical  world,  712. 
Paddy,  or  native  rice,  547. 
Palm-trees :  The  mauritia,  499 ;  on  the  Ama- 
zon, 469,  519;  general  characteristics,  538, 
542  ;  avenue  of,  at  Rio  Janeiro,  539  ;  multi- 
plied uses  of,  539;  the  saguer,  and  areca, 
540;  the  palmyra  and  talipot,  541 ;  the  date- 
palm,  542;  oil-palms,  542;  palms  on  the 
Amazon,  543;  the  sago-palm,  552;  future 
commercial  value  of  the  palm,  544. 

Pampas,  of  South  America,  499.  (See  also 
Savannas  and  Llai]os.)  Horses  and  cattle  in, 
502. 

Panama  railroad,  forest  on,  526. 

Pandanus,  or  screw-pine,  533. 

Pangolins,  ant-eaters,  608. 

Panickeas,  elephant-catchers  of  Ceylon,  718. 

Paradise,  birds  of,  653;  early  stories  about, 
653 ;  Wallace's  account  of,  658 ;  shooting  of, 
by  natives  of  Aru,  654 ;  the  great  bird  of 
paradise,  655;  snaring  the  red  bird  of  para- 
dise, 655. 

Parasitic  plants,  535. 

Paroquets,  663. 

Parrots,  6-59. 

Peons,  in  South  America,  522. 

Pepper,  576. 


INDEX. 


759 


Peru,  ancient  civilization  of,  486. 

Pichincha,  volcano,  descent  into,  494. 

Pimento,  577. 

Pippiil,  or  Eo-trec,  BuO. 

I'iqiie,  or  jigtier,  580. 

Plantain  anil  banana,  551. 

Plant-lice,  aphides,  furnish  honey  to  ants,  600. 

Plants,  nutritive.  (Svl' Fnuts  nml  7"rees.)  lUco, 
545;  maize,  547;  millet,  550;  sugar-cane, 
559 ;  colfee,  562 ;  cacao,  or  chocolate,  567 ; 
vanilla,  568;  coca,  568;  cinnamon  and  cas- 
sia, 571 ;  nutmegs  and  cloves,  574. 

Ponera  clavata,  ant,  594. 

Porocococa,  on  tlie  Amazon,  518. 

Potato,  the  sweet,  555. 

Prey,  beasts  and  birds  of,  693. 

Puma,  or  cougar,  American  lion,  the,  710. 

Prina,  the,  or  table-land  of  Peru :  its  extent 
and  character,  481  ;  diseases  of,  482;  lite  in, 
482;  vegetation  of,  483;  animals  of,  484; 
climate  of,  485.     (See  also  Titicaca.) 

Python,  the,  620  ;  contests  with  the  orang- 
outang, 683. 


QuAGGA.     (See  Zebra.) 

Quinua,  a  plant  of  the  Puna,  483. 

Quito,  table-land  of:  its  elevation,  489 ;  ways 
of  access,  490;  approach  from  the  Pacific 
coast,  491 ;  the  climate  and  productions, 
492  ;  its  fauna  and  flora,  492 ;  the  people, 
493 ;  its  surrounding  volcanos,  494. 


Rabbit,  fascinated  by  serpent,  623. 

Rains  and  rain-fall,  476  ;  at  sea,  477 ;  in  various 
places,  477,  513. 

Ratans,  541. 

Rattlesnakes,  619;  power  of  fascination,  021. 

Realejo,  or  organ-bird,  the,  650. 

Red  ant  of  Ceylon  595. 

Reefs,  478. 

Rheas,  or  American  ostriches,  G67. 

Rhinoceros,  the,  721 ;  species  of,  721 ;  diflPer- 
ence  between  the  white  and  the  black,  721 ; 
general  characteristics,  722 ;  acuteness  of  its 
smell  and  hearing,  722;  imperfection  of  its 
vision,  722;  its  bird  attendant,  722;  bad 
temper  of  the  black  species,  722 ;  fondness 
for  its  oS'spring,  723;  its  nocturnal  habits, 
723  ;  hunting  the  rhinoceros,  723;  its  vitality, 
723 ;  value  of  its  ivory,  723 ;  rhinoceros 
paths,  724 ;  the  Indian  rhinoceros,  724. 

Rice,  species  and  culture  of,  545 ;  rice  lands  of 
the  United  States,  546  ;  enemies  of  the  rice- 
plant,  547. 

Rice-bird,  the,  547. 

Rice,  Colonel,  adventure  with  a  tiger,  760. 

Roads  of  the  Incas  of  Peru,  489. 

Rogue  elephants,  714;  rogue  hippopotami, 
726. 


Sacelt,  dancing  parties  of  birds,  655. 
Sacred  island  in  Lake  Titicaca,  485,  488. 


Sago,  mode  of  manufacturing,  552;  protluctive- 
ness  of  the  tree,  553. 

Sahara,  Desert  of,  509;  Barth's  adventure  in. 
510;  oases  in,  511;  khamsin,  or  i)estiliniiHl 
wind,  511;  animals  and  biids  of,  512;  scubuns 
of,  513. 

SaTmiris,  monke}',  691. 

Sakis,  the,  691. 

Sandal-tree,  the,  531. 

Sargasso  Sea,  the,  474. 

Sarumpe  a  disease  on  the  Puna,  482. 

Satinwood-tree,  530. 

Savannas  and  Deserts  (Chapter  III.)  The 
Llanos  of  Venezuela,  4'.-9  ;  the  Pampas,  5(X) ; 
the  Kalaliari,  502 ;  Lake  Region  ot  Africa. 
506. 

Sawa,  or  marsh  rice,  546. 

Scorpions,  014  ;  their  asi)ect,  015 ;  their  venom. 
615. 

Seanons,  the:  Changes  of,  in  different  hemis- 
pheres, 476. 

Sea-weeds  in  the  Sargasso  Sea,  474. 

Secretary  eagle,  the,  624,  698. 

Semi-monkeys,  lemurs,  loris,  etc.,  688. 

Semnopitheci,  monkeys,  the,  686. 

Serpents:  Rarity  ot  venomous  si)ecies,  016; 
danger  from,  017;  antidotes  to  their  poison, 
618;  mechanism  of  their  poison-fangs,  018; 
the  bushmaster,  619  ;  rattlesnakes,  019  ;  ex- 
tirpated by  hogs,  619;  the  colira,  620;  the 
haje,  620;  boas  and  pythons,  620;  fascina- 
tion of  serpents,  621;  catching  their  prey, 
624;  tlieir  bird  enemies,  624;  eating  each 
other,  625;  anatomical  structure,  625;  the 
formation  of  their  jaws,  620  ;  protracted  fast- 
ings, 626;  useful  serpent.-*,  027  ;  tree-snakes 


and  water-snakes,  62 


enormous  serpents, 


627;  large  snake  killed  by  Du  Chaiilu,  02  , 
larger  one  mentioned  by  Wallace,  028. 

Serpent-destroyers,  619,  624. 

Sikkim,  the  table-land  of,  497. 

Silk-worm,  the,  590. 

Silla,  traveling  by,  496. 

Simoom,  the,  511,  729. 

Sjambok,  whip  of  rhinoceros-hide,  727. 

Sliive-hunting  ants,  600. 

Sloth,  the,  673;  helplessness  on  the  ground, 
674;  activity  on  trees,  674;  tenacity  of  life, 
675;  gigantic  fossil  sloths,  670. 

Snakes.    (See  Serpents.) 

Soothsayer,  or  mantes.  583. 

Soroche,  a  disease  on  the  I'una,  482. 

Sparrow-hawk,  the,  098. 

Speke,  John  H.,  Account  of  tlie  Lake  Region 
of  Africa,  507. 

Spices,  659;  cinnamon,  671;  nutniegs  nml 
cloves,  574;  pepper,  570;  pimento,  577  ;  gin- 
ger, 578. 

Spiders:  Numerous* on  the  Amazon.  520;  gen- 
eral characteristics  of,  010;  their  venom, 
611;  their  webs,  611;  neutral-CDloreil  spi- 
ders, 611  ;  liright-coloretl  spiders,  012;  modes 
of  life,  612;  sjjider-eating  liirds,  013;  insioct 
enemies  of  the  .<pider,  613;  small  effects  of 
the  bites  of  spiders,  613;  e<lihle  spiders,  014  ; 
possible  industrial  usesof  theirfilainent.s.OU. 

Spider-monki-vs,  091. 

Spider-webs,  their  fineness,  014. 

Spoonbills,  051. 

Squier,  K.  G. :  Notes  from,  481,  484,  487. 

Squirrel,  ciiarmed  by  serpent,  024;  tlic  flying- 
squirrel,  673. 


760 


INDEX. 


Squirrel-monkeys,  692. 

Sturt,  Mr.,  Explorations  in  Australia,  509. 

Sugar,  manutacture  of,  561. 

Sugar-cane,    the,   559 ;    its    introduction   into 

America,  560;   cliaracteristics  of  the  plant, 

561. 
Sun-birds,  652. 
Sycamore,  the,  529. 


Table  Lands,  of  Peru,  480 ;  of  Quito,  489 ; 
Bogota,  495 ;  of  Mexico,  496 ;  of  the  Hima- 
layas, 497. 

Tailor-bird,  the,  658. 

Talegalia,  or  brush-turkey,  the,  656. 

Tapir,  the,  521. 

Tarantula,  spider,  exaggerated  accounts  of  its 
venom  614. 

Taro-root,  the,  556. 

Tatooed  Indians  on  the  Amazon,  521. 

Teak-tree,  the,  530. 

Teju  lizard,  the,  681. 

Tennent,  Sir  Emerson;  Notes  of,  527,  585,616, 
638,640,644,672,  713,  721. 

Termites,  or  white  ants:  Their  habits  and 
food,  601 ;  destructiveness  to  books  and  fur- 
niture, 601 ;  their  uses,  602,  their  communi- 
ties, 602;  their  buildings,  602;  their  indus- 
try, 603;  their  military  operations,  604; 
American  termites,  605;  mode  of  capture, 
605 ;  marching  termites,  600. 

Tiieobroma,  or  cliocoiate,  567. 

Thorny  plants,  504,  586. 

Ticks,  586. 

Thorpe,  T.  B.,  on  the  fascination  of  serpents, 
622 ;  on  the  size  of  alligators,  686. 

Tierras,  climatic  regions  of  Mexico,  496. 

Tiger,  the,  705 ;  appearance  and  habits,  705 ;  his 
ferocity,  705  ;  his  present  and  former  range, 
704  ;  tiger-hunting  by  natives  of  India,  706 ; 
by  English  residents,  706;  perilous  adven- 
ture, 706;  peacocks  and  monkeys  warning 
against  the  tiger,  707 ;  preying  upon  tor- 
toises, 708. 

TUicaca,  the  sacred  fake  and  island  of  Peru : 
elevation  of  the  lake,  485 ;  the  sacred  island, 
486. 

Toads.     (SeeFrq^s.) 

Toropishu,  the,  650. 

Tortoises.     (See  Turtles.) 

Toucan,  the,  646. 

Trade  winds,  the,  476. 

Trees  and  Plants  of  the  Tropical  World :  Mau- 
ritia  palm.  4'J9;  the  wait-a-bit  thorn,  504; 
baobab,  527;  dragon  trees,  528;  tlie  syca 
more,  529 ;  banyan,  529 ;  pippul,  or  bo-tree, 
530;  the  teak-tree,  530;  satinwood,  530; 
sandal-wood,  581;  ceiba,  531;  mahogany. 
531;  mora,  531;  bamboos  (see  under  head) ; 
agave,  538;  pandanus,  533;  cactuses,  534; 
mimosas,  534;  lianas,  535;  acacias,  537; 
mangroves,  538  ;  palms  (see  under  head)  ;  rat 
ans,  511;  breadfruit,  550;  cinnamon,  572. 

Trigonocephalus  snake,  the,  618. 

Troopials,  648. 

Tropical  World,  the  :  Ocean  and  Atmosphere 
of,  471-479.  (Chapter  I.)— Table-Lands  and 
Plateaus  of,  480-498.  (Chapter  II.)— Sav.nn- 
nas  and  Deserts  of,  499-513.  (Chapter  III.) 
Forests  of,  514-524.  (Chapter  IV.)— Charac 


teristic  forms  of  Vegetation,  525-544.  (Chap- 
ter V. )— Nutritive  Plants  of,  54.5-558.  ( Chap- 
ter VI.) — Condiments  and  Spices,  -559-578- 
(Chapter  VII.)— Insects  of,  581-593.  (Chap- 
ter VIII.) — Ants,  Spiders,  and  Scorpions, 
594-615.  (Chapter  IX.)— Serpents,  Lizards, 
Frogs  and  Toads,  616-6.34.  (Ciiapter  X.)— 
Alligators,  Crocodiles,  and  Turtles,  635-644. 
Chapter  XI.)^Bird  Life,  645-668.  (Chapter 
XII.)— The  Climbers,  669-692.  (Chapter 
XIII.)— Beasts  and  Birds  of  Prey,  693-711. 
(Chapter  XIV.) — The  Elephant,  Rhinoceros, 
Hippopotamus,  Camel,  and  Zebra,  712-736. 
(Chapter  XV.) 

Tschudi,  von,  Notes  from,  484,  485,  569,  585, 
590,  694,  710,  711. 

Tsetse-fly,  the,  587. 

Tunqui,  the  650. 

Turkey,  tiie,  ocellated,  652  ;  the  brush-turkey, 
656. 

Turkey-buzzard,  the,  694. 

Turtles,  640;  their  chief  habitats,  641;  slow 
travelers,  641 ;  hunting  their  eggs  on  the 
Amazon,  641;  Marsh  tortoises,  641;  sea- 
turtles,  642;  enemies  of  tiie  turtle,  643; 
modes  of  taking,  643  ;  barbarous  treatment 
of,  644;  vocal  turtles,  644. 


U. 


Urubu,  or  carrion  vulture,  695. 
Urquiza,  General,  his  vast  estates,  501. 
Umbrella  ant,  the,  596. 


Van'illa,  568. 
Vampires,  671. 
Vegetation,  Tropical,  characteristic  Forms  of, 

525. 
Veruga,  poisoned  water  of  the  Puna,  482. 
Veta,  a  disease  in  the  Puna,  482. 
Victoria  regia,  the,  536. 
Vicuna,  the,  488 ;  hunts  of,  484. 
Vivagua-ant,  tlie,  596. 

Volcanos  :  of  Ecuador,  494  ;  of  Mexico,  497. 
Vulture,  the  carrion,  695 ;  the  sociable,  696. 


W. 


Wallace,  Alfred  R.  :  Account  of  the  bread- 
fruit, 5-50;  the  manufacture  of  sago,  552; 
description  of  the  durion,  557;  of  the  leaf- 
buttertiy,  582;  ants  in  Dorey,  597 ;  describes 
huge  snake,  628;  of  a  flying  frog,  633;  of 
birds  of  ])ara(lise,  653 ;  of  edible  bats,  670 ; 
of  the  orang-outang,  681 ;  his  pet  orang, 
684 ;  notice  of  the  babirusa,  736. 

Water:  Proportion  of  to  land,  472;  relations 
to  fertility,  475,  499,  525;  obtaining  in  the 
Kalahaii,  505. 

Waterton,  William  :  Notes  of,  617,  637,  646, 
6.50,  672,  674. 

Weaving-birds,  and  their  nests,  659. 

Webs  of  spiders,  611. 

West  Indies,  sugar  in,  561 ;  cofiee  in,  563. 

Whirlwinds,  477. 

White  Ants.     (See  Termites.) 

Wild-Cats,  different  species  of.  711. 

Winds,  as  regulators  of  rain,  476. 


INDEX. 


761 


Woods,  ornamental  of  the  Amazon,  52-4 
Wourali  poison,  the,  690. 


Yam,  the,  555. 
Yriarteas,  pahns,  the,  548. 


Z. 


Zebra,  the,  783  ;  its  appearance,  7:!3 ;  capacity 
for  domestication,  7:5:5 ;  habits,  733  ;  ancieot 
notices  of,  734. 

Zimb-fly,  the,  5»8. 

Zones  of  the  Earth,  Limits  of,  472. 


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